Chapter 38

ENGLAND DURING THE LATTER YEARS OF EDWARD III.

Never was Edward's glory so high as in the years immediately succeeding the treaty of Calais. The unspeakable misery of France heightened his magnificence by the strength of the contrast. At eight-and-forty he retained the vigour and energy of his younger days, though surrounded by a band of grown-up sons. In 1362 the king celebrated his jubilee, or his fiftieth birthday, amidst feasts of unexampled splendour. Not less magnificent were the festivities that attended the visits of the three kings, of France, Cyprus, and Scotland, in 1364.

Of the glories of these years we have detailed accounts from an eye-witness a writer competent, above all other men of his time, to set down in courtly and happy phrase the wonders that delighted his eyes. In 1361, John Froissart, an adventurous young clerk from Valenciennes, sought out a career for himself in the household of his countrywoman, Queen Philippa, bearing with him as his credentials a draft of a verse chronicle which was his first attempt at historical composition. He came to England at the right moment. The older generation of historians had laid down their pens towards the conclusion of the great war, and had left no worthy successors. The new-comer was soon to surpass them, not in precision and sobriety, but in wealth of detail, in literary charm, and in genial appreciation of the externals of his age. He recorded with an eye-witness's precision of colour, though with utter indifference to exactness, the tournaments and fetes, the banquets and the _largesses_ of the noble lords and ladies of the most brilliant court in Christendom. He celebrated the courtesy of the knightly class, their devotion to their word of honour, the liberality with which captive foreigners was allowed to share in their sports and pleasures, and the implicit loyalty with which nearly all the many captive knights repaid the trust placed on their word. To him Edward was the most glorious of kings, and Philippa, his patroness, the most beautiful, liberal, pious, and charitable of queens. For nine years he enjoyed the queen's bounty, and described with loyal partiality the exploits of English knights. With the death of his patroness and the beginning of England's misfortunes, the light-minded adventurer sought another master in the French-loving Wenceslaus of Brabant. The first edition of his chronicle, compiled when under the spell of the English court, contrasts strongly with the second version written at Brussels at the instigation of the Luxemburg duke of Brabant.

Even Froissart saw that all was not well in England. The common people seemed to him proud, cruel, disloyal, and suspicious. Their delight was in battle and slaughter, and they hated the foreigner with a fierce hatred which had no counterpart in the cosmopolitan knightly class. They were the terror of their lords and delighted in keeping their kings under restraint. The Londoners were the most mighty of the English and could do more than all the rest of England. Other writers tell the same tale. The same fierce patriotism that Froissart notes glows through the rude battle songs in which Lawrence Minot sang the early victories of Edward from Halidon Hill to the taking of Guînes, and inspired Geoffrey le Baker to repeat with absolute confidence every malicious story which gossip told to the discredit of the French king and his people. It was under the influence of this spirit that the steps were taken, which we have already recorded, to extend the use of English, notably in the law courts. Yet the old bilingual habit clave long to the English. Despite the statute of 1362, the lawyers continued to employ the French tongue, until it crystallised into the jargon of the later _Year Books_ or of Littleton's _Tenures_. Under Edward III, however, French remained the living speech of many Englishmen. John Gower wrote in French the earliest of his long poems. But he is a thorough Englishman for all that. He writes in French, but, as he says, he writes for England.[1]

[1] "O gentile Engleterre, a toi j'escrits," _Mirour de l'Omme,_ in John Gower's _Works,_ i., 378, ed. G.C. MaCaulay, to whom belongs the credit of recovering this long lost work.

It was characteristic of the patriotic movement of the reign of Edward III, that a new courtly literature in the English language rivalled the French vernacular literature which as yet had by no means ceased to produce fruit. The new type begins with the anonymous poems, "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight," and the "Pearl". While Froissart was the chief literary figure at the English court during the ten years after the treaty of Calais, his place was occupied in the concluding decade of the reign by Geoffrey Chaucer, the first great poet of the English literary revival. The son of a substantial London vintner, Chaucer spent his youth as a page in the household of Lionel of Antwerp, from which he was transferred to the service of Edward himself. He took part in more than one of Edward's French campaigns, and served in diplomatic missions to Italy, Flanders, and elsewhere. His early poems reflect the modes and metres of the current French tradition in an English dress, and only reach sustained importance in his lament on the death of the Duchess Blanche of Lancaster, written about 1370. It is significant that the favourite poet of the king's declining years was no clerk but a layman, and that the Tuscan mission of 1373, which perhaps first introduced him to the treasures of Italian poetry, was undertaken in the king's service. Thorough Englishman as Chaucer was, he had his eyes open to every movement of European culture. His higher and later style begins with his study of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. Though he wrote for Englishmen in their own tongue, his fame was celebrated by the French poet, Eustace Deschamps, as the "great translator" who had sown the flowers of French poesy in the realm of Aeneas and Brut the Trojan. His broad geniality stood in strong contrast to the savage patriotism of Minot. In becoming national, English vernacular art did not become insular. Chaucer wrote in the tongue of the southern midlands, the region wherein were situated his native London, the two universities, the habitual residences of the court, the chief seats of parliaments and councils, and the most frequented marts of commerce. For the first time a standard English language came into being, largely displacing for literary purposes the local dialects which had hitherto been the natural vehicles of writing in their respective districts. The Yorkshireman, Wycliffe, the westcountryman, Langland, adopted before the end of the reign the tongue of the capital for their literary language in preference to the speech of their native shires. The language of the extreme south, the descendant of the tongue of the West Saxon court, became the dialect of peasants and artisans. That a continuous life was reserved for the idiom of the north country, was due to its becoming the speech of a free Scotland, the language in which Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, commemorated for the court of the first Stewart king the exploits of Robert Bruce and the Scottish war of independence. The unity of England thus found another notable expression in the oneness of the popular speech. And the evolution of the northern dialect into the "Scottish" of a separate kingdom showed that, if England were united, English-speaking Britain remained divided.

Other arts indicate the same tendency. Even in the thirteenth century English Gothic architecture differentiated itself pretty completely from its models in the Isle de France. The early fourteenth century, the age of the so-called "decorated style," suggests in some ways a falling back to the French types, though the prosperity of England and the desolation of France make the English examples of fourteenth century building the more numerous and splendid. The occasional tendency of the later "flowing" decorated towards "flamboyant" forms, to be seen in some of the churches of Northamptonshire, marks the culminating point of this fresh approximation of French and English architecture. But the division between the two countries brought about by war was illustrated before the end of the reign in the growth of the most local of our medieval architectural types, that "perpendicular" style which is so strikingly different from the "flamboyant" art of the neighbouring kingdom. This specially English style begins early in the reign of Edward III, when the cult of the murdered Edward of Carnarvon gave to the monks of St. Peter's, Gloucester, the means to recast the massive columns and gloomy arcades of the eastern portions of their romanesque abbey church after the lighter and brighter patterns in which Gloucester set the fashion to all southern Britain. In the buildings of the later years of Edward's reign the old "flowing decorated" and the newer and stiffer "perpendicular" grew up side by side. If the two seem almost combined in the church of Edington, in Wiltshire, the foundation dedicated in 1361 for his native village by Edward's chancellor, Bishop Edington of Winchester, the triumph of the perpendicular is assured in the new choir which Archbishop Thoresby began for York Minster, and in the reconstruction of the Norman cathedral of Winchester begun by Bishop Edington, and completed when his greater successor, William of Wykeham, carried out in a more drastic way the device already adopted at Gloucester of recasing the ancient structure so as to suit modern tastes. The full triumph of the new style is apparent in Wykeham's twin foundations at Winchester and Oxford. The separation of feeling between England and Scotland is now seen in architecture as well as in language. When the perpendicular fashion was carrying all before it in the southern realm, the Scottish builders erected their churches after the flamboyant type of their French allies. Thus while the twelfth and thirteenth century structures of the northern and southern kingdoms are practically indistinguishable, the differences between the two nations, which had arisen from the Edwardian policy of conquest, expressed themselves ultimately in the striking contrast between the flamboyant of Melrose or St. Giles' and the perpendicular of Winchester or Windsor.

English patriotism, which had asserted itself in the literature and art of the people long before it dominated courtly circles, continued to express itself in more popular forms than even those of the poems of Chaucer. The older fashions of instructing the people were still in vogue in the early part of Edward's reign. Richard Rolle, the hermit of Hampole, whose _Prick_ of _Conscience_ and vernacular paraphrases of the Bible illustrate the older didactic literature, was carried off in his Yorkshire cell in the year of the Black Death. The cycles of miracle plays, which edified and amused the townsfolk of Chester and York, crystallised into a permanent shape early in this reign, and were set forth with ever-increasing elaborateness by an age bent on pageantry and amusement. The vernacular sermons and popular manuals of devotion increased in numbers and copiousness. In this the time of the Black Death is, as in other aspects of our story, a deep dividing line.

The note of increasing strain and stress is fully expressed in the earlier forms of _The Vision of Piers Plowman,_ which were composed before the death of Edward III. Its author, William Langland, a clerk in minor orders, debarred by marriage from a clerical career, came from the Mortimer estates in the march of Wales: but his life was mainly spent in London, and he wrote in the tongue of the city of his adoption. The first form of the poem is dated 1362, the year of the second visitation of the Black Death, while the troubles of the end of the reign perhaps inspired the fuller edition which saw the light in 1377. It is a commonplace to contrast the gloomy pictures drawn by Langland with the highly coloured pictures of contemporary society for which Chaucer was gathering his materials. Yet this contrast may be pressed too far. Though Langland had a keen eye to those miseries of the poor which are always with us, the impression of the time gathered from his writings is not so much one of material suffering, as of social unrest and discontent. The poor ploughman, who cannot get meat, still has his cheese, curds, and cream, his loaf of beans and bran, his leeks and cabbage, his cow, calf, and cart mare.[1] The very beggar demanded "bread of clean wheat" and "beer of the best and brownest," while the landless labourer despised "night-old cabbage," "penny-ale," and bacon, and asked for fresh meat and fish freshly fried.[2] There is plenty of rough comfort and coarse enjoyment in the England through which "Long Will" stalked moodily, idle, hopeless, and in himself exemplifying many of the evils which he condemned. The England of Langland is bitter, discontented, and sullen. It is the popular answer to the class prejudice and reckless greed of the lords and gentry. Langland's own attitude towards the more comfortable classes is much that of the self-assertive and mutinous Londoner whom Froissart looked upon with such bitter prejudice. He boasts that he was loath to do reverence to lords and ladies, or to those clad in furs with pendants of silver, and refuses to greet "sergeants" with a "God save you". Every class of society is flagellated in his scathing criticisms. He is no revolutionist with a new gospel of reform, but, though content to accept the old traditions, he is the ruthless denouncer of abuses, and is thoroughly filled with the spirit which, four years after the second recension of his book, found expression in the Peasants Revolt of 1381. With all the archaism of his diction and metre, Langland, even more than Chaucer, reflects the modernity of his age.

