Chapter 61

The one writer whom Dr. Flint refuses to criticise, because he too nearly agrees with him, is Renouvier. Taking this avowal in conjunction with two or three indiscretions on other pages, we can make a guess, not at the system itself, which is to console us for so much deviation, but at its tendency and spirit The fundamental article is belief in divine government. As Kant beheld God in the firmament of heaven, so too we can see him in history on earth. Unless a man is determined to be an atheist, he must acknowledge that the experience of mankind is a decisive proof in favour of religion. As providence is not absolute, but reigns over men destined to freedom, its method is manifested in the law of progress. Here, however, Dr. Flint, in his agreement with Renouvier, is not eager to fight for his cause, and speaks with a less jubilant certitude. He is able to conceive that providence may attain its end without the condition of progress, that the divine scheme would not be frustrated if the world, governed by omnipotent wisdom, became steadily worse. Assuming progress as a fact, if not a law, there comes the question wherein it consists, how it is measured, where is its goal. Not religion, for the Middle Ages are an epoch of decline. Catholicism has since lost so much ground as to nullify the theories of Bossuet; whilst Protestantism never succeeded in France, either after the Reformation, when it ought to have prevailed, nor after the Revolution, when it ought not. The failure to establish the Protestant Church on the ruins of the old _régime_, to which Quinet attributes the breakdown of the Revolution, and which Napoleon regretted almost in the era of his concordat, is explained by Mr. Flint on the ground that Protestants were in a minority. But so they were in and after the wars of religion; and it is not apparent why a philosopher who does not prefer orthodoxy to liberty should complain that they achieved nothing better than toleration. He disproves Bossuet's view by that process of deliverance from the Church which is the note of recent centuries, and from which there is no going back. On the future I will not enlarge, because I am writing at present in the HISTORICAL, not the PROPHETICAL, REVIEW. But some things were not so clear in France in 1679 as they are now at Edinburgh. The predominance of Protestant power was not foreseen, except by those who disputed whether Rome would perish in 1710 or about 1720. The destined power of science to act upon religion had not been proved by Newton or Simon. No man was able to forecast the future experience of America, or to be sure that observations made under the reign of authority would be confirmed by the reign of freedom.

If the end be not religion, is it morality, humanity, civilisation, knowledge? In the German chapters of 1874 Dr. Flint was severe upon Hegel, and refused his notion that the development of liberty is the soul of history, as crude, one-sided, and misunderstood. He is more lenient now, and affirms that liberty occupies the final summit, that it profits by all the good that is in the world, and suffers by all the evil, that it pervades strife and inspires endeavour, that it is almost, if not altogether, the sign, and the prize, and the motive in the onward and upward advance of the race for which Christ was crucified. As that refined essence which draws sustenance from all good things it is clearly understood as the product of civilisation, with its complex problems and scientific appliances, not as the elementary possession of the noble savage, which has been traced so often to the primeval forest. On the other hand, if sin not only tends to impair, but does inevitably impair and hinder it, providence is excluded from its own mysterious sphere, which, as it is not the suppression of all evil and present punishment of wrong, should be the conversion of evil into an instrument to serve the higher purpose. But although Dr. Flint has come very near to Hegel and Michelet, and seemed about to elevate their teaching to a higher level and a wider view, he ends by treating it coldly, as a partial truth requiring supplement, and bids us wait until many more explorers have recorded their soundings. That, with the trained capacity for misunderstanding and the smouldering dissent proper to critics, I might not mislead any reader, or do less than justice to a profound though indecisive work, I should have wished to piece together the passages in which the author indicates, somewhat faintly, the promised but withheld philosophy which will crown his third or fourth volume. Any one who compares pages 125, 135, 225, 226, 671, will understand better than I can explain it the view which is the master-key to the book.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 403: _English Historical Review_, 1895.]

[Footnote 404: [Dr. Ellicott.]]

APPENDIX

By the kindness of the Abbot Gasquet we are enabled to supplement the Bibliography of Acton's writings published by the Royal Historical Society with the following additional items:--

In _The Rambler_, 1858

April--Burke. July--[With Simpson] Mr. Buckle's Thesis and Method. Short Reviews. August--Mr. Buckle's Philosophy of History. October--Theiner's _Documents inédits relatifs aux affaires religieuses de France 1790-1800_, pp. 265-267. December--The Count de Montalembert, pp. 421-428 and note, 432. Carlyle's _History of Frederick the Great_, vols. i. and ii. p. 429.

1859

January--Political Thoughts on the Church. February--The Catholic Press. September--Contemporary Events.

1860

September--National Defence. Irish Education in Current Events.

1862

Correspondence. The Danger of the Physical Sciences.

INDEX

Abbot, Archbishop, and Father Paul, 432

Abbott, Dr., on Bacon and Machiavelli, 228

Absolutism, causes contributing to, 288 impulse given to, by teaching of Machiavelli, 41 inherently present in France, 237-40 and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 121 the old, its most revolutionary act, 275 sanction of, 433

Absolutists, eighteenth century, their care solely for the State, 273

_Acta Sanctorum_ authority on the inception and early growth of the Inquisition, 554

Acton, Lord-- Character and characteristics of-- Absolutism detested by, xxxi, xxxiv admiration of, for George Eliot and for Gladstone, basis of, xxiii Catholicism of, xii-xiv, xix, xx, xxvii, xxviii; attitude of, to doctrine of Papal Infallibility, xxv, xxvi; reality of his faith, xviii _et seq._ ideals cherished by, document embodying, xxxviii-ix; need of directing ideals practised by, xxii, xxiv individualistic tendencies of, xxviii intense individuality of, xvi objection of, to doctrine of moral relativity, xxxii, xxxiii personality of, as exhibited in present volume, xii; greatness of, xxii, xxxvii, xxxviii severity of his judgments, xxv, xxvii Literary activity and tastes of-- contributions of, to periodicals, light thrown by, on his erudition and critical faculty, ix _History of Liberty_ projected by, xxxv as leader-writer, ix preference of, for matter rather than manner in literature, xxii literary activity, three chief periods in, xii-xiv writings of, planned, xxxv, xxxvi; and completed, ix _et passim_; why comparatively few, xxxv-vii; qualities in, iv, x, xvi; instance of, xi; the real inspiration of, and of his life, xxi; style of, xxxiv _et seq._ origin, birth, and environment of, xiv, xviii, xix, xxxiii political errors of, xxviii _et seq._; on freedom, xxxi; on Liberalism, xxv, xxx on Stahl, 391

Adams, J.Q., on the Christian faith, 585 denying the influence of the pilgrims on the American Revolution, 584 despondency of, as to American constitution, 579 discriminating between American and French Revolutions, 580 on Hamilton, 582

Adams, the younger, 578

Addison, J., inconsistent ideas of, regarding liberty, 53

Address of the Bishops at Rome, Wiseman's draft, the facts concerning, 444-5; attacks on, of the _Patrie_, 439, 443, 444, 445; Wiseman's reply, _and see Home and Foreign Review_

Ahrens, _cited_ on national government, 227

Alamanni, forecasting the Huguenot massacres, 109

Albertus Magnus, 557

Albigenses, how dealt with by Montfort, 556 why persecuted, 168

Aldobrandini, Cardinal Hippolyto, _see_ Clement VIII.

Alessandria, Cardinal of, Michielli Bonelli, Legate of Pius V. mission of, to Spain, Portugal, and France, 112; his famous companion, 113; his ostensible purpose, its failure, information given to, on the forthcoming massacre, 113-14 after the St. Bartholomew 140

Alfonso, King of Aragon, proscription by, of heretics, 558

Alva, Duke of, Catherine de' Medici's message to, on the massacres, 122 failure of, in the Low Countries, 103 judgment of, on the St. Bartholomew, 124 letter of, on the St. Bartholomew. 108 & _note_ ordered to slay all Huguenot prisoners, 141-2

America, colonists of, opposition of Lords Chatham and Camden to, 55 early settlers in, Catholic and Protestant, contrasted action as to religious liberty, 187 doctrine of rights of man, originated from, 55 United States, democracy in, 64 government, based on Burke's political philosophy, 56; how the value of this foundation was negatived, 56 humour in, 579 national institutions of, attitude to, of Americans of to-day, not that of the founders, 579 place of, in political science, 578 presidency of Monroe, "the era of good feeling," 56 progress of democracy in, 84 religion in, Döllinger on, 339-40 representation in, defect concerning, 579

_American Commonwealth The_, by James Bryce, _review_, 575

American Constitution, Hamilton's position regarding, 581; its development due to Marshall, _ib._ how cemented, 579 government, confederate scheme of, 577 Judge Cooley on, 580 liberty, Judge Cooley on, 580 revolution, the abstract revolution in perfection, 586 no point of comparison between it and the French, 580 not inspired by the beliefs of the Pilgrim Fathers, 584-5 spirit of, 580, 587

Americans, attitude of the best towards politics, 578

Anabaptists, destructive tendency of their teaching, 157, 169, 171, 174, 175, 178, 185; and its effect on Luther, 155 intolerance of, 171-2 views of reformers as to their toleration, 157, 164, 167, 176

Andreæ. Lutheran divine, on the Huguenots, 145

Angelis, de Cardinal, manager of elections to Commission on Dogma, 529 President of Vatican Council, 534

Anglicanism, appreciation of Döllinger for some exponents of, 395 and growth of other sects, 334-7 progress of, 329-32

Anjou, Confession of, on the St. Bartholomew, 107

Anjou, Duke of (_see also_ Henry III.), and the crown of Poland, 105, 120, 144 schemes for marriage of, with Queen Elizabeth, 105 guilt of, for the St. Bartholomew, 110 orders of, for Huguenot massacre in his lands, 119

Annalists, method of, compared with that of scientific historians, 233

Antiquity, authority of State excessive in, 4 of liberty proved by recent historians, 5

Antonelli, Cardinal, advice of, to Bonnechose, 529 discussion of Infallibilty by Vatican Council, denied by, 518-19 on temporal power of Papacy, 414

Apologists for the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 147-8

Apology of Confession of Augsburg on excommunication, 158

Arianism among the Teutonic tribes, 199 suggested, of Petavius, and why, 592

Aristides and democracy, 68

Aristocracy, destruction of, in the Reign of Terror, 262 early eighteenth-century, 273-4 government by, advocated by Pythagoras, 21; government by, danger of, 20 Roman, struggle with plebeians, 13, 14

Aristotle on class interests, 69 estimation of, by Döllinger, 406 _Ethics_ of, democracy condemned by, 71 _Politics_ of, 22, 79; makes concession to democracy, 72 saying of, reflecting the illiberal sentiments of his age, 18

Arles, Council of, and the Count of Toulouse, 565

Arnaud and the saying, "God knows His own," 567

Arnauld, 429

Arnim, Baron, influence of, at Vatican Council, 506 interview of, with Döllinger, 426

Arnold of Brescia, 559

Arragon, constructive science of its people, 557 heresy in (1230), 556; lead of the country in persecution, 557

Artists, method of, compared with that of scientific historians, 233

Ascoli, Cecco d', fate of, 564-5

Ashburton, Lady, 382

Asoka (Buddhist king), first to proclaim and establish representative government, 26

Assassination, _see also_ Murder and Regicide Catherine de' Medici's plan, inspired by member of Council of Trent, 216 expediency of, view of Swedish bishops, 217 as a political weapon, 213-14 religious, considered expedient, 325 the reward of heresy, a doctrine of the Church in Middle Ages, 216

Athenagoras _cited_, 70

Athenians, character of, 11

Athens, constitution of, rapid decline in career of, 11; revision of, provided for by Solon with good results, 7, 8 democracy of, 66; tyranny manifested by, 12 government by consent superseded government by compulsion, under Solon, 7 laws of, revised by Solon, 6 political equality at, 68 Republic of, causes of ruin of, 70 death of Socrates crowning act of guilt of, 12 reform in, came too late, 12, 13

Aubigné, Merle d', and the charge against the Bordeaux clergy, 127 _note_

Auger, Edmond, S.J., and the Bordeaux massacres, 127

Augsburg, Confession of, axiom concerning importance of, in Luther's system of politics, 159 Apology of, on excommunication, 158

Austria, Concordat in, its failure, 292 opposition to Vatican politics in, and to the Council, 503, 506 policy of repression in, after Waterloo, 283 representation of, on Vatican Council, 509

Austria, Don Juan of, and the victory of Lepanto, 104; effect of, marred by Charles IX., 105

Austrian Empire, nationalities in, 295, 296; why substantial, one of the most perfect States, 298

Austrian power in Italy, effect of, on nationality, 287 rule in Italy, error of, 285

Authorities, use made of, revealing qualities of historians, 235

Authority of the Church questioned through Frohschammer's excommunication, 477-8

Authority, supreme, of the Church, 192; attitude of _Home and Foreign Review_ towards, 482-91

Avaux, D', view of expedient political massacre, 218

Avignon, removal of the Papacy to, 370; strife between, and the Franciscans, 552

Ayamonte, Spanish Ambassador to Paris, 123

Baader, F.X. von, estimate of, by Döllinger and Martensen, 376; work of, 377; father-in-law of Lasaulx, 405 Schelling's coolness to, 381

Baboeuf, proclaimer of Communism, 273

Bach, administration of, in Austria, 283

Bacon, Francis, 562 advocate of passive obedience to kings, 48 modern attacks on, 377 on bookish politicians, 575 on St. Thomas Aquinas, 37 influence of Machiavelli on, 228 _cited_ on political justification, 220

Bacon, Sir Nicholas, 44

Baden (1862), nationality in, 295

Baglioni, family of, models for Machiavelli, 212

Bain, T., interpreter of Locke, 220

Ballanche and liberal Catholicism, 588

Ballerini, influence on Döllinger, 387

Balmez, classed as Ultramontane, 451

Baltimore, synod of, and Infallibility, 499

Baluze, 559

Barbarians, the, become instrument of the Church by introducing single system of law, 244

Barberini, Cardinal, on reason for condemning De Thou's History, 147

Baronius, 379, 429; Döllinger's study of, 387

Barrot, O., opposed to universal suffrage, 590

Barrow, Isaac, Döllinger's Roman antidote to, 387

Basel, Church government at, under OEcolampadius, 176

Baudrillart, cited on Machiavelli's universality, 226

Baumgarten, Crusius, on political expediency, 230 works of, esteemed by Döllinger, 381

Baur, Ferdinand, on historical facts, 385 work of, estimated by Döllinger, 381, 404

Bavaria, Catholic stronghold (1572), 103

Baxter, Richard, 416

Bayle, Pierre, _cited_ on Servetus, 185

Bayonne, conference of, massacre of St. Bartholomew the outcome of, 108, 109 & _note_, 124

Beaconsfield, Earl of, story of, 551; view of Döllinger on, 391

Beauville, bearer to Rome of news of the St. Bartholomew, 132-3

Beccaria, on importance of success as result of action, 223

Belgian revolution, causes united in, 284

Belgium, representation of, on Vatican Council, 507 vigorous growth of municipal liberties in, 38

Bellarmine, Cardinal, deceived by hierarchical fictions, 420

"Bellum Haereticorum pax est Ecclesiae," maxim utilised by Polish bishops, 103

Benedict XIV., Pope, 148 scholarship under, 387

Bennettis, De, appreciated by Döllinger, 387

Bentham, Jeremy, pioneer in abolition of legal abuses, 3 principle of greatest happiness, 223

Berardi, Cardinal, influence of, on Döllinger, 387 proposed announcement of discussion of Infallibility at Vatican Council set aside, 518

Bergier, 573

Berlin, 378

Bernard, Brother, 564

Bernays, 432

Besold, followers of Machiavelli denounced by, 225

Beust, Count, on Vatican Council, 503; indifference to, 509

Beza, Theodore, death of Servetus approved by, 185 defence of Calvin, 183 on the Huguenot massacres, on toleration, and on the civil authority over religious crime, 146 on religious assassination, 326

Beziers, siege of, 567

Bianchi, recommended by Döllinger, 387

Bible, inspiration of, 513-15 as sole guide in all things, Luther's principle, 154, 158, 159, 161

Bigamy of the Landgrave of Hesse, how dealt with by Luther, and why, 160

Bilio, Cardinal, junior president of Vatican Council, 534

Biner, apologist of the St. Bartholomew, 148

Biran, Maine de, _cited_ on political expediency, 220

Bishops, the, address to Pius, in preparation for Vatican Council, 494, 499 attitude of, towards Bull _Multiplices inter_, 520-25 and the Papacy, 511 protesting, charge of sharing Döllinger's views, repudiated by, 538 deception of, at Vatican Council, 518-526 hostility of, harm done by, 531 withdrawal of, from close of Vatican Council, 549

Bismarck, Count, on State participation in Vatican Council, 506

Bizarri, policy of, on Vatican Council, 534

Blanc, Louis, a secret worker for overthrow of Louis Philippe, 92

Blasphemy, reasons for its punishment by the Reformers, 169, 175

Blois, French court at, 112; Coligny at, 1571., 115

Blondel, Döllinger's gratitude to, 393

Blue Laws of Connecticut, 55

Boccaccio, Giovanni, revision of the _Decamerone_, 215

Boccapaduli, Papal secretary, speech of, on the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 136

Bodin, _cited_ on _Il Principe_, 218

Bohemia, religious future of, in relation to the case of Hus, 571

Bolingbroke, Lord, slight knowledge of Machiavelli's works, 218

Bologna, University of, 556

Bona, Cardinal, urged suppression of _Liber Diurnus_, 516

Bonald, and absolute monarchy, 467 and Lamennais's theory, 593 ultramontanism of, 451

Bonelli, Michiel, _see_ Alessandria, Cardinal of

Boniface VIII., Pope, Bull of, on supreme spiritual power, 324; vindications of, inspired by Döllinger, 391

Bonnechose, Cardinal, share of, in elections to Commission of Dogma, 529, 532 urged French representation on Vatican Council, 504

Bordeaux, the Huguenot massacres of, 127

Boretius, _cited_ on Frederick the Great and Machiavelli, 229

Borghese, Cardinal, afterwards Paul V., Pope, his knowledge of the planned character of St. Bartholomew, 114

Borgia, compiler of history, 387 family, models for Machiavelli, 212 Francis, S.J., 113

Borromeo, Cardinal, 108 _& notes_, 108-9

Bossuet, advocate of passive obedience to kings, 47, 429, 434 _Defensio_ feared, 378 indignation of, 148 and the idea of development, 591, 592, 593, 595 on love of country, 20 _& note_ work of, compared to Döllinger, 424

Boucher, 45; on Henry III. of France and reliance on maxims of _Il Principe_, 215

Bourbon, Cardinal of, unguarded speech of, on coming Huguenot massacre, 111 Etienne de, inquisitor, works of, 558-9 House of, French and Spanish, contests of the Habsburgs with, 275 House of, upholders of supremacy of kingship over people, 47

Bourges, massacre of Huguenots commanded at, by Charles IX. La Chastre's refusal to obey, 115

Boys, Du, defender of the Inquisition, 573

Brandenburg, Albrecht, Margrave of, and the Anabaptists, 157, _& see_ 156 _note_

Brantôme on the death of Elizabeth of Valois, 104

Brescia, Bishop of, _see_ Guala city, centre of historical work, 387

Brewer, intercourse with Döllinger, 402

Brief of Pius IX. to Archbishop of Munich, and attitude of _Home and Foreign Review_ to supreme authority of the Church, 482-491

Brill, the, Dutch maritime victory, its importance, 103

British empire, why substantially one of the most perfect states, 298

Brittany, and the Huguenot massacres, 119

Brixen, Bishop of, on Papal authority, 543

Brosch, on Cardinal Pole and _Il Principe_, 214

Brougham, Lord, advice to students, 393

Bruce, house of, struggle with house of Plantagenet, 35

Bruno, 430

Bryce, James, _The American Commonwealth_, review, 575

Bucer, Martin, in favour of persecution, 172-73

Buch, De, 430

Buchanan, 44, 45

Buckeridge, Blondel, Döllinger's Roman antidote to, 387

Buckle, H.T., 589, 590

Bugge, discoveries of, 405

Bull, censure of the Reformation of, 416

Bull of Boniface VIII., on supreme spiritual authority, 324

Bull of Gregory XIII. relating to the Huguenot massacres, 134-45 & _note_; not admitted into official collections 101

Bull _Multiplices inter_, of Vatican Council, 520-22

_Bullarium Dominicanum_, the, referred to by Lea, 563

Bullinger, Heinrich, death of Servetus approved by, 185 _cited_ on persecution, 174-76

Burd, L.A., edition of Machiavelli's _Il Principe_, introduction to, 212-31; skill as exponent of Machiavelli's political system, 212 text of the _Discorsi_ produced by, 227

Burgundy, refusal of its governors to massacre Huguenots, 118

Burke, Edmund, 580; Döllinger's political model, 393, 417 French Revolution denounced by, 219 on the moral and political as distinct from the merely geographical, 294 on the partition of Poland, 275 on revolution, 587 _cited_ on political oppression in Ireland, 253, _note_ on the rights of mankind, 56

Burning of heretics, Lea's view on, 568

Byzantine despotism, due to combined influence of Church and State, 33

Bzovius, authority on the Inquisition, 554

Cadiz Constitution, 1812., 89; its overthrow the triumph of the restored monarchy of France, 89

Cæsarius of Heisterbach, authority of, distrusts by Lea, 567

Calhoun, J.C., indictment against democracy, 93

Calvin, John, 176, 585 action of, with regard to Servetus, 184; and his defence of the same, 181 attitude of, to the civil power, 179-81 hostility to, of Lutherans, 145 republican views of, 42, 43 system of Church government, 177-79

Calvinism in Germany, 345

Calvinists, English, tolerated by Melanchthon, 170 & _note_

Camden, Lord, _cited_ in disfavour of American taxation, 55

Campanella, ideal society of, 270

Campeggio, Cardinal, commentary of, on Zanchini, 559

Canello, _cited_ on Machiavelli's unpopularity, 226

Canning, G., on the question as to who reigned, George III. or his ministers, 583; his wisdom, 40

Capalti, Cardinal, junior President of Vatican Council, 534

Capecelatro, 412

Capilupi, Camillo, author of _Lo Stratagemma di Carlo IX._, 129; its bearing on the position of the Cardinal of Lorraine, 130; and others, on Alessandria's information as to forthcoming massacre of Huguenots, 114 family, glorification by, of Charles IX. for the St. Bartholomew, 128 _et seq._ Hippolyto, Bishop of Fano, support given by, to Charles IX., 128-9

Capito, Wolfgang Fabricius, reformer, 172, 174

Capponi, friend of Döllinger, 420 as federalist, 414 Döllinger's study of, 402

Capuchins, General of, and the Inquisition, 553