CHAPTER I.

_Geographical Situation of Java--Name--Extent and Form--Divisions--Harbours--Mountains and Volcanos--Rivers and Lakes--General Appearance of the Country--Mineralogical Constitution--Seasons and Climate--Metals--Minerals--Soil--Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms._

The country known to Europeans under the name of JAVA, or JAVA MAJOR, and to the natives under those of _Tána_ (the land) _Jáwa_, or _Núsa_ (the island) _Jáwa_, is one of the largest of what modern geographers call the Sunda Islands. It is sometimes considered one of the Malayan Islands, and forms a part of that division of the Oriental Archipelago which it has been lately proposed to designate as the Asiatic Isles. It extends eastward, with a slight deviation to the south, from 105° 11´ to 114° 33´ of longitude east of Greenwich, and lies between the latitudes 5° 52´ and 8° 46´ south. On the south and west it is washed by the Indian Ocean; on the north-west by a channel called the Straits of _Súnda_, which separates it from Sumatra, at a distance in one point of only fourteen miles; and on the south-east by the Straits of _Báli_, only two miles wide, which divide it from the island of that name. These islands, and others stretching eastward, form with Java a gentle curve of more than two thousand geographical miles, which with less regularity is continued from Acheen to Pegu on one side, and from _Tímor_ to _Papúa_, or New Guinea, on the other: they constitute on the west and south, as do _Bánka_, _Bíliton_, the great islands of Borneo and Celebes, and the Moluccas on the north, the barriers of the Javan Seas and the Malayan Archipelago. From the eastern peninsula of India, Java is distant about one hundred and forty leagues, from Borneo about fifty-six, and from New Holland two hundred.

To what cause the island is indebted for its present name of Java[12] (or _Jáwa_ as it is pronounced by the natives) is uncertain. Among the traditions of the country (which are more particularly mentioned in another place) there is one, which relates, that it was so termed by the first colonists from the continent of India, in consequence of the discovery of a certain grain, called _jáwa-wut_,[13] on which the inhabitants are supposed to have subsisted at that early period, and that it had been known previously only under the term of _Núsa hára-hára_ or _Núsa kêndang_, meaning the island of wild uncultivated waste, or in which the hills run in ridges.

In the tenth chapter of Genesis we are told, that "the isles of the Gentiles were divided in their lands; every one after his tongue, after their families, in the nations:" and in the twenty-seventh chapter of Ezekiel we find among the rich merchants, those of _Javan_ "who traded the persons of men, and vessels of brass, to the market of Tyre, and who going to and fro, occupied in her fairs, brought bright iron, cassia, and calamus." But we shall leave it to others to trace the connection between the _Javan_ of Holy Writ and the Java of modern times. It appears, that the Arabs, who had widely extended their commercial intercourse, and established their religious faith over the greatest portion of the Indian Archipelago, long before the Europeans had navigated round the Cape of Good Hope, designate the whole of the nations and tribes which inhabit those regions by the general term of the people of _Jawi_, as in the following passage taken from one of their religious tracts:--"The people of _Jawi_ do not observe with strictness the rule laid down for keeping the fast, inasmuch as they eat before the sun sets, while the Arabs continue the fast until that luminary has sunk below the horizon." _Jawa_ or _Jawi_ is also the name by which Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Malayan Peninsula, and the islands lying amongst them, are known among the nations of Celebes, who apply the _Búgis_ diminutive _Jawa-Jawáka_, or Java minor, to the Moluccas, _Ámbon_, _Bánda_, _Tímor_, and _Éndé_. Jabadios Insulæ, from _Jaba_, and _dib_, _div_ or _dio_, has been employed in the largest sense by Europeans, and it is probable this was once generally the case among the Asiatics, with the terms _Java_, _Jawa_, _Jawi_, and _Jaba_,[14] which, as the appellations of people inhabiting the countries beyond the continent or distant, some have derived from the word _jaù_, of very general acceptation in eastern languages, and meaning _beyond_, _distant_.[15]

It is, perhaps, in consequence of these names having embraced the whole, or at least several of the islands collectively, that the accounts given by Marco Polo, and other early European voyagers, of particular islands, as Java Major and Java Minor, are so inconsistent with one another. The country described by Marco Polo as Java Minor, seems, beyond doubt, to have been the eastern coast of Sumatra; but that expression, "or Little Java," is now applied exclusively to _Báli_, as "Great Java" is to the island we are now describing. It is on the latter only, if we except what has been observed of the names given to the Archipelago generally by the natives of Celebes, that the islanders themselves apply the name of _Jawa_, in any of its forms, to their own country. It has there even a still more confined application, being generally limited to the eastern districts of the island, which may be considered as Java proper, in contra-distinction to the western districts, which are for the most part inhabited by a people called _Súnda_, from whom the Straits and Isles of Sunda have been named by Europeans.

Whether Sumatra, Java, or any other island of the Archipelago, or the whole or several of them collectively, may not have formed the _Taprobane_ of the ancients, is perhaps still an undecided question, notwithstanding the claims to this distinction which have of late years been rather admitted than proved in favour of Ceylon. The most striking fact detailed in the accounts which have reached us of this ancient country, and one which, from its nature, is least likely to have been disfigured or perverted by the misrepresentations or prejudices of travellers, is, that it was bisected in nearly equal portions by the equinoctial line, and that to the southward of it the polar star was not visible. How can this statement be evaded, or in any way applied to Ceylon? Major Wilford seems inclined to consider _Taprobane_ as derived from the Sanscrit words _tapa_ (penance) and _vana_ (forest or grove), a derivation equally favorable to the claims of the Javans, _tapa_ and _wana_, or _wono_, having the like signification in their language; and if, as there is reason to believe, an extensive intercourse subsisted in very remote times between Western India and these islands, where was there a country that could more invite the retreat of holy men, than the evergreen islands which rise in endless clusters on the smooth seas of the Malayan Archipelago, where the elevation and tranquillity of devotion are fostered by all that is majestic and lovely in nature?

Although in Sumatra no traces of their residence have yet been discovered, except in the language and customs of the people; on Java, which is almost contiguous to it, it is abundantly attested by monuments still existing in stone and brass. In few countries, with which we are yet acquainted, are more extensive ruins to be found of temples dedicated to an ancient worship. If tradition may be trusted, every mountain had its _tapa_, or recluse, and the whole energies and resources of the country would appear to have been applied to the construction of those noble edifices, the ruins of which still strike the spectator with astonishment and veneration.

That these splendid and magnificent piles were erected under the superintendance of a foreign people, more skilled in the arts than the rude and simple natives of the islands, can scarcely be doubted; and that they were sacred to the rites of the Hindu religion, according to some persuasion or other, is equally clear, from the numerous images of deities and attributes by which they are adorned, many of which are still preserved in their original state. Further investigation may perhaps establish Java and Sumatra, or rather the Malayan ports (in which general term we may include all the islands containing the Malayan Ports) as not only the _Taprobane_ or _Tapavana_ of the ancients, but also the Sacred Isles of the Hindus.

The map of Java which accompanies this work has been drawn principally from actual surveys, many of which were made by order of the British Government on the island. The first map of Java which was presented to the public, and from which nearly all those, which have subsequently been engraved, are copies, was published by Valentyn,[16] and consists of seven sheets. As, at that period, little more was known of the island by the Dutch than some parts of the coast, the country in the immediate vicinity of their capital, with perhaps the province of Bantam, the author had no materials for making a map of the whole island, which could pretend to much authority or value. Most of the land in the immediate vicinity of Batavia having been sold to Europeans, was of necessity surveyed, in order to ascertain the different boundaries; but it was only a short time before the arrival of Marshal Daendels, in 1808, that any steps appear to have been taken by the local authorities, to procure correct statistical and topographical information of the other more important districts of the island. Something to this effect was done during the administration of Mr. Engelhard, late Governor of the North-east Coast, but it was only during the government of the Marshal that these objects were pursued with much energy or success.

At the period of the arrival of the English, topographical surveys of _Semárang_ and several of the eastern districts had been completed; and although somewhat deficient in accuracy of measurement and neatness of execution, yet as they appeared sufficiently correct for many valuable purposes, and as the Government was anxious to obtain, without loss of time, a better acquaintance with the geography of the country, it was determined to make some sacrifice of accuracy to the considerations of economy and expedition, and to survey the other districts upon the same plan. While these surveys were in progress, the territorial interest which the European government obtained in the central provinces, induced them to turn their attention to the improvements of which the Solo River might be susceptible. This river, the most considerable in the island, passes through _Súra-kérta_, the capital of the _Susuhúnan_, or (as he is termed by Europeans) Emperor of Java, and discharges itself into the sea near _Grésik_. An actual survey was accordingly made by a British officer of experience, particularly instructed to ascertain how far it might be practicable to improve its navigation by the aid of artificial cuts and dams.

A greater object soon called for more extensive measures. When it was determined to introduce an entirely new system of internal management, by the abolition of feudal service, and the establishment of a more permanent property in the soil, it was deemed essential that a detailed survey should be made of the different districts successively, in which the new system was to be introduced. This was intended to form the basis of a general agricultural survey of the country, then about to be made. In several of these districts this detailed survey has been completed; and, with the exception of the provinces still under native jurisdiction, and called Native Provinces, nearly the whole of the land on Java, not in a state of absolute forest, has been measured with more or less accuracy. Of the native provinces but a very small part has been actually surveyed; with regard to the rest, the materials from which the present map is taken, were principally obtained from observation made during occasional routes through them. The southern division of Bantam being principally forest, has not been actually surveyed; neither has the island of Madura been yet surveyed by Europeans: the eastern part of it was measured by the natives, and it was principally upon their authority that the map now presented of that island was drawn. The best charts of both the north and south coast have been consulted. The three harbours of Wyn Coops Bay, _Cheláchap_, and _Pachítan_, on the latter, are laid down from actual survey, as well as the entrance to the harbour of _Surabáya_. On the whole, therefore, although the map now engraved is far from perfect, and of course suffers from the reduction necessary to adapt it to the rest of the work, it is presumed that it will aid the reader in most of the geographical objects to which this volume will refer, and that its superiority over those that have previously appeared is such as to justify its publication.

The length of Java, in a straight line drawn between its extreme points, (Java Head, and the south-east point of the island) is five hundred and seventy-five geographical, equal to six hundred and sixty-six statute miles: its breadth varies from one hundred and seventeen geographical, or one hundred and thirty-five and a half statute miles (between the south-west point of _Pachítan_ bay and the north point of _Japára_) to forty-eight geographical or fifty-six statute miles, (between the mouth of the _Seráyu_ river and the _Marabáya_, five degrees east of _Tegál_);[17] and it is estimated to contain an area of about fifty thousand statute miles.

Numerous small islands are scattered in its immediate vicinity, particularly along the northern coast, and contribute, with the projecting points and headlands inclosing the different bays, to form harbours of various capacities. The most important of these islands is that of _Madúra_, which is separated from the main land of Java by a strait in one part not more than a mile broad, and serves to form the important harbour of _Surabáya_. This island has the appearance of being a continuation of the main land of Java, and having been long subjected to the same political authority, has generally formed one of the provinces of the Javan empire. In length _Madúra_ is about seventy-nine geographical, or ninety-one and a half statute miles; and its narrowest part is about twenty-seven geographical, or thirty-one and a quarter statute miles. The small islands lying to the east of it are considered as its dependencies.

The form of Java is chiefly remarkable for the rectangularity of its outline, which is such that the island might be divided into five or six parts, each a rectangular parallelogram drawn by an unsteady hand. Its western and northern coasts abound with bays and inlets. The outline of _Madúra_ is more regular, especially on the northern coast.

The coast from Bantam to the river _Chi-mánok_, about two degrees in length on the north, is nearly parallel to that which extends from Wyn Coops Bay to a point about twenty miles west of _Núsa kambúng'an_, the breadth throughout being about seventy-eight geographical miles; and from the same point to the river _Manchíngan_, a distance of about one degree and three-quarters, the coast is nearly parallel to that which lies between _Chéribon_ and _Semárang_, the breadth throughout being about fifty-seven geographical miles. From the west point of _Japára_ to point _Pángka_ on the north, distant from it about two degrees, and along the corresponding coast on the south, the average breadth is seventy-three geographical miles; and from _Surabáya_ to the north-east point of the island, distant about one degree and a half, and along the south coast opposite to it, the average breadth is forty-five geographical miles.

At the time when Europeans first visited Java, the whole of the island acknowledged the supremacy of one sovereign: but there was a period in its history when it was nearly equally divided under the independent administration of two powers, one established in the eastern, and the other in the western districts; and as there is a marked distinction between the descendants of these two nations, the most general division of the country is still into the western and eastern districts, to the latter of which alone the term Java is applied by the natives. They are separated by the river _Losári_, which forms the boundary between _Chéribon_ and _Brébes_: and all the western, the northern, with a few of the inland districts and the Island of _Madúra_, are under the immediate authority and administration of the European government. The rest of the island remains subject to the native princes, and on that account is designated on the map and elsewhere, with more regard to convenience than correctness of language, as the Native Provinces.

The provinces under European authority have latterly been divided into fifteen residencies, or separate administrations, exclusive of the seat of government, which, as they will be frequently referred to in the course of this work, it may be convenient to notice in this place.

Commencing from the west, the province, or as it is usually termed, the kingdom of Bantam (properly _Bántan_) occupies the first place. This extensive province forms a large portion of the island. It is washed on three sides by the sea. At the east it joins with the environs and highlands of Batavia and the district of _Chi-ánjur_, and on the west it is bounded by the Straits of Sunda; and in this quarter comprises dependant islands scattered along its shore, and the two harbours of _Mew_ and _Merák_, which, with other bays, deeply indent the coast. Bantam, the native capital of this province, has been latterly deserted by the European establishment for _Sírang_ (commonly called Ceram), an elevated and healthy station about seven miles further inland.

Next in succession towards the east is the division of Batavia, which comprises what formerly constituted the native province of _Jákatra_ or _Jokárta_. The northern part of this division, towards the coast, includes the city of Batavia, populous and important on account of its excellent roads for shipping, its advantageous position for European commerce, and as being the long established seat of the Dutch government, but less fertile and healthy than the more eastern provinces of the island.

South and east of the division of Batavia and its environs lie what are termed by Europeans the Preanger (_Priáng'en_) Regencies,[18] the central and southern districts of which, stretching from Bantam to Chéribon, are extremely mountainous. This extensive portion of the island, which now includes a large part of Chéribon, consists of the districts of _Kráwang_, _Chiásem_, _Pamanúkan_, _Kándang-aúr_, and _Dramáyu_ or _Indramáyu_, along the northern coast, and of the inland and southern districts of _Chi-ánjur_, _Bándung_, _Súmedang_, _Lim-báng'an_, and _Súka-púra_; the southern coast, from the boundary of Bantam to that of Chéribon, being included within the subdivisions of _Chi-ánjur_, and _Súka-púra_.

To the eastward of these districts, and crossing the island from north to south, is the province of _Chéribon_, divided into ten principal districts. To the south is the island of _Núsa-kambáng'an_ which forms the harbour of _Cheláchap_.

East of Chéribon, as before noticed, it is only the northern and some of the inland districts, that are immediately subject to the European authority. These, during the British government of the island, were comprised under the administrations of _Tegúl_, _Pakalúng'an_, _Semárang_, _Japára_, and _Rembáng_, which under the Dutch East-India Company constituted what was termed the government of the _North-east Coast_, the seat of which was at _Semárang_; and of _Grésik_, _Surabáya_, _Pasúrúan_, _Bisúki_, and _Banyuwángi_, which, with _Bankálang_ and _Súmenap_ on _Madúra_, constituted, under the same authority, the division of the _Oost Hook_, or East Point of the island, of which _Surabáya_ was the principal station. Inland of _Semárang_ and _Pakalúngan_, and bounded by those divisions, and by the provinces of the native princes, is situated the rich and fertile district of _Kedú_, which, with the more eastern districts of _Grobogan_, _Wirosári_, _Blóra_, _Jípang_, _Jápan_, and _Wírasaba_, stretching inland from _Semárang_ to _Surabáya_, were ceded to the British government in the year 1812.

The capitals of all the northern districts bear the same name with the districts themselves, and are generally situated on small rivers at no great distance from the sea.

The NATIVE PROVINCES are divided between two native sovereigns: the _Susuhúnan_, or Emperor of Java, who resides at _Súra-kérta_,[19] on the _Solo_ River; and the Sultan, who resides at _Yúg'ya-kérta_,[20] near the south coast, in the province of _Matárem_. These provinces comprise several of the richest districts of the island, among which are _Bányumas_, _Rómo_, _Bágalen_, and _Matárem_, to the west; and _Mádion_, _Jagarága_, _Sukawáti_, _Pranarága_, _Kértasána_, _Blítar_, and _Kedíri_, to the east; and with the exception of the small district of _Pachítan_, which has been recently ceded to the European government, occupy the whole of the southern coast from _Chéribon_ to _Málang_, a distance of not less than two hundred and fifty miles, and form about a fourth part of the whole island.

The districts near the coasts are generally separated from each other by rivers; those in the interior often by ranges of hills and mountains. The districts are again divided, each subdivision including numerous villages.

The principal harbour of the island is that of _Surabáya_ in the eastern districts, formed by the approaching extremities of Java and _Madúra_. It is broad and spacious, secure against the violence of the sea and wind, and may be rendered impregnable to any hostile attack.

The next in importance is that of Batavia, more properly, perhaps, called the roads of Batavia, which are sheltered by several islands lying in the outer part of the bay. These roads, however, not admitting of any means of permanent defence from the attack of a superior naval force, the Dutch government, during the late war, were induced to fortify the small harbour of _Merák_ Bay, on the north-west coast of Bantam.

Along the northern coast, there are perhaps other positions which admit of being improved into convenient harbours; but where the whole coast affords excellent anchorage at nearly all seasons of the year, and where vessels of any burthen can approach all the principal stations, at a convenient distance for the barter of their merchandize, the purposes of commerce are in that respect already sufficiently provided for. The sea being usually smooth, and the weather moderate, the native vessels and small craft always find sufficient shelter at the change of the monsoon, by running under some of the numerous islands scattered along this coast, or passing up the rivers, which, though in general difficult of entrance on account of their bars, are for the most part navigable to such vessels, as far up as the maritime capitals, through which they run.

The south coast, on account of its exposure to the open ocean, the consequent high swell or surf which breaks on it, and its general want of good anchorage, is seldom visited by shipping. But even here harbours may be found; and those of _Cheláchap_ and _Pachítan_ might, no doubt, be frequented with safety, were it considered desirable to attract commercial adventurers to this side of the island.

Passing from the coast to the interior of the country, the stranger cannot fail to be struck with the bold outline and prominent features of its scenery. An uninterrupted series or range of large mountains, varying in their elevation above the sea from five to eleven, and even twelve thousand feet,[21] and exhibiting, by their round base or pointed tops, their volcanic origin, extend through the whole length of the island.

The first of this series, commencing from the westward, is in Bantam. This mountain (_Gûnung-kárang_), though of moderate elevation compared with others on the island,[22] is seen at a considerable distance from sea, and is a well known landmark to mariners. It lies due south of the town of Bantam, at a considerable distance from the sea.

The next mountain of the series is the _Salák_, the eastern foot of which is connected with the _Gedé_ or _Panarang'o_, situated about fifty miles south of Batavia. These two mountains are seen from the roads of Batavia, and, from the appearance they exhibit, are usually termed by mariners the Blue Mountains.

From the eastern part of the _Gedé_, the volcanic series separates into two independent branches, one of which inclines to the south; the other proceeds almost due east, slightly verging to the north. The former breaks into an irregular transverse range, which extends across the island, till it approaches the northern branch, from whence the general series is continued in an easterly direction as far as the mountain _Sindóro_, the western of the two mountains known by mariners as the Two Brothers. The mountain _Súmbing_, or _Sindári_ (the second of The Brothers), is somewhat further to the south.

At a short distance from the eastern foot of the mountain _Súmbing_ are three large volcanos, in a direction almost north and south, dividing the large series transversely; these are the mountains _Ung'árang_, _Merbábu_, and _Merápi_. The next volcano, in an eastern direction, is that of _Japára_, which deviates more than any other from the regular series, and forms a peculiar peninsular appendage to the island. The series is then continued in an easterly course from the _Merápi_ as far as the mountain _Telágawúrung_, which is in contact with the ocean at the eastern end of the island.

The several large mountains comprised in this series, and which are in number thirty-eight, though different from each other in external figure, agree in the general attribute of volcanos, having a broad base gradually verging towards the summit in the form of a cone.

They all rise from a plain but little elevated above the level of the sea, and each must, with very few exceptions, be considered as a separate mountain, raised by a cause independent of that which produced the others. Most of them have been formed at a very remote period, and are covered by the vegetation of many ages; but the indications and remains of their former irruptions are numerous and unequivocal. The craters of several are completely extinct; those of others contain small apertures, which continually discharge sulphureous vapours or smoke. Many of them have had irruptions during late years.[23]

Besides the mountains of the larger series above described, there are extensive ranges of mountains of an inferior elevation, sometimes connected with the larger series, and sometimes independent of them, which are also for the most part volcanic. Numerous ridges of hills traverse the country in various directions, and the surface of the island in general, independently of these more striking features, is in most parts undulating and uneven, except on the sea coast.

A country which abounds in mountains is seldom deficient in rivers; accordingly, no region is perhaps better watered. Java is singularly favoured in the number of its streams. The size of the island does not admit of the formation of large rivers, but there are probably fifty, that in the wet season, bear down rafts charged with timber and other rough produce of the country, and not less than five or six at all times navigable to the distance of some miles from the coast. It would be vain to attempt numbering those which are precious to the agriculturist; they are many hundreds, if not thousands.

The largest, and most important river on the island, is that of _Sólo_, or as it is termed by the natives, _Beng'áwan_ (the great) _Sólo_, which takes its rise in the district of _Kadáwang_, and after collecting the waters of the surrounding hills, becomes a stream of considerable depth and breadth at _Súra-kérta_, where it is further increased by the waters collected from the adjacent districts. Its general course from the capital is in an east-north-easterly direction, till it discharges itself by two principal outlets into the sea, near _Grésik_ and _Sidáyu_. After leaving _Matárem_, it traverses the provinces of _Sukawáti_, _Jagarága_, _Mádion_, _Jípang_, _Blóra_, _Túban_, _Sidáyu_, and _Grésik_.

At _Awi_, near the boundary of _Mádion_ and _Jagarága_, on the eastern side of the river, a large branch from the south-eastern provinces, commonly called the river of _Mádion_, unites itself with that of _Sólo_, and from hence its course, which in various places has been rapid, and in a few places impeded with rocks, is calm, regular, and steady to its discharge. It has been estimated, that the extent of the windings of this river is not less than three hundred and fifty-six English miles, from _Súra-kérta_ to _Grésik_, which in the chart only gives a straight line of one hundred and forty English miles, and during its whole course no serious impediment appears to its navigation.

This river is of great importance to the inland trade of many of the eastern provinces. During the rainy season, boats of considerable size convey the produce of an extensive tract of country to the sea; and, except during the months of August, September, and October, and in seasons uncommonly dry, it bears down boats of middling or small size during the whole year, from a considerable distance above _Súra-kérta_. The boats employed in the navigation of the river are of very different sizes, and of a peculiar construction: they are very long in proportion to their breadth, have flat bottoms, and draw very little water. Those generally used in conveying the produce from one village to another in the vicinity of _Súra-kérta_, carry only a few tons, and have a temporary covering of straw mats, or _kájang_; others, more carefully constructed, have a regular roof of planks and a chamber or cabin which can be closed, and convey from fifty to one hundred tons. These are generally used by individuals in their adventures to _Grésik_ and _Surabáya_. The largest, which are the property of the prince, load nearly two hundred tons. They are employed in transporting the produce of several of the interior provinces, consisting chiefly of pepper and coffee, to _Grésik_, and return laden with salt and foreign merchandize for the consumption of the interior. They require a considerable depth of water, and can only pass when the river is swollen by continued rains. They mostly depart from _Súra-kérta_ in the month of January. Their course down the river is rapid: they generally arrive at _Grésik_ in eight days; but they can perform but one voyage in a season, as they require nearly four months to work up the stream.

The river of _Surabáya_, the second in magnitude of the whole island, rises near _Bátu_, in the vicinity of the southern hills of the mountain _Arjúna_. It is near its source called _Káli-brántas_. Near the capital of _Málang_ it receives two streams from the eastward. There it first takes its course through the most southern provinces of the island, when winding round the mountain _Káwi_ it returns again to the north, receiving near its curvature numerous augmentations from the southern ridge of mountains. The chief of these is the _Lésti_, a considerable river coming from the east, which joins it near the boundary of _Málang_ and _Seríng'at_. Continuing its course in a northern direction, it traverses the provinces of _Rówo_ and _Kedíri_, being joined on the way by the river _Rówo_: here it attains its utmost magnitude, and is distinguished by the name of _Beng'áwan Kedíri_. From the capital of this district to its mouths, it is navigable for boats of very considerable size, and its course is steady and uninterrupted. Having crossed the district of _Wirasába_ and _Jápan_, it enters that of _Surabáya_. It discharges itself into the ocean by five outlets, which form as many separate rivers. The first of them, taking an easterly course, is called the river _Púnong_: then follow those of _Tang'goláng'ing_, _Sído-kéri_, _Kedóng_, and lastly of _Wóno-króno_, which again subdividing sends off the branch which passes _Surabáya_.

Several smaller rivers, which fall into the sea between _Semárang_ and _Lásem_, are highly important for the conveyance of teak timber from the central forests to the coast; and the waters from some of them being directed into canals, particularly through the low district of _Demák_, tend considerably to increase the inland navigation of the country.

In the western districts, the principal rivers which discharge themselves into the sea on the northern coast are the _Chikándi_, which forms the present boundary between Bantam and the environs of Batavia; the _Chi-dáni_, which discharges itself below _Táng'ran_; the _Chi-tárom_, which falls into the sea below _Kráwang_; and the _Chi-mánok_, which forms the present boundary between _Dramáyu_ and _Chéribon_. The principal rivers which discharge themselves by the south coast are the _Chi-mandíri_, which falls into the sea at _Palábuan-rátu_, or Wyn Coops Bay; the _Chi-tándui_, which disembogues near _Núsa-kambáng'an_; and the _Seráyu_, which taking its rise in the mountain _Díeng_ or _Práhu_, traverses the rich districts of _Bányumas_, and falls into the sea a short distance to the east of _Cheláchap_; but these rivers, though of considerable depth, are choked up at their mouths by heavy banks or bars, and in consequence of the heavy surf which constantly breaks on the southern coast, are dangerous at their entrance.

Along the northern coast, almost every district has its principal river, and most of them are navigable up to the maritime capitals for native vessels of considerable burthen; but they all have the disadvantage of being partially blocked up at their discharge by extensive bars and mud banks, an evil which is extending with the increase of agriculture, by reason of the quantify of soil necessarily washed down in the process of irrigating the land for the rice cultivation. Most of them require the application of jetties or piers to deepen the passages at their entrance.

There are no lakes of any considerable size on Java, for that name cannot be given to the _ráwas_, or swamps, which though swelled to a considerable size in the wet season, are for the rest of the year either dried up or choked by vegetation. Of this description are two extensive tracts; one inland of _Japára_, usually termed by the Dutch the _Binnen Zee_, or inland sea; and another in the district of _Semárang_. In _Báglen_ also (one of the native provinces on the southern side of the island) there is a lake which supplies the neighbouring country with fish, and along the coast of which a traffic is carried on in boats.

Extensive swamps are also found in some parts of the native provinces, and in the mountainous districts of the _Súnda_ country. Several very beautiful lakes, of small dimensions, are discovered among the hills, and some of them can evidently be shown to have been formed of the craters of extinct volcanos.

The general aspect of Java on the northern coast is low, in many places swampy and overgrown with mangrove trees and bushes, particularly towards the west. The southern coast, on the contrary, consists almost entirely of a series of rocks and cliffs, which rise perpendicularly to a considerable height. In the interior, stupendous mountains stretch longitudinally throughout the island, while others of an inferior elevation, and innumerable ranges of hills running in various directions, serve to form and confine plains and valleys of various elevations and extent. On the northern side, the ascent is in general very gradual, from the sea-coast to the immediate base of the mountains; particularly in the western parts of the island, where it has the greatest breadth, and where the mountains are situated far inland. In approaching the mountains, which lie at the back of Batavia, there is a gradual but almost imperceptible acclivity for about forty miles. In other parts, where the mountains and hills approach nearer to the coast, the ascent is of course more abrupt, as may be observed in the vicinity of _Semárang_.

Although the northern coast is in many parts flat and uninteresting, the interior and southern provinces, from the mountainous character of the country, may be reckoned amongst the most romantic and highly diversified in the world; uniting all the rich and magnificent scenery, which waving forests, never-failing streams, and constant verdure can present, heightened by a pure atmosphere and the glowing tints of a tropical sun.

The largest of the elevated plains are; in the west, that of _Bándung_, formed between the two ranges of volcanos which branch off from the foot of the mountain _Gedé_; and in the east, those usually termed the plains of _Sólo_ and _Kedíri_, which extend along the central districts from the _Merápi_ to _Kedíri_ and the site of the ancient capital of _Mejapáhit_. These are of considerable magnitude, and with the exception of the valley of _Kedú_ and the province of _Bányumas_, through which the beautiful river of _Seráyu_ bends its winding and romantic course, are perhaps the richest parts of the island. The low-lands, however, are not without their claims to that distinction; especially the flats of _Demák_, once an extensive swamp, and the Delta of _Surabáya_. Large tracts, particularly in the mountainous ranges of the western districts, still remain in a state of nature, or where the ground has been once cleared of forest, are now overrun with long and rank grass. In the central and eastern districts, the country is comparatively well clothed with cultivation.

Quitting the low coast of the north, in many parts unhealthy, the traveller can hardly advance five miles inland without feeling a sensible improvement in the atmosphere and climate. As he proceeds, at every step he breathes a purer air and surveys a brighter scene. At length he reaches the highlands. Here the boldest forms of nature are tempered by the rural arts of man: stupendous mountains clothed with abundant harvest, impetuous cataracts tamed to the peasant's will. Here is perpetual verdure; here are tints of the brightest hue. In the hottest season, the air retains its freshness; in the driest, the innumerable rills and rivulets preserve much of their water. This the mountain farmer directs in endless conduits and canals to irrigate the land, which he has laid out in terraces for its reception; it then descends to the plains, and spreads fertility wherever it flows, till at last, by numerous outlets, it discharges itself into the sea.

Almost all the mountains or volcanos, in the large series before noticed, are found on examination to have the same general constitution: they are striped vertically by sharp ridges, which, as they approach the foot of the mountain, take a more winding course. These ridges alternate with valleys, whose sides are of a very various declivity. Large rocks of basaltes occasionally project, and in several instances the valleys form the beds of rivers towards the tops of the volcanos; in the rainy season they all convey large volumes of water.

Next in importance to this extensive series of primary mountains, there are various ridges of smaller mountains, or hills, extending in different directions, with nearly an equal degree of elevation; sometimes originating from or connected with the primary volcanos, sometimes forming independent ranges, and arising separately and at a distance from the great series. These, which have been termed secondary mountains, though evidently of a volcanic nature, differ in many particulars of their constitution from those of the larger series. They generally extend in long narrow ridges, with but a moderate elevation, and their sides are less regularly composed of the vertical ridges above mentioned. In most cases, a stratified structure and submarine origin may be discovered. They are generally covered with large rocks of basaltes; and in some instances they consist of wacken and hornblende, which is found along their base in immense piles.

Hills of calcareous constitution, with only a moderate degree of elevation, occur in smaller ridges, often with a flat or tabular top; or in steep rocks and eminences. These are sometimes found in the centre of the island, covering the volcanic districts, but much more frequently near the northern and southern shores.

Hills of a mixed nature, partly calcareous and partly volcanic, are also found. The southern coast of the island consists almost entirely of them, rising in many places to the perpendicular height of eighty or one hundred feet, and sometimes much higher. These, as they branch inward and approach the central or higher districts, gradually disappear, and give place to the volcanic series, or alternate with huge masses of basaltic hornblende, that appears to assume a regular stratification. At the base of these, or in the beds of the rivers which proceed from them, are frequently found various silicious stones, as common flints, prase, hornstone, jasper, porphyry, agate, cornelian, &c.

Alluvial districts, evidently of recent origin, are noticed in several parts of the island. These are formed from the sediment and near the discharge of large rivers, and at the borders of the calcareous ridges, which are in many instances partially covered by them: their boundary can easily be traced, and most of them are still in a state of constant progression. Among other phenomena are mineral wells of various temperature and impregnation; wells of naphtha, or petroleum; and rivers arising, in a few instances, from the craters of volcanos, impregnated with sulphureous acid[24].

From these, and all other investigations yet made, the constitution of Java appears to be exclusively volcanic. From the vast Asiatic chain of mountains, one branch of which terminates in Ceylon, proceeds another, which traversing Arakan, Pegu, and the Malayan peninsula, extends to Sumatra, _Bánka_, and _Bíliton_, where it may be said to disappear. On Java no granite has been discovered. In its constitution, as in its direction, it may be considered as the first of a series of volcanic islands, which extend nearly eastward from the Straits of Sunda for about twenty-five degrees.

At what period the island assumed its present shape, or whether it was once joined to Sumatra and _Báli_, is matter for conjecture. The violent convulsions which these islands have so often suffered, justify a conclusion that the face of the country has been frequently changed, and tradition mentions the periods when Java was separated from those islands;[25] but the essential difference which has been found in the mineralogical constitution of Java and Sumatra, would seem to indicate a different origin, and to support the opinion that those two islands were never united. Whether, at a period more remote, the whole Archipelago formed part of the continent of Asia, and was divided from it and shattered into islands; whether they were originally distinct from the main land, or whether they were formed at the same time, or subsequently, are questions we cannot resolve. Yet, when we reflect on the violence of those dreadful phenomena[26] which have occurred in our own times in the smaller islands of the volcanic series, and view this range, as it is now presented to us on the map of the world, a conjecture might perhaps be hazarded, that the whole may have once formed but the southern side of one large island or continent, within which much of the main land has fallen in, and subsequently disappeared on the influx of the sea.

The constitution of the island is unfavourable to metals. All the examinations hitherto made confirm this assertion, and it may be laid down as a general position, that no metals occur, in such a quantity, or with such richness of ore, as to reward the operations of the miner. The only notice we have of the existence of gold or silver is contained in the first volume of the Transactions of the Batavian Society; and the attempts on the mountain of _Párang_, in 1723, and on the _Mégeméndung_, in 1744, were soon abandoned. Iron pyrites is found in small quantity in several districts, as well as red-ochre; which, however, often contains so little iron, as scarcely to serve for the common purpose of paint. The existence of mercury in the low lands of _Démak_, where it is distributed in minute particles through the clay of the rice-grounds bounding one of the principal rivers of that district, has not been considered as an indication of a mine, or of the ores of that metal.

No diamonds are found, nor other precious stones, but many minerals of the schorl, quartz, potstone, feldspar, and trap kind. They mostly exist in mountains of secondary elevation, towards the southern shores of the island, sometimes in extensive veins; but separate fragments are carried down by the rivers, and found far from their original deposition. Prase is found in very extensive veins; hornstone is also abundant in particular situations, as well as flint, chalcedony, hyalite, common jasper, jasper-agate, obsidian, and porphyry.

The soil in Java is for the most part rich, and remarkable for its depth; probably owing to the exclusively volcanic constitution of the country, and the constant accession of new mould, which is washed down the side of its numerous mountains. It has the character of being in a high degree richer than the ordinary soil of the Malayan countries in general, particularly of Sumatra and the Malayan peninsula. The best soil resembles the richest garden-mould of Europe; and whenever it can be exposed to the inundation necessary for the rice crop, requires no manure, and will bear without impoverishment, one heavy and one light crop in the year: the poorest, with this advantage, will yield a liberal return to the husbandman. In an island of such extent and variety of surface, the soil is necessarily various, but its general character is that of extraordinary fertility. The red and very light soil of the western districts is generally considered inferior to the dark brown and stiffer soil which prevails in the eastern. The best soil is usually found near the beds of rivers, in the valleys, and on the slopes of the largest mountains: the worst on the ranges of low calcareous hills, which run through different parts of the island.

The seasons, in all the countries situated within about ten degrees of the equator, agree in this: that as one eternal summer prevails, they are not distinguished as hot and cold, but as wet and dry. On Java the seasons depend upon the periodical winds. The period of the setting in of these winds is not determined within a few weeks; but generally the westerly winds, which are always attended with rain, are felt in October, become more steady in November and December, and gradually subside, till in March or April they are succeeded by the easterly winds and fair weather, which continue for the remaining half year. The heaviest rains are in the months of December and January, and the driest weather is in July and August; at which latter period, also, the nights are coldest and the days hottest. The weather is most unsettled when the season is changing, particularly at the first setting in of the westerly winds: but those violent storms and hurricanes, which are so often felt in the West Indies and in higher latitudes, are here unknown. With the exception of a few days at these periods, or when the westerly winds are at their height, vessels of any description may ride in safety in most of the bays along the northern coast of the island; and on shore, the wind is never so violent as to do damage. Thunder-storms are, however, frequent, and the lightning is extremely