[1] _Vision of Piers Plowman,_ i.,220, ed. Skeat.

[2] _Ibid.,_ i., 222.

Even the universities were growing more national, for the war prevented Oxford students from seeking, after their English graduation, a wider career at Paris. William of Ockham, the last of the great English schoolmen that won fame in the European rather than in the English world, died about 1349 in the service of the Bavarian emperor. In the same year the plague swept away Thomas Bradwardine, the "profound doctor," at the moment of his elevation to the throne of Canterbury. Bradwardine, though a scholar of universal reputation, won his fame at Oxford without the supplementary course at Paris, and lived all his career in his native land. As an English university career became more self-sufficient, Oxford became the school of the politician and the man of affairs as much as of the pure student. The new tendency is illustrated by the careers of the brothers Stratford, both Oxford scholars, yet famous not for their writings but for lives devoted to the service of the State, though rewarded by the highest offices of the Church. His conspicuous position as a teacher of scholastic philosophy first brought John Wycliffe into academic prominence. But he soon won a wider fame as a preacher in London, an adviser of the court, an opponent of the "possessioner" monks, and of the forsworn friars, who, deserting apostolic poverty, vied with the monks in covetousness. His attacks on practical abuses in the Church marked him out as a politician as well as a philosopher. His earlier career ended in 1374, the year in which he first became the king's ambassador, not long after proceeding to the degree of doctor of divinity.[1] His later struggles must be considered in the light of the political history of the concluding episodes of Edward's reign. In a few years we shall find the Oxford champion abandoning the Latin language of universal culture, and appealing to the people in homely English. With Wycliffe's entry upon his wider career, it is hardly too much to say that Oxford ceased to be merely a part of the cosmopolitan training ground of the schoolmen, and became in some fashion a national institution. Cambridge, too young and obscure in earlier ages to have rivalled Oxford, first began to enjoy an increasing reputation.

[1] This was before Dec. 26, 1373. See Twemlow in _Engl. Hist. Review_, xv, (1900), 529-530.

Hitherto culture had been not only cosmopolitan but clerical. Every university student and nearly every professional man was a clerk. But education was becoming possible for laymen, and there were already lay professions outside the clerical caste. The wide cultivation and the vigorous literary output of laymen of letters like Chaucer and Cower are sufficient evidence of this. But the best proof is the complete differentiation of the common lawyers from the clergy. The inns of court of London became virtually a legal university, where highly trained men studied a juristic system, which was not the less purely English in spirit because its practitioners used the French tongue as their technical instrument. There were no longer lawyers in England who, like Bracton, strove to base the law of the land on the forms and methods of Roman jurisprudence. There were no longer kings, like Edward I., with Italian trained civilians at their court ready to translate the law of England into imperialist forms. The canonist still studied at Oxford or Cambridge, but his career was increasingly clerical, and the Church, unlike the State, was unable to nationalise itself, though the whole career of Wycliffe and the strenuous efforts of the kings and statesmen who passed the statutes of Provisors and Praemunire, showed that some of the English clergy, and many of the English laity, were willing to make the effort. English law, in divorcing itself from the universities and the clergy, became national as well as lay. There were no longer any Weylands who concealed their clerical beginnings, and hid away the subdeacon under the married knight and justice, the founder of a landowning family. The lawyers of Edward's reign were frankly laymen, marrying and giving in marriage, establishing new families that became as noble as any of the decaying baronial houses, and yet cherishing a corporate ideal and common spirit as lively and real as those of any monastery or clerical association.

In enumerating the many convergent tendencies which worked together in strengthening the national life, we must not forget the growing importance of commerce. Merchant princes like the Poles could rival the financial operations of Lombard or Tuscan, and climb into the baronial class. The proud and mutinous temper of the Londoners was largely due to their ever-increasing wealth. We are on the threshold of the careers of commercial magnates, like the Philpots and the Whittingtons. Even when Edward III. was still on the throne, a London mayor of no special note, John Pyel, could set up in his native Northamptonshire village of Irthlingborough a college and church of remarkable stateliness and dignity. The growth of the wool trade, and its gradual transfer to English hands, the development of the staple system, the rise of an English seaman class that knew all the havens of Europe, the beginnings of the English cloth manufacture, all indicate that English commerce was not only becoming more extensive, but was gradually emancipating itself from dependence on the foreigner. Thus before the end of Edward's reign England was an intensely national state, proudly conscious of itself, and haughtily contemptuous of the foreigner, with its own language, literature, style in art, law, universities, and even the beginnings of a movement towards the nationalisation of the Church. The cosmopolitanism of the earlier Middle Ages was everywhere on the wane. A modern nation had arisen out of the old world-state and world-spirit. In the England of Edward III., Chaucer, and Wycliffe, we have reached the consummation of the movement whose first beginnings we have traced in the early storms of the reign of Henry III. It is in the development of this tendency that the period from 1216 to 1377 possesses such unity as it has.

During the years of peace after the treaty of Calais, Edward III. completed the scheme for the establishment of his family begun with the grant of Aquitaine to the Black Prince. The state of the king's finances made it impossible for him to provide for numerous sons and daughters from the royal exchequer, and the system of appanages had seldom been popular or successful in England. Edward found an easier way of endowing his offspring by politic marriages that transferred to his sons the endowments and dignities of the great houses, which, in spite of lavish creations of new earldoms, were steadily dying out in the male line. Some of his daughters in the same way were married into baronial families whose attachment to the throne would, it was believed, be strengthened by intermarriage with the king's kin; while others, wedded to foreign princes, helped to widen the circle of continental alliances on which he never ceased to build large hopes. Collateral branches of the royal family were pressed into the same system, which was so systematically ordered that it has passed for a new departure in English history. This is, however, hardly the case. Many previous kings, notably Edward I., carried out a policy based upon similar lines, and only less conspicuous by reason of the smaller number of children that they had to provide for. The descendants of Henry III. and Edward I. in no wise kept true to the monarchical tradition, but rather gave distinction to the baronial opposition by ennobling it with royal alliances. But the martial and vigorous policy of Edward III. had at least the effect of reducing to inactivity the tradition of constitutional opposition which had been the common characteristic of successive generations of the royal house of Lancaster, the chief collateral branch of the royal family. Subsequent history will show that the Edwardian family settlement was as unsuccessful as that of his grandfather. The alliances which Edward built up brought neither solidarity to the royal house, nor strength to the crown, nor union to the baronage. But the working out of this, as of so many of the new developments of the later part of Edward's reign, can only be seen after his death.

Edward's eldest son became, as we have seen, Duke of Cornwall, Prince of Wales, and Earl of Chester even before he received Aquitaine. He was the first of the continuous line of English princes of Wales, for Edward III. never bore that title. The Black Prince's marriage with his cousin, Joan of Kent, was a love-match, and the estates of his bride were scarcely an important consideration to the lord of Wales and Cheshire. Yet the only child of the unlucky Edmund of Woodstock was no mean heiress, bringing with her the estates of her father's earldom of Kent, besides the inheritance of her mother's family, the Wakes of Liddell and Lincolnshire. The estates and earldom afterwards passed to Joan's son by a former husband, and the Holland earls of Kent formed a minor family connexion which closely supported the throne of Richard of Bordeaux. Though their paternal inheritance was that of Lancashire squires, the Hollands won a leading place in the history of the next generation.

Edward III.'s second son, William of Hatfield, died in infancy. For his third son, Lionel of Antwerp, when still in his childhood, Edward found the greatest heiress of her time, Elizabeth, the only daughter of William de Burgh, the sixth lord of Connaught and third Earl of Ulster, the representative of one of the chief Anglo-Norman houses in Ireland. Even before his marriage, Lionel was made Earl of Ulster, a title sunk after 1362 in the novel dignity of the duchy of Clarence. This title was chosen because Elizabeth de Burgh was a grand-daughter of Elizabeth of Clare, the sister of the last Clare Earl of Gloucester, and a share of the Gloucester inheritance passed through her to the young duke. His marriage gave Lionel a special relation to Ireland, where, however, his two lordships of Ulster and Connaught were largely in the hands of the native septs, and where the royal authority had never won back the ground lost during the vigorous onslaught of Edward Bruce on the English power. In 1342 the estates of Ireland forwarded to Edward a long statement of the shortcomings of the English administration of the island.[1] No effective steps were taken to remedy those evils until, in 1361, Edward III. sent Lionel as governor to Ireland, declaring "that our Irish dominions have been reduced to such utter devastation and ruin that they may be totally lost, if our subjects there are not immediately succoured". Lionel's most famous achievement was the statute of Kilkenny. This law prohibited the intermixture of the Anglo-Normans in Ireland with the native Irish, which was rapidly undermining the basis of English rule and confounding Celts and Normans in a nation, ever divided indeed against itself, but united against the English. Lionel wearied of a task beyond his strength. His wife's early death lessened the ties which bound him to her land, and he went back to England declaring that he would never return to Ireland if he could help it. His succession as governor by a Fitzgerald showed that the plan of ruling Ireland through England was abandoned by Edward III. in favour of the cheaper but fatal policy of concealing the weakness of the English power by combining it with the strength of the strongest of the Anglo-Norman houses. Under this faulty system, the statute of Kilkenny became inoperative almost from its enactment.

[1] Cal. of Close, Rolls, 1341-43, pp. 508-16.

The widowed Duke of Clarence made a second great marriage. The Visconti, tyrants of Milan, were willing to pay heavily for the privilege of intermarriage with the great reigning families of Europe, and neither Edward III. nor the French king could resist the temptation of alliance with a family that was able to endow its daughters so richly. Accordingly, the Duke of Clarence became in 1368 the husband of Violante Visconti, the daughter of Galeazzo, lord of Pavia, and the niece of Bernabò, signor of Milan, the bitter foe of the Avignon papacy. Five months later, Lionel was carried away by a sudden sickness, and thus the Visconti marriage brought little fruit to England. Lionel's only child, Philippa, the offspring of his first marriage, was married, just before her father's death, to Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, great-grandson of the traitor earl beheaded in 1330. Lionel's death added to the vast inheritance of the Mortimers and Joinvilles the lands and claims of Ulster and Clarence, and so Edward III.'s magnanimity in reviving the earldom of March after the disgrace of 1330 was rewarded by the devolution of its estates to his grand-daughter's child. The Earl of March was invested with a new political importance, for his wife was the nearest representative of Edward III, save for the dying Black Prince and his sickly son. The fierce blood and broad estates of the great marcher family continued to give importance to Philippa's descendants; and finally the house of Mortimer mounted the throne in the person of Edward IV.

The estates of Lancaster were annexed to the reigning branch of the royal house by the marriage in 1359 of John of Gaunt, Edward's third surviving son, with Blanche of Lancaster, the heiress of Duke Henry, who became, after her sister Maud's death, the sole inheritor of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1362 John, who had hitherto been Earl of Richmond, yielded up this dignity to the younger John of Montfort, its rightful heir, and was created Duke of Lancaster at the same time that Lionel was made Duke of Clarence. Ten years after her marriage Blanche died, leaving John a son, Henry of Derby, the future Henry IV., whose wedding, after his grandfather's death, to one of the Bohun co-heiresses brought part of the estates of another great house within the grasp of Edward III.'s descendants. Moreover, the other Bohun co-heiress became in 1376 the wife of Thomas of Woodstock, the youngest of Edward's sons, the Gloucester of the next reign. The three Bohun earldoms of Hereford, Essex, and Northampton were thus absorbed by the old king's children and grandchildren. John of Gaunt, like Lionel, lost his wife early and sought a second bride abroad. In 1372 he married Constance of Castile, a natural daughter of the deceased Peter the Cruel. Henceforth he was summoned to parliament as King of Castile and Leon as well as Duke of Lancaster, though it was not until the next reign that he took any actual steps to assert his claim.

John's next younger brother, Edmund of Langley, Earl of Cambridge in 136% [1368?] married Isabella, Constance of Castile's younger sister. He was the future Duke of York, and as the only one of Edward III.'s sons who did not marry an English heiress, was the most scantily endowed of them all. The union of his descendants with those of Lionel of Clarence gave the house of York a territorial importance which was, as we have seen, mainly derived from the Mortimer inheritance. Thus the two lines of descendants of Edward III. which had most future significance were those which represented through heiresses the rival houses of Lancaster and March. The history of the next century shows that the rivalry was only made more formidable by the connexion of both these lines with the royal family. In this, the most striking triumph of the Edwardian policy, is also the most signal indication of its failure. From it arose the factions of York and Lancaster.

The legislation of the years of peace, from 1360 to 1369, is largely anti-papal and economic, and is so intimately connected with the laws of the preceding period that it has been dealt with in an earlier chapter. But however anti-papal, and therefore anti-clerical, some of Edward's laws were, his government was still mainly controlled by great ecclesiastical statesmen. Simon Langham, though a Benedictine monk, had as chancellor demanded in 1366 the opinion of the estates as to the unlawfulness of the Roman tribute, and the clerical estate, if it did not help forward the anti-Roman legislation, was content to stand aside, and let it take effect without protest. Shortly after taking part in the movement against papal tribute, Langham was removed from the see of Ely to that of Canterbury in succession to Islip. His conversion into a purely monastic college of his predecessor's mixed foundation for seculars and regulars in Canterbury Hall, Oxford, showed a bias which might have been expected in a former abbot of Westminster, while his willingness to follow in the footsteps of Kilwardby, and exchange his archbishopric for the dignity of a cardinal and residence at Avignon showed that he was a papalist as well as an English patriot. His successor as primate, appointed in 1369 by papal provision, was William Whittlesea, a nephew of Archbishop Islip, whose weak health and colourless character made of little account his five years' tenure of the metropolitical dignity. With Canterbury in such feeble hands, the leadership in the Church and primacy in the councils of the crown passed to stronger men: such as John Thoresby, Archbishop of York till 1373; Thomas Brantingham, treasurer from 1369 to 1371, and Bishop of Exeter from 1370 to 1394; and above all to Edward's old servant, William of Wykeham, chancellor from 1367 to 1371, and Bishop of Winchester, in succession to Edington, from 1367 until 1404. Wykeham was a strenuous and hard-working servant of the crown, a vigorous and careful ruler of his diocese, a mighty pluralist, a magnificent builder, and the most bountiful and original of all the pious founders of his age. "Everything," says Froissart, "was done through him and without him nothing was done."[1]

[1] Froissart, _Chroniques_, ed. Luce, viii., 101.

The year of the breach of the treaty of Calais was also marked by the third great visitation of the Black Death, and the death of Queen Philippa. Parliament cordially welcomed the resumption by Edward of the title of King of France, and made liberal subsidies for the prosecution of the campaign. Disappointment was all the more bitter when each campaign ended in disaster, and in the parliament of February, 1371, the storm burst. The circumstances of the ministerial crisis of 1341 were almost exactly renewed. As on the previous occasion, the state was in the hands of great ecclesiastics, whose conservative methods were thought inadequate for circumstances so perilous. John Hastings, second Earl of Pembroke of his house, a gallant young warrior and the intended son-in-law of the king, made himself the spokesman of the anti-clerical courtiers, probably with the good-will of the king. At Pembroke's instigation the earls, barons, and commons drew up a petition that, "inasmuch as the government of the realm has long been in the hands of the men of Holy Church, who in no case can be brought to account for their acts, whereby great mischief has happened in times past and may happen in times to come, may it therefore please the king that laymen of his own realm be elected to replace them, and that none but laymen henceforth be chancellor, treasurer, barons of the exchequer, clerk of privy seal, or other great officers of the realm ".[1] Edward fell in with this request. Wykeham quitted the chancery, and Brantingham the treasury. Of their lay successors the new chancellor, Sir Robert Thorpe, chief-justice of the court of common pleas, was a close friend of the Earl of Pembroke, while the new treasurer, Sir Richard le Scrope of Bolton, a Yorkshire warrior, represented the interests of John of Gaunt, whose long absences abroad did not prevent his ultimately becoming a strong supporter of the lay policy. A subsidy of £50,000 and a statute that no new tax should be laid on wool without parliamentary assent concluded the work of this parliament.

[1] _Rot. Pad._, ii., 304.

The lay ministers did not prove as efficient as their clerical predecessors. Want of acquaintance with administrative routine led them to assess the parliamentary grant so badly that an irregular reassembling of part of the estates was necessary, when it was found that the ministers had ludicrously over-estimated the number of parishes in England among which the grant of £50,000 had been equally divided. Meanwhile the French war was proceeding worse than before. Thorpe died in 1372, and another lay chief-justice, Sir John Knyvett, succeeded him in the chancery. Pembroke, as we have seen, was taken prisoner to Santander within a few weeks of Thorpe's death. Fresh taxation was made necessary by every fresh defeat, and the clergy, who looked upon the misfortunes of the anti-clerical earl as God's punishment for his enmity to Holy Church, had their revenge against their lawyer supplanters, for the parliament of 1372 petitioned that lawyers, who used their position in parliament to advance their clients' affairs, should not be eligible for election as knights of the shire. Next year, the discontent of the estates came to a head after the failure of John of Gaunt's march from Calais to Bordeaux. The commons, by that time definitely organised as an independent house, answered the demand for fresh supplies by requesting the lords to appoint a committee of their number to confer with them on the state of the realm. The composition of the committee was not one that favoured the existing administration, and, guided by men like William of Wykeham, it made only a limited and conditional grant, which was strictly appropriated to the payment of the expenses of the war. The anti-clerical party was still strong enough to send up denunciations of papal assumptions, and the anxiety to adjust the relations between the papacy and the crown led to some abortive negotiations with the legates of Gregory XI at Bruges in 1374, which were mainly memorable for the appearance of John Wycliffe as one of the royal commissioners. Disgust at the attitude of the commons may well have postponed the next parliament for nearly three years. But the truce of Bruges made frequent parliaments less necessary.

The truce brought John of Gaunt back to England, and the rivalry between him and his elder brother, which had begun during their last joint campaigns in France, crystallised into definite parties the discordant tendencies that had been well marked since the crisis of 1371. The old king was a mere pawn in the game. His health had been broken by the debauchery and frivolity to which he had abandoned himself after the death of Queen Philippa. He was now entirely under the influence of Alice Perrers, a Hertfordshire squire's daughter, whose venality, greed, and shamelessness made her the fit tool for the self-seeking ring of courtiers. John of Gaunt sought her support as the best means of withdrawing the old king from the influence of the Prince of Wales, and the lay ministers were glad to maintain themselves in their tottering power by means of such powerful allies. Prominent among their party were courtier nobles--such as the chamberlain, Lord Latimer, and the steward of the household, Lord Neville of Raby,--and rich London financiers, chief among whom was Richard Lyons, men who made exorbitant profits out of the necessities of the administration. Faction sought to appear more respectable by professions of zeal for reform. The cry against papal encroachments was extended to a denunciation of the wealth and power of the clergy. John Wycliffe was called from his Oxford classrooms to expound the close connexion between dominion and grace, and to teach from London pulpits that the ungodly bishop or priest has no right to the temporal possessions given him on trust for the discharge of his high mission.[1]

[1] Until recently all historians have dated the beginning of Wycliffe's political career from 1366, but J. Loserth has proved that 1374, the date of the last demand for the Roman tribute, to be the right year. See his _Studien zur Kirchen-politik Englands im 14ten Jahrhundert_, in _Sitzungsberichte der Académie der Wissenschaften in Wien_, philos. histor. classe, cxxxvi., 1897, and, more briefly, in _Engl. Hist. Review, xi._ (1896), 319-328.

A vigorous opposition to the dominant faction was formed. At its head was the Black Prince. Hardly less important and much more active than the dying hero of Poitiers was Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, the husband of Philippa of Clarence, and the father of the little Roger Mortimer whom nothing but the uncertain lives of the Prince of Wales and the sickly Richard of Bordeaux separated from the English throne. Hereditary antagonism accentuated incompatibility of personal interests. The ancient feuds of the houses of Mortimer and Lancaster still lived on in the hostility of their representatives. The understanding between the Prince of Wales and the Earl of March seems to have been complete. They had as their most powerful supporters the outraged dignitaries of the Church, who saw themselves kept out of office and threatened in their temporalities by the dominant faction. William of Wykeham, who had been the guardian of the Earl of March during his long minority, was the most experienced and wary of the clerical opposition to the lawyers and courtiers of the Lancaster faction. He had an eager and enthusiastic backer in the young and high-born Bishop of London, William Courtenay, the son of the Earl of Devon, and through his mother, Margaret Bohun, a great-grandson of Edward I. Office and descent combined to make Bishop Courtenay the custodian of the constitutional tradition, which was equally strong among the great baronial houses of ancient descent and such highly placed ecclesiastics as were zealous for the nation as well as for their order. His support was the more necessary since Simon of Sudbury, who in 1375 succeeded Whittlesea on the throne of St. Augustine, was a weak and time-serving politician.

The storm, which had long been brewing, burst at last in the parliament of April, 1376. Of the acts of this memorable assembly, famous as the Good Parliament, and of the other concluding troubles of the reign we are fortunate in possessing not only copious official records, but a minute and highly dramatic account from the pen of a St. Alban's monk, who, alone of the monastic chroniclers of his age, represented the spirit which, in the days of Matthew Paris, made the great Hertfordshire abbey so famous a school of historiography.[1]

[1] _Chron. Angliæ_, 1328-88, ed. E.M. Thompson (Rolls Ser.). Compare Mr. S. Armitage-Smith's _John of Gaunt_ for an unfavourable estimate of its value.

The Good Parliament showed from the beginning a strong animosity against the courtiers. The time was not yet come when the commons could take the initiative, or supply leaders from its own ranks, and even among the commons capacity was unequally divided. Authority and influence were exclusively with the knights of the shire, and the citizens and burgesses were content to allow the country gentry to speak and act in their name. The knights of the shire demanded that, in accordance with the precedent of 1373, a committee of magnates should be associated with them in determining the policy to be adopted. The lords spiritual and temporal were as eager as the knights to attack the government, and a committee, of which the leading spirits included the Earl of March and the Bishop of London, supplied the element of direction and initiation in which the commons were lacking. The resolution which prevailed was shown by the estates agreeing to make no grant until grievances had been redressed, and by the choice of Sir Peter de la Mare as spokesman of the commons before the king. Sir Peter was elected, we are told, because he possessed abundant wisdom and eloquence, and enough boldness to say what was in his mind, regardless of the good-will of the great. Perhaps a further and more weighty reason was that he was steward of the Earl of March. He was the first person to hold an office indistinguishable in all essentials from that of the later Speaker. Under his guidance the commons worked out an elaborate policy of revenge and reform. The contempt with which John of Gaunt and the courtiers had at first regarded their action, gave place to fear. The duke found it prudent to stand aside, while a clean sweep of the administration was made.

Charges were brought against the leading ministers of state, after a fashion in which the constitutional historian sees the beginnings of the process of the removal of great offenders by impeachment. Lord Latimer was the first victim. He had appropriated the king's money to his own uses; he had shown remissness and treachery during the last campaign in Brittany; he had taken bribes; he was, in a word, "useless to king and kingdom". His fate was promptly shared by Lyons, the London merchant, the accomplice of his frauds, who had availed himself of his court influence to make a "corner" in nearly all imported articles, to the impoverishment of the common people and the disorganisation of trade. Lord Neville, whose eager partisanship of Latimer had led him to insult Sir Peter de la Mare, was threatened with similar proceedings. Even Alice Perrers was attacked, though, says the chronicler, the natural affection of Englishmen for their king was so great that they were slow to molest the lady whom the king loved. However, Alice's unblushing interference with the course of justice, her appearance in the courts at Westminster, sitting on the judges' bench, clamouring for the condemnation of her enemies and the acquittal of her friends, roused the knights of the shire to action. An ordinance against women being allowed to practise in the law courts was made the pretext for her removal from court, and Alice, fearful that worse might happen, took oath that she would have no further dealings with the king. Meantime Latimer and Lyons were condemned to forfeiture and imprisonment.

In the midst of these proceedings the knights lost their strongest support by the death of the Black Prince on June 8. John of Gaunt at once went down to the house of commons, and boldly suggested that the English should follow the example of the French and allow no woman to become heiress of the kingdom. This was a direct assertion of his own claims to stand next to the throne after Richard of Bordeaux, and before Roger Mortimer. Alarmed at the blow thus levelled against their chief remaining champion, the knights courageously held to their position. "The king," said they, "though old is still healthy, and may outlive us all. Moreover he has an heir in the ten-year-old prince Richard. While these are alive there is no need to discuss the question of the succession." They completed the drawing up of the long list of petitions, whose grudging and partial acceptance by the crown made the roll of the parliament of 1376 memorable as asserting principles, if not as vindicating practical ends. They forced Lancaster to agree to a council of twelve peers nominated in parliament to act as a standing committee of advisers, without which the king might do nothing of any importance. After this revival of the methods of the Mad Parliament and the lords ordainers, the Good Parliament separated on July 6. It had sat longer than any previous parliament of which there is record. It had persevered to the end in the teeth of discouragements of all kinds, and, even after his brother's death, Duke John dared not lift up his hand against it so long as the session continued.

When the estates separated Lancaster threw off the mask. The king, sunk in extreme dotage, was entirely in the hands of his unscrupulous son. The old man was kept quiet by the return of Alice Perrers to court. She had sworn on the rood never to see the king again, but the prelates were "like dumb dogs unable to bark" against her; and no effort was made to prosecute her for perjury. Latimer and Lyons returned from their luxurious imprisonment in the Tower to their places at court. The duke roundly declared that the late parliament was no parliament at all. No statute was based upon its petitions, the council of twelve was rudely dissolved, and Sir Peter de la Mare was imprisoned in Nottingham castle. William of Wykeham was deprived of his temporalities, and the rumour spread that his disgrace was due to his possession of a state secret, revealed to him by the dying queen Philippa, that John of Gaunt was no true son of the royal pair but a changeling. So timid was the disgraced bishop that he vied with the weak primate in his subserviency to Alice. The Earl of March, who was marshal of England, was ordered to inspect the fortresses beyond sea, whereupon, fearing a plot to assassinate him, he resigned his office, "preferring," says a friend, "to lose his marshal's staff rather than his life". The powerful north-country lord, Henry Percy, who had hitherto acted with the opposition, was bribed by the office of marshal to join the Lancastrian party.

Grave difficulties still beset the government, and in January, 1377, John of Gaunt had to face another parliament. Every precaution was taken to pack the commons with his partisans. Of the knights of the shire of the Good Parliament only eight were members of its successor,[1] while in the place of the imprisoned De la Mare, Sir Thomas Hungerford, steward of the Duke of Lancaster, was chosen Speaker, on this occasion by that very name. A packed committee of lords was assigned to advise the commons. In these circumstances it was not difficult to procure the reversal of the acts against Alice Perrers and Latimer, and the grant of a poll tax of a groat a head. The only measure of conciliation was a general pardon, a pretext for which was found in the jubilee of the king's accession. From this William of Wykeham was expressly excepted.

[1] _Return of Members of Parliament_, pt. i., 193-97; _Chron. Angliæ_, p. 112, understates the case.

The convocation of Canterbury proved less accommodating than the parliament. Under the able leadership of Bishop Courtenay, it took up the cause of the Bishop of Winchester, refused to join in a grant of money until he had taken his place in convocation, and, triumphing at last over the time-serving of Sudbury and the hesitation of Wykeham himself, persuaded the bishop to join their deliberations. Lancaster met the opposition of convocation by calling to his aid the Oxford doctor whom the clergy had already begun to look upon as the enemy of the privileges of their order. Wycliffe was not as yet under suspicion of direct dogmatic heresy. He had not yet clothed himself in the armour of his Balliol predecessor, Fitzralph, to wage war against the mendicant orders. But he had already formulated his theory that dominion was founded on grace, had declared that the pope had no right to excommunicate any one, or if he had that any simple priest could absolve the culprit from his sentence, and he had shown a hatred so bitter of clerical worldliness and clerical property that he was looked upon as the special enemy of the great land-holding prelates and of the "possessioner" monks, whose lands, he maintained, could be resumed by the representatives of the donors at their will. The strenuous advocate for reducing the clergy to apostolic poverty was not likely to find favour among the prelates. Wycliffe's only clerical supporters at this stage were the mendicant friars, from whose characteristic opinions as regards "evangelical poverty" he never at any time swerved.[1] He was, however, eloquent and zealous, and he had a following. Fear either of Wycliffe or of his mendicant allies forced the bishops to take decisive action. Even Sudbury awoke, "as from deep sleep".[2] The duke's dangerous supporter was summoned to answer before the bishops at St. Paul's.

[1] Shirley (preface to _Fasciculi Zizaniorum,_ Rolls Ser., p. xxvi.) thought that Wycliffe was "the sworn foe of the mendicants" in 1377, and E.M. Thompson's emphatic words repudiating the contrary statement of the St. Alban's writer, _Chron. Anglice,_ p. liii., illustrate the view prevalent in England in 1874. Lechler's _Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation,_ published in 1873 proves that it was not until Wycliffe denied the doctrine of transubstantiation in 1379 or 1380 that the friars deserted him.

[2] _Chron. Anglice_, p. 117.

On February 19, Wycliffe appeared in Courtenay's cathedral. Four mendicant doctors of divinity, chosen by Lancaster, came with him to defend him against the "possessioners," while the Duke of Lancaster himself, and Henry Percy, the new marshal, also accompanied him to overawe the bishops by their authority. The court was to be held in the lady chapel at the east end of the cathedral, and Wycliffe and his friends found some difficulty in making their way through the dense crowd that filled the spacious nave and aisles. Percy, irritated at the pressure of the throng, began to force it back in virtue of his office. Courtenay ordered that the marshal should exercise no authority in his cathedral. Thereupon Percy in a rage declared that he would act as marshal in the church, whether the bishop liked it or not. When the lady chapel was reached, there was further disputing as to whether Wycliffe should sit or stand, and Lancaster taunted Courtenay for trusting overmuch to the greatness of his family. When the bishop replied with equal spirit, John muttered: "I would liefer drag him out of his church by the hair of his head than put up with such insolence". The words were overheard, and the Londoners, who hated the duke, broke into open riot at this insult to their bishop. It was rumoured that the duke had come to St. Paul's, hot from an attack on the liberties of the city that very morning in parliament. The court broke up in wild confusion, and the riot spread from church to city. Next day Percy's house was pillaged, and John's palace of the Savoy attacked. The duke and the marshal were forced to seek the protection of their opponent, the Princess of Wales, at Kennington. The followers of Lancaster could only escape rough treatment by hiding away their lord's badges. The citizens cried that the Bishop of Winchester and Peter de la Mare should have a fair trial. At last the personal authority of Bishop Courtenay restored his unruly flock to order. The old king performed his last public act by soothing the spokesmen of the citizens with the pleasant words and easy grace of which he still was master. The Princess of Wales used her influence for peace, and matters were smoothed over.

At some risk of personal humiliation, Lancaster secured a substantial triumph. Convocation followed the lead of parliament and gave an ample subsidy. William of Wykeham purchased the restoration of his temporalities by an unworthy deference to Alice Perrers. Wycliffe remained powerful, flattered, and consulted, though his enemies had already drawn up secret articles against him, which they had forwarded to the papal _curia_. Perhaps in the rapidly declining health of the king all parties saw that their real interest lay in the postponement of a crisis.

In June Edward lay on his deathbed at Sheen. To the last his talk was all of hawking and hunting, and his mistress carefully kept from him all knowledge of his desperate condition. When he sank into his last lethargy, his courtiers deserted him, and Alice Perrers took to flight after robbing him of the very rings on his fingers. A simple priest, brought to the bedside by pity, performed for the half-conscious king the last offices of religion. Edward was just able to kiss the cross and murmur "Jesus have mercy". On June 21, 1377, he breathed his last.

With Edward's death we break off a narrative whose course is but half run. John of Gaunt's rule was not over; Wycliffe was advancing from discontent to revolt; Chaucer was yet to rise for a higher flight; Langland had not yet put his complaint into its permanent form; the French war was renewed almost on the day of Edward's death; popular irritation against bad government, and social and economic repression were still preparing for the revolt of 1381. With all its defects the age of Edward is preeminently a strong age. Greedy, self-seeking, rough, and violent it may be; its passions and rivalries combined to make futile the exercise of its strength; it sounded the revolutionary note of all abrupt ages of transition, and it ends in disaster and demoralisation at home and abroad. But government is not everything, and least of all in the Middle Ages when what was then thought vigorous government appears miserably weak to modern notions. The strong rule decayed with the failure of the king's personal vigour. The ministers of Edward's dotage could not hold France nor even keep England quiet. England had grown impatient of the rule of a despot, though she was not yet able to govern herself after a constitutional fashion. It is in the incompatibility of the political ideals of royal authority and constitutional control, not less than in the want of purpose of her ruler and in the factions of her nobles that the explanation of the period must be sought. The age of Edward III. has been alternatively decried and exalted. Both verdicts are true, but neither contains the whole truth. The explanation of both is to be found in the annals of a later age.

APPENDIX.

ON AUTHORITIES.

(1216-1377.)

Our two main sources of knowledge for medieval history are records and chronicles. Chronicles are more accessible, easier to study, more continuous, readable, and coloured than records can generally be. Yet the record far excels the chronicle in scope, authority, and objectivity, and a prime characteristic of modern research is the increasing reliance on the record rather than the chronicle as the sounder basis of historical investigation. The medieval archives of England, now mainly collected in the Public Record Office, are unrivalled by those of any other country. From the accession of Henry III. several of the more important classes of records have become copious and continuous, while in the course of the reign nearly all the chief groups of documents have made a beginning. The whole of the period 1216 to 1377 can therefore be well studied in them.

A large proportion of our archives is taken up with common forms, technicalities, and petty detail. It will never be either possible or desirable to print the mass of them _in extenso_, and most of the efforts made to render them accessible have taken the form of calendars, catalogues, and inventories. Such attempts began with the costly and unsatisfactory labours of the Record Commission (dissolved in 1836); and in recent years the work has again been taken up and pursued on better lines. The folio volumes of the Record Commission only remain so far of value as they have not been superseded by the more scholarly octavo calendars which are now being issued under the direction of the deputy-keeper of the records. These latter are all accompanied by copious indices which, though not always to be trusted implicitly, immensely facilitate the use of them. The records were preserved by the various royal courts. Of special importance for the political historian are the records of the Chancery and Exchequer.

Prominent among the Chancery records are the PATENT ROLLS, strips of parchment sewn together continuously for each regnal year, whereon are inscribed copies of the letters patent of the sovereign, so called because they were sent out open, with the great seal pendent. Beginning in 1200, they present a continuous series throughout all our period, except for 23 and 24 Henry III. The publication of the complete Latin text of the _Patent Rolls of Henry III._ is now in progress, and two volumes have been issued, including respectively the years 1216-1225 and 1225-1232. From the accession of Edward I. onwards the bulk of the rolls renders the method of a calendar in English more desirable. The _Calendars of the Patent Rolls_ are now complete from 1272 to 1324 and from 1327 to 1348 (Edward I., 4 vols.; Edward II., 4 vols.; Edward III., 7 vols.). For the years not thus yet dealt with the unsatisfactory _Calendarium Rotulorum Patentium_ (1802, fol.) may still sometimes be of service.

The letters close, or sealed letters addressed to individuals, usually of inferior public interest to the letters patent are preserved in the CLOSE ROLLS, compiled in the same fashion as the Patent Rolls. The whole extant rolls from 1204 to 1227 are printed in _Rotuli Literarum Clausarum_ (2 vols. fol., 1833 and 1844, Rec. corn.), and it is proposed to continue the integral publication of the text for the rest of Henry III.'s reign on the same plan as that of the Patent Rolls. One volume of this continuation, 1227-1231 (8vo, 1902), has been issued. For the subsequent periods a calendar in English is being prepared similar in type to the _Calendar of Patent Rolls_. The periods at present covered by the _Calendar of Close Rolls_ (1892-1905) are, Edward I., 1272-1296 (3 vols.): Edward II., the whole of the reign (4 vols.), and Edward III., 1327-1349 (8 vols.).

A third series of records preserved by the Chancery officials is the ROLLS OF PARLIAMENT, including the petitions, pleas, and other parliamentary proceedings. None of these are extant before 1278, and the series for the succeeding century is often interrupted. Many of them are printed in the first two folios (vol. i., Edward I. and II.; vol. ii., Edward III.) of _Rotuli Parliamentorum_ (1767-1777). A copious index volume was issued in 1832. A specimen of what may still be looked for is to be found in Professor Maitland's edition of one of the earliest rolls of parliament in _Memoranda de Parliamento_ (1305) (Rolls series, 1893) with an admirable introduction. For the reigns of Edward I. and II. the deficiencies of the published rolls are supplemented by SIR F. PALGRAVE'S _Parliamentary Writs and Writs of Military Service_ (vol. i., 1827, Edward I.; vol. ii., 1834, Edward II., fol., Rec. Corn.) with alphabetical digests and indices.

Formal grants under the great seal called _Charters_, characterised by a "salutation" clause, the names of attesting witnesses, and, under Henry III. after 1227, by the final formula _data per manum nostram apud_, etc., and implying normally the presence of the king, are contained in the CHARTER ROLLS, extant from the reign of John onwards. They are roughly analysed in the _Calendarium Rotulorum Chartarum_ (1803, Rec. Com.); and the _Rotuli Chartarum_ (fol., 1837, Rec. Corn.) contains the rolls _in extenso_ up to 1216, Vol. i., 1226-1257, of an English _Calendar of Charter Rolls_, printing some of the documents in full, was published in 1903.

The documents formerly known as ESCHEAT ROLLS, or INQUISITIONES POST MORTEM, are concerned with the inquiries made by the Crown on the death of every landholder as to the extent and character of his holding. Some of the information contained in these inquests was made accessible in the _Calendarium Inquisitionum sive Eschætarum_ (vol. i., Henry III., Edward I. and II., 1806; vol. ii., Edward III., 1808, fol., Rec. Corn.). The errors and omissions of these volumes were partially remedied for the reigns of Henry III. and Edward I. by C. ROBERTS'S _Calendarium Genealogicum_ (2 vols. 8vo, 1865). A scholarly guide to all this class of documents has been begun in the new _Calendar of Inquisitions Post Mortem and other Analogous Documents_, of which vol. i. (Henry III.) was issued in 1904. The first volume of a separate list of the analogous inquisitions _Ad pod damnum_ is also announced.

Of the FINE ROLLS containing the records of fines[1] made with the Crown for licence to alienate, exemption from service, wardships, pardons, etc., those of Henry III. have been made accessible in C. ROBERTS'S _Excerpta e Rotulis Finium_, 1216-1272 (1835-36, 8vo). Other rolls such as the LIBERATE ROLLS have not yet been published for the reigns here treated.

[1] A _fine_ in this technical sense is an agreement arrived at by a money transaction.

Of special or local rolls, preserved in the Chancery, the most important for our period are the GASCON ROLLS. The earlier documents called by this name are not exclusively concerned with the affairs of Gascony; they are miscellaneous documents enrolled for convenience in common parchments by reason of the presence of the king in his Aquitanian dominions. Of these are F. MICHEL'S _Roles Gascons_, vol. i., published in the French government series of _Documents Inédits sur l'Histoire de France_ (1885), including a "fragmentum rotuli Vasconiæ," 1242-1243, and "patentes littere facte in Wasconia," 1253-1254, years in which Henry III. was actually in Gascony. This publication was resumed in 1896 by M. CHARLES BÉMONT'S _Supplément_ to Michel's imperfect volume, containing innumerable corrections, an index, introduction, and some additional rolls of 1254 and 1259-1260. The later of these, the roll of Edward's delegated administration, is the first exclusively devoted to the concerns of Gascony. "Gascon Rolls" in this later sense begin with Edward I.'s accession, and M. Bémont has undertaken their publication for the whole of Edward's reign from photographs of the records supplied by the English to the French government. In 1900 vol. ii. of the _Roles Gascons,_ containing the years 1273-1290, was issued. Other classes of Chancery Rolls accessible in print are _Rotuli Scotiæ,_ 1291-1516 (2 vols., 1814-1819, Rec. Corn.), and _Rotuli Walliæ_, 5-9 Edward I., privately printed by Sir Thomas Phillipps (1865). Among isolated Chancery records the _Rotuli Hundredorum_ (Rec. Corn., 2 vols. fol., 1812-1818), containing the very important inquests made by Edward I.'s commissioners into the franchises of the barons, may specially be noticed here.

Of not less importance than the Chancery records are those handed down from the Court of Exchequer. The most famous of these, the PIPE ROLLS, which, unlike the Chancery Enrolments, were "filed" or sewn skin by skin, are decreasingly important from the thirteenth century onwards as compared with their value for the twelfth. For this reason the Pipe Roll Society, founded in 1883, only undertook their publication up to 1200. Fragments of Pipe Rolls for our period can be seen in print in various local histories and transactions, as e.g., "Pipe Rolls of Northumberland" up to 1272 in HODGSON-HINDE'S History of Northumberland, pt. iii., vol. iii., and 1273-1284, ed. Dickson (Newcastle, 1854-60), and of Notts and Derby (translated extracts) in YEATMAN's _History of Derby_ (1886). The only gap in our series is for Henry III. Of other Exchequer records we may mention: (i) the ORIGINALIA ROLLS, containing the estreats or documents from the Chancery informing the Exchequer of moneys due to it, beginning in 20 Henry III., a summary of which is published in _Rotulorum Originalium_ in Curia _Scaccarii Abbreviatio,_ 20 Henry III,-51 Edward III (2 vols. fol., Rec. Corn., 1805-1810); (2) the MEMORANDA ROLLS, containing records of charges upon the Exchequer, etc., are complete for this period. They were kept by the king's and the treasurer's remembrancer, and are illustrated in print by extracts from the Memoranda Rolls, 1297, in _Transactions of the Royal Hist. Soc.,_ new series, iii., 281-291(1886), and by the roll of 3 Henry III. in COOPER'S _Proceedings of the Record Commissioners_ (1833); (3) MINISTERS ACCOUNTS, i.e., accounts of royal bailiffs, etc., for royal manors, etc., not included in the sheriffs' accounts, beginning with Edward I., of which a list is given in the _P.R.O. Lists and Indexes_, Nos. v. and viii.; (4) of the PELL RECORDS, recording issues and payments, samples given in DEVON'S _Issues of the Exchequer_ (Rec. Corn., 8vo, 1837), DEVON'S _Issue Roll of Thomas of Brantingham in_ 1370 (Rec. Corn., 8vo, 1835). The pells of receipt were entered on the (5) RECEIPT ROLLS, specimens of which, along with the corresponding issues, are to be found in SIR JAMES RAMSAY'S abstracts of issue and receipt rolls for certain years of Edward III. in the _Antiquary_(1880-1888); (6) SUBSIDY ROLLS of various types, illustrated by _Nonarum Inquisitiones tempore Edwardi ZZZ._ (Rec. Corn., 1807), the record of a subsidy of a ninth collected by Edward III. in 1340-1341; (7) WARDROBE and HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS containing for the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries information on national as well as private royal finance; specimens in print include the important _Liber Quotidianus Contra-rotulatoris Garderobæ_, 28 _Ed. I._(1299-1300), (1787, Soc. Antiq.).

From the Exchequer records come also the following: (1) _Testa de Neville sive Liber Feodorum temp. Hen. ZZZ. et Edw. I._ (Rec. Corn., fol., 1807), a miscellaneous and ill-digested but valuable collection of thirteenth century inquisitions; (2) _Nomina Villarum, g_ Ed. II., published in PALGRAVE'S _Parl. Writs_, ii., iii., 301-416; (3) _Kirkby's Quest, a_ survey made by Bishop Kirkby, the treasurer, in 1284-85, of which the Yorkshire portion has been printed by the Surtees Soc., ea. Skaife (1867), and other portions elsewhere; (4) _Taxatio Ecclesiastica Angliæ et Walliæ_, 1291 (Rec. Corn., 1802), the taxation of benefices by Nicholas IV. by which assessments of papal and ecclesiastical taxes were long made. A very useful compilation, recently undertaken under the direction of the deputy-keeper, is _Inquisitions and Assessments relating to Feudal Aids_, 1284-1431, of which three volumes, dealing in alphabetical order with the shires from Bedford to Norfolk, are published Cheshire and Durham are entirely omitted and Lancashire very scantily dealt with as exceptional jurisdictions. The work is based upon the various lay records enumerated above and other analogous inquests. Ancient compilations of miscellaneous documents by officials of the Exchequer are exemplified in _Liber Niger Scaccarii_ (ed. Hearne, 2 vols., 1774), and in the _Red Book of the Exchequer_ (ed. H. Hall, 3 vols., Rolls ser., 1896).

The records of the common law courts, the King's Bench and the Court of Common Pleas, are of less direct historical value than those of the Chancery and the Exchequer. Extraordinarily bulky, they require a good deal of sifting to sort the wheat from the chaff. As yet a very small proportion of them has been printed, and few have even been calendared. A brief index of them has been compiled in the useful _List of Plea Rolls_ (1894, _P.R.O. Lists and Indexes_, No. iv.). Of the various types of these records the FEET OF FINES have been largely used by the topographer and genealogist, and the feet of fines for many counties during this period have been calendared, summarised, excerpted, and printed, wholly or in part, by local archaeological societies, as for example, W. FARRER'S _Lancashire Final Concords till 1307_ (Rec. Soc. for Lancashire and Cheshire, 1899), and many others. The PLEA ROLLS are of wider importance. For the days of Henry III. _Placita Coram Rege_ (_i.e._, of the King's Bench) and the _Placita de Banco_ (_i.e._, of the Common Pleas in later phrase) are classified as _Rotuli Curiæ Regis_, while the rolls of the local eyres for the same period are called _Assize Rolls_. Separate series for each court begin with Edward I. Specimens of most of these types have been printed. _Placitorum Abbreviatio Ric. I.--Edw. II._ (Rec. Com., fol., 1811) is a careless seventeenth century abstract. _Placita de Quo Warranto_, Edward I. to Edward III. (Rec. Com., fol., 1818), is a record of local eyres of particular importance for the reign of Edward I. as the corollary of the Hundred Rolls and the attack on the local franchises. HUNTER'S _Rotuli Selecti_ (Rec. Com., 1834) contains pleas of the reign of Henry III. A typical year's pleadings of the King's Bench for 1297 is given in full in PHILLIMORE's _Placita coram rege_, 25 Edward I. (1898, British Rec. Soc.). Selections from the proceedings of the commission appointed by Edward I. in 1289 to hear complaints against judges and officials will shortly be published by Miss Hilda Johnstone and myself for the Royal Historical Society. Of special importance are the plea rolls issued by the Selden Society, which include for our period F.W. MAITLAND'S _Select Pleas of the Crown_, 1200-1225; BAILDON'S _Select Chancery Pleas_, 1364-1471; J.M. RIGG'S _Select Pleas of the Jewish Exchequer_; and G.J. TURNER'S _Select Pleas of the Forest_; all have translations and introductions, of which those of Professor Maitland are of exceptional value.

To these types must be added the records of the local courts, now largely also in the Public Record Office, though vast numbers of court rolls and manorial documents are still in private hands, and among the archives of ecclesiastical and secular corporations. The Selden Society has done excellent work in publishing such muniments; as in particular, MAITLAND'S _Select Pleas in Manorial Courts_, vol. i., Henry III. and Edward I., illustrating the social and legal life of a medieval village; MAITLAND and BAILDON'S _Court Baron_; HUNTER' s _Leet Jurisdiction of Norwich_; C. GROSS's _Select Cases from the Coroners' Rolls_, 1265-1413. The records of the Bishopric of Durham, the County Palatine of Chester, the Principality of Wales, and the Duchy of Lancaster are deposited in the Public Record Office, and calendars and lists scattered over the _Deputy-Keeper of the Records' Reports_ throw some light on their contents. Unluckily these records of franchise are incompletely preserved and often in bad condition. The best preserved for our period are the Durham records, described in LAPSLEY'S County _Palatine of Durham_, pp. 327-337 (Harvard Historical Studies); some of the most important are printed in _Registrum Palatinum Dunelmense_, ed. Hardy (Rolls Series, 4 vols.), which is also an Episcopal register. Welsh records may be illustrated by the _Record of Carnarvon_ (Rec. Corn., fol., 1838). Academic records are illustrated by the Oxford _Munimenta Academica_ (ed. Anstey), Rolls Series. Municipal records are very numerous and important; full particulars as to them can be found in C. Gross's _Bibliography of British Municipal History_ (Harvard Hist. Studies). Admirably edited examples of our wealth of municipal records for this period are to be found in _Records of the Borough of Nottingham_ (ed. W.H. Stevenson), vol. i. (1882); _Records of the Borough of Leicester_ (ed. Mary Bateson), vols. i. and ii. (1899 and 1901); and _Munimenta Gildhallæ Londoniensis_ (ed. H.T. Riley), Rolls Series. The _Reports of the Historical Manuscripts Commission_ afford much information as to every type of document in private or local custody. Ireland and Scotland have archives of their own; but there are no systematic records in the Register House at Edinburgh before the War of Independence. Among the enterprises now abandoned of the Public Record Office were _Calendars of Documents relating to Scotland and Ireland_. The Scottish series covers all this period (vols. i.-iv.), the Irish was stopped at 1307. They are derived, by a rather arbitrary selection, from various classes of English records, but contain much valuable material. JOSEPH STEVENSON'S _Documents illustrating the History of Scotland_ (1286-1306) (Scot. Rec. Publications, 1870), and PALGRAVE'S Documents _and Records illustrating the History of Scotland_ (Rec. Corn., 1837), are useful for the reign of Edward I. as are for limited periods of it the _Wallace Papers_ (Maitland Club, 1841) and _Scotland in 1298_ (ed. Gough, 1888).

A new class of records begins in the thirteenth century with BISHOPS' REGISTERS. These, so far as they survive, are preserved in the diocesan registries. Of printed registers for this period the most important is MARTIN'S _Registrum Epistolarum J. Peckham_ (3 vols., Rolls Series, 1882-1886), the earliest surviving Canterbury register. Other registers printed or calendared are HINGESTON-RANDOLPH'S _Exeter Registers_, 1257-1291, 1307-1326, and 1327-1369 (5 vols., 1889, etc.); excerpts, particularly from the York registers, in RAINE'S _Letters from the Northern Registers,_ Rolls Series; the two oldest York _Registers_ of ARCHBISHOPS WALTER GREY (1215-1255) and WALTER GIFFARD (1266-1279), both in Surtees Society; the Wells _Registers_ of BPS. DROKENSFORD, 1309-1329, and RALPH OF SHREWSBURY, 1329-1363 (Somerset Record Society); the Worcester _Register_ of BP. GIFFARD, 1268-1302 (Worcester Historical Society); the Winchester _Registers_ of BISHOPS SANDALE and RIGAUD, 1316-1323, and WYKEHAM, 1366-1404 (Hampshire Record Society). A society called the Canterbury and York Society has recently been started to set forth episcopal registers systematically in print. It has begun to publish the earliest Lincoln _Register_ extant, that of Hugh of Wells, bishop of Lincoln, 1209-1235, whose _Liber Antiquus de Ordinatione Vicariorum_ was printed in 1888. Analogous documents are LUARD'S _Rob. Grosseteste Epistola_ (Roll Series, 1861), and the like.

Monastic CARTULARIES are less important for general history in this than in previous periods; large masses of monastic records of this age have survived, not a tithe of which is to be found in DUGDALE'S _Monasticon_. Some monastic records illustrate the domestic economy or religious life of the house as KIRK'S _Accounts of the Obedientiaries of Abingdon,_ 1322-1479 (Camden Soc.); J.W. CLARK's _Observances in use at Barnwell Priory,_ 1295-1296(1897), and the like.

For this period by far the most important series of foreign records is the magnificent collections of the papacy. A summary of many of these is to be found in BLISS, JOHNSON, and TWEMLOW's _Calendars of Papal Registers illustrating the History of Great Britain and Ireland; Papal Letters_ (vols. i.-iv., 1198-1404), and _Petitions to the Pope_ (vol. i., 1342-1419), of special importance for the fourteenth century. These useful calendars, however, do not always dispense us from consulting the grand series of papal records published or analysed under the care of the French School of Rome, which has not yet sufficiently been studied in this country. This enterprise is divided into two sections. In the first the _Registers from Gregory IX. to Benedict XI._ are in course of publication; in the second the letters of the Avignon popes relating to France are printed or analysed. Portions of the letters of John XXII, Benedict XII, and Clement VI, are already issued. PRESSUTI has published one volume of the _Registers of Honorius III_ (1888). From the Vatican archives also comes THEINER'S _Vetera Monumenta Hib. et Scot. Historiam illustrantia_ (1864), beginning in 1216.

Extracts from various archives are found in such collections as RYMER's _Foedera_ of which the Record Commission's edition in folio reaches just beyond the end of this period; WILKINS'S _Concilia_ (1737), containing many extracts from episcopal registers and canons of councils; HADDAN and STUBBS'S _Councils_, vol. i. (for the thirteenth century Welsh Church); CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC'S _Lettres des Rois et des Reines d'Angleterre_ (2 vols., 1847, _Doc. Inédits_); STUBBS'S _Select Charters_ (Henry III. and Edward I.), and BÉMONT'S excellent _Chartes des Libertés anglaises_ in the _Collection de Textes pour l'Étude et l'Enseignement de l'Histoire_. Equally useful is COSNEAU'S _Grands Traités de la Guerre de Cent Ans_ also in the same _Collection de Textes_. The _Statutes of the Realm_ (vol. i., fol., 1810) contains the text of the laws and of the great charters of this period.

Chronicles, with all their deficiencies, must ever be largely used as sources of continuous historical narrative. For the thirteenth century our chief reliance must still be placed upon the annals drawn up in various monasteries, some based upon little more than gossip or hearsay, others showing real efforts to acquire authentic information. The greatest centre of historical composition in thirteenth-century England was the Abbey of St. Alban's, whose chronicles form so important a series that they may appropriately be considered as a whole, before the other chroniclers are dealt with in approximately chronological order. The fame of St. Alban's as a school of history had its origin in the order of Abbot Simon (d. 1183) that the house should always appoint a special historiographer. The first of these whose work is now extant is ROGER OF WENDOVER (d. 1236), whose _Flores Historiarum_ (ed. H.O. Coxe, Engl. Hist. Soc., 1842, or ed. Hewlett, Rolls Series, 1886-89--this latter edition is unscholarly) becomes original in 1216 and remains a chief source, copious and interesting, if not always precise, until 1235. On Wendover's death, MATTHEW PARIS, who took the monastic habit in 1217, became the official St. Alban's chronicler. His great work, the _Chronica Majora_, is, up to 1235, little more than an expansion and embellishment of Wendover. He re-edited Wendover's work with a patriotic and anti-curialist bias quite alien to the spirit of the earlier writer, whose version should preferably be followed. Paris's book is a first-hand source from 1235 to 1259. The narrative of the years 1254-1259 is considerably later in composition to the history of the period 1235-1253, since on reaching 1253 Paris devoted himself to an abridgment of what he had already written, called the _Historia Minor_. On completing this he resumed his earlier book, and carried it on to the eve of his death in 1259, though he did not live to complete its final revision; that was the work of another monk who added a picture of his death-bed. The _Chronica Majora_ has been excellently edited by Dr. H.R. Luard in seven volumes for the Rolls Series, with elaborate introductions tracing the literary history of the work and a magnificent index. The _Historia Minor_ has been published in three volumes by Sir F. Madden in the Rolls Series. Paris also wrote the lives of the abbots of his house up to 1255, a work not now extant, and the basis of the later _Gesta Abbatum S. Albani_, compiled by Thomas Walsingham (d. 1422?) and likewise issued in the Rolls Series. The thirteenth century biographies have some original value. Paris's _Life_ of _Stephen Langton_ is printed in LIEBERMANN'S _Ungedruckte Anglo-Normannische Geschichtsquellen_ (1870).

Paris, perhaps the greatest historian of the Middle Ages, has literary skill, a vivid though prolix style, a keen eye for the picturesque, bold and independent judgment, wonderful breadth and range, and an insatiable curiosity. He was a man of the world, a courtier and a scholar; he took immense pains to collect his facts from documents and eye-witnesses, and had great advantages in this respect through the intimate relations between his house and the court. Henry III himself contributed many items of information to him. His details are extraordinarily full, and he tells us almost as much about continental affairs as about those of his own country. He wrote with too flowing a pen to be careful about precision, and had too much love of the picturesque to resist the temptation of embellishing a good story. His narrative of continental transactions is in particular extremely inexact. But the chief cause of his offending also gives special value to his work; he was a man of strong views and his sympathies and prejudices colour every line he wrote. His standpoint is that of a patriotic Englishman, indignant at the alien invasions, at the misgovernment of the king, the greed of the curialists and the Poitevins, and with a professional bias against the mendicants. His writings make his age live.

The falling off in the St. Alban's work of the next generation is characteristic of the decay of colour and detail which makes the chroniclers of the age of Edward I. inferior to those of his father's reign. The years after 1259 were briefly chronicled by uninspired continuators of Matthew Paris, and the reputation of St. Alban's as a school of history led to the frequent transference of their annals to other religious houses, where they were written up by local pens. This led to the dissemination of the series of jejune compilations which in the ages of Edward I. and II. were widely spread under the name of _Flores Historiarum_. Dr. Luard has published a critical edition of these _Flores_ in three volumes of the Rolls Series, which range from the creation to 1326, with an introduction determining their complicated relations to each other. They are of no real value before 1259, and for the next sixty-seven years are only important by reason of the defects of our other sources. No unity or colour can be expected in books handed from house to house and kept up to date by jottings by different hands. The ascription of these _Flores_ to a conjectural Matthew of Westminster by earlier editors is groundless. Dr. C. Horstmann, _Nova Legenda Anglie_, i., pp. xlix. _seq._(1901), maintains that John of Tynemouth's _Historia Aurea_, still in manuscript, is the official St. Alban's history from 1327 to 1377.

In the reign of Edward I. the credit of the school of St. Alban's was revived to some extent by WILLIAM RISHANGER, who made his profession in 1271 and died early in the reign of Edward II. To him is assigned a chronicle ranging from 1259 to 1306 published by H.T. Riley in the volume _Willelmi Rishanger et Anonymorum Chronica et Annales_ (Rolls Series). Rishanger's authorship of the portion 1259-1272 is more probable than that of the section 1272-1306, which, not compiled before 1327, is almost certainly by another hand, and the attribution of even the earlier section to Rishanger is doubted by so competent an authority as M. Bémont. The compilation is frigid and unequal. Of the miscellaneous contents of Mr. Riley's volume, the short _Gesta Edwardi I._ (pp. 411-423), of no great value, is clearly Rishanger's work. We may also ascribe to Rishanger the _Narratio de Bellis apud Lewes et Evesham_ (ed. Halliwell, Camden Soc., 1840), which tells the story of the Barons' Wars with vigour, detail, and insight. Written by a true inheritor of the prejudices of Matthew Paris, this chronicle is a eulogy of Montfort. It was put together not before 1312.

Another volume of _Chroniclers of St. Alban's_ was edited by Mr. Riley for the Rolls Series in 1860. Three of its chronicles concern our period. These are: (1) _Opus Chronicorum_, 1259-1296, a source of "Rishanger's" chronicle; (2) J. DE TROKELOWE'S _Annales_, 1307-1322; (3) H. DE BLANEFORDE'S _Chronica_ (1323). These last two are important for Edward II.'s reign. After these works, historical writing further declined at St. Alban's. At the end of our period, however, another true disciple of Matthew Paris was found in the St. Alban's monk who added to a jejune compilation for the years 1328 to 1370 a vivid and personal narrative of the years 1376-1388, our chief source for the history of the last year of Edward III.'s reign. In his bitter prejudice against John of Gaunt and his clerical allies, such as Wychffe and the mendicants, the monk is so outspoken that his book was suppressed, and most manuscripts leave out the more offensive passages. It has been edited by Sir E. Maunde Thompson as _Chronicon Angliæ_, 1328-1388 (Rolls Series). Before that its contents, like that of other St. Alban's annals, were partially known through the fifteenth century compilation under the name of a St. Alban's monk, THOMAS OF WALSINGHAM, whose _Historia Anglicana_ (2 vols., Rolls Series, ed. Riley) is not an authority for our period.

For the early years of Henry III. we have besides Wendover's _Flores_: (i) The CANON OF BARNWELL'S continuation of Howden published in STUBBS'S _Memoriale Fratris Walteri de Coventria_ (Rolls Series), written in 1227 and copious for the years 1216-1225. (2) RALPH OF COGGESHALL's _Chronicon Anglicanum_ (ed. Stevenson, Rolls Series), ending at 1227 and important for its last twelve years. (3) The _Histoire des Ducs de Normandie et des Rois d'Angleterre_, which, published by F. Michel in 1840 (Soc. de l'histoire de France), was first appreciated at its full value by M. Petit-Dutaillis in the _Revue Historique_. tome 2 (1892). (4) The _Chronique de l'Anonyme de Béthune_ printed in 1904 in vol. xxiv. of the _Recueil des Historiens de la France_. (5) A French rhyming chronicle, the _Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal_, discovered and edited by P. Meyer for the Soc. de l'histoire de France. Written by a minstrel of the younger Marshal from materials supplied by the regent's favourite squire, it is, though poetry and panegyric, an important source for Marshal's regency.

St. Alban's was not the only religious house that concerned itself with the production of chronicles. Other _Annales Monastici_ have been edited in five volumes (Rolls Series, vol. v. is the index) by Dr. Luard. They are of special importance for the reign of Henry III. In vol. i. the meagre annals of the Glamorganshire abbey of Margam only extend to 1232. The _Annals of Tewkesbury_ are useful from 1200 to 1263, and specially for the history of the Clares, the patrons of that house. The Annals of Burton-upon-Trent illustrate the years 1211 to 1261 with somewhat intermittent light, and are of unique value for the period of the Provisions of Oxford, containing many official documents. Vol. ii. includes the _Annals_ of _Winchester_ and _Waverley_. The former, extending to 1277, though mainly concerned with local affairs are useful for certain parts of the reign of Henry III., and particularly for the years 1267-1277. The annals of the Cistercian house of Waverley, near Farnham, go down to 1291. From 1259 to 1266 the narrative is contemporary and valuable; from 1266 to 1275, and partly from 1275 to 1277 it is borrowed from the Winchester Annals; from 1277 to its abrupt end it is again of importance. The _Annals of Bermondsey_ in vol. iii. are a fifteenth century compilation. The _Annals_ of the Austin canons of _Dunstable_ are of great value, especially from the year 1201, when they become original, down to 1242. This section is written by RICHARD DE MORINS, prior of Dunstable from 1202 to 1242. After his death the annals become more local, though they give a clear narrative of the puzzling period 1258-1267. They stop in 1297. The chief contents of vol. iv, are the parallel _Annals of Oseney_ and the _Chronicle_ of THOMAS WYKES, a canon of that house, who took the religious habit in 1282. To 1258 the two histories are very similar, that of Wykes being slightly fuller. They then remain distinct until 1278, and again from 1280 to 1284 and 1285-1289. In the latter year Wykes stops, while Oseney goes on with independent value until 1293, and as a useless compilation till 1346. Wykes is of unique interest for the Barons' Wars, as he is the only competent chronicler who takes the royalist side. The Oseney writer, much less full and interesting, represents the ordinary baronial standpoint. Wykes is occasionally useful for the first years of Edward I.; after 1288 his importance becomes small. The _Annals of Worcester_ are largely a compilation from the Winchester Annals and the _Flores_; the local insertions have some value for the period 1216-1258, and more for the latter part of the reign of Edward I., at whose death they end.

Other monastic chronicles of the thirteenth century, of small importance, enumerated by Dr. Luard (_Ann. Mon._, iv., liii.) are not yet printed in full. Extracts from many are given in PERTZ'S _Monumenta Germaniæ Hist. Scriptores_, vols. xxvii. and xxviii. The _Annales Cestrienses_ (to 1297) have been edited by R.C. Christie (Record Soc. of Lancashire and Cheshire); EDMUND OF HADENHAM'S _Chronicle_ (down to 1307) is given in part in WHARTON'S _Anglia Sacra_, and M. Bémont publishes in an appendix to his _Simon de Montfort_ (pp. 373-380) a valuable fragment of a _Chronicle_ of _Battle Abbey_ on the Barons' Wars, 1258-1265. For the latter part of that period we have some useful notices in HENRY OF SILEGRAVE's brief _Chronicle_ (ed. Hook, Caxton Soc., 1849), whose close relationship to the _Battle Chronicle_ M. Bémont has first indicated. To these may be added the _Annals of Stanley Abbey_ (1202-1271) in vol. ii. of _Chronicles of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard I._ (ed. Hewlett, Rolls Series, 1885), and the _Chronicle_ of the Bury monk, JOHN OF TAXSTER or TAYSTER, which becomes copious from the middle of the thirteenth century and ends in 1265; it was partly printed in 1849 by Benjamin Thorpe as a continuation of Florence of Worcester (English Historical Society), and the years 1258-1262 are best read in Luard's edition of Bartholomew Cotton (Rolls Series). Taxster's work became the basis of several later compilations of the eastern counties, including: (i) JOHN OF EVERSDEN, another Bury monk, independent from 1265 to 1301, also printed without his name by Thorpe, up to 1295, as a further continuation of Florence. (2) JOHN OF OXNEAD, a monk of St. Benet's, Hulme, a reputed continuator of Taxster and Eversden up to 1280, who adds a good deal of his own for the years 1280-1293, edited somewhat carelessly by Sir Henry Ellis as _Chronica J. de Oxenedes_ (Rolls Series). (3) BARTHOLOMEW COTTON, a monk of Norwich, whose _Historia Anglicana_, original from 1291 to 1298, and specially important from 1285 to 1291, is edited by Luard (Rolls Series). Some thirteenth and early fourteenth century Bury chronicles are also in _Memorials_ of _St. Edmund's Abbey_, ed. T. Arnold (vols. ii. and iii., Rolls Series). The _Chronicon de Mailros_ (Bannatyne Club), from the Cistercian abbey of Melrose, goes to 1270; though utterly untrustworthy, it may be noticed as almost the only Scottish chronicle before the war of independence, and as containing a curious record of the miracles of Simon de Montfort.

Among the historians of Edward I.'s reign is WALTER OF HEMINGBURGH, Canon of Guisborough in Cleveland (ed. H.C. Hamilton, 2 vols., Engl. Hist. Soc.). His account of Henry III.'s reign is worthless, but from 1272 to 1312 his work is of great value, though never precise and full of gaps. It contains many documents and is remarkable for its stirring battle pictures. Hemingburgh probably laid down his pen when the narrative ceases early in the reign of Edward II. Another writer, identified by Horstmann with John of Tynemouth, carries the story from 1326 to 1346.

In striking contrast to the flowing periods of Hemingburgh is the well-written and chronologically digested _Annals_ of the Dominican friar NICHOLAS TREVET or TRIVET, the son of a judge of Henry III.'s reign (ed. Hog, Engl. Hist. Soc.). Beginning in 1138, his work assumes independent value for the latter years of Henry III. and is of first-rate importance for the reign of Edward I., at whose death it concludes, though Trevet was certainly alive in 1324. It was largely used by the later St. Alban's chroniclers.

Franciscan historiography begins earlier than Dominican with the remarkable tract of THOMAS OF ECCLESTON, written about 1260, _De Adventu Fratrum Minorum in Anglia_, published with other Minorite documents (including Adam Marsh's letters) in BREWER'S _Monumenta Franciscana_ (Rolls Series, continued in a second volume by R. Hewlett). The first important Franciscan chronicle, called the _Chronicon de Lanercost_ (ed. J. Stevenson, Bannatyne Club, 2 vols.), really comes from the Minorite convent of Carlisle. It covers the years 1201 to 1346. The early part is derived from the valueless chronicle of Melrose, and its incoherent cult of the memory of Montfort does not save it from the grossest errors in dealing with his history. It becomes important for northern affairs from Edward I. onwards, giving full details with a strong anti-Scottish bias. Another north-country chronicle is Sir T. GREY'S _Scalacronica_ (ed. Stevenson, Maitland Club, 1836), useful for the Scottish wars and for Edward III.'s reign up to 1362.

A sign of the times is the beginning of civic chronicles. The London series alone is important for English history. It begins with the _Liber de Antiquis Legibus_, or _Chronica Majorum et Vicecomitum Londoniarum_ (1188-1274, ed. T. Stapleton, Camden Soc.). The work of ARNOLD FITZTHEDMAR, alderman of the German merchants in London, it is copious for the years 1236 to 1274, and is, with Wykes, the only chronicle of the Barons' Wars written with a royalist bias. Fourteenth century civic chronicles, based upon _Flores Historiarum_, and continued independently, form the main contents of the two volumes of _Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and II._ (ed. by Dr. Stubbs for the Rolls Series). These are: (1) _Annales Londonienses_, perhaps written by ANDREW HORN, chamberlain of London, and compiler of the _Liber Horn_; they have much general value for the period 1301 to 1316, and deal more narrowly with London history from 1316 to 1330, when they conclude. (2) _Annales Paulini_, 1307-1341, compiled by one of the clergy of St. Paul's, but not by Adam Murimuth. These take up Dr. Stubbs's first volume. The second contains: (1) JOHN OF LONDON'S _Commendatio Lamentabilis in Transitu magni Regis Edwardi quarti_, a funeral eulogy containing the most elaborate contemporary analysis of Edward's character. (2) The CANON OF BRIDLINGTON'S _Gesta Edwardi de Carnarvon_, with a continuation down to the death of Edward III., of little value after 1339. It has frequent reference to the vaticinations of the local prophet, John of Bridlington, and was not put in its present shape before 1377. Its first part is based on earlier sources, and it is, for lack of better, a prime authority for north-country history and Anglo-Scottish relations; the continuation contains the best account of Edward Balliol's attempts on the Scottish throne. (3) _Vita Edwardi II._, from 1307 to 1325, attributed by Hearne on slight grounds to a MONK OF MALMESBURY, with many notices of the history of Gloucestershire and Bristol, of which the famous rising is described at length. The writer is the most human of the annalists of the reign, prolix, self-conscious, moralising, and somewhat incoherent. He is the most outspoken of all the fourteenth century critics of the Roman curia, and has more insight than most of his contemporaries.

The following are of primary importance for the early years of Edward III.; it is significant that they are nearly all secular, not monastic, in origin. (1) _Continuatio Chronicorum_, 1303-1347, by ADAM MURIMUTH, a canon of St. Paul's much employed by Edward III. (ed. E.M. Thompson in Rolls Series), a mere continuation of the _Flores_ until 1325, thence enlarged from personal sources, but still meagre until 1337, when it becomes a first-rate authority to 1346. Murimuth's adoption of Michaelmas day as the beginning of the year has often confused those who have imitated him. Chief among these is (2) GEOFFREY LE BAKER of Swinbrooke, an Oxfordshire man, and like Murimuth, a secular clerk, whose _Chronicon_ (ed. E.M. Thompson), beginning in 1303 on the basis of Murimuth, has independent value after 1324, and is noteworthy for its touching details of Edward II.'s fall and death. It ends in 1356 with an excellent account of the battle of Poitiers. The early part of Baker's chronicle, widely circulated as _Vita et Mors Edwardi II._, was previously assigned to Sir Thomas de la Moor, and was so edited by Stubbs, but Sir E.M. Thompson showed clearly that this Oxfordshire knight was Baker's patron and not the writer of a chronicle. With many defects, Baker can tell a story picturesquely. (3) ROBERT OF AVESBURY, a canon lawyer, wrote _De mirabilibus Gestis Edwardi III._, of special importance for the war from 1339 to 1356, and containing many state documents. It is edited by E.M. Thompson in the same volume as Murimuth. (4) HENRY KNIGHTON, Canon of Leicester, wrote a _Chronicle_ about 1366 which is valuable for the period 1336-1366 and includes the best contemporary account of the Black Death. The latest edition by Lumby in the Rolls Series is not a scholarly work. (5) _Eulogium Historiarum_ (ed. Haydon, Rolls Series) is contemporary and valuable for 1356-1366 only. There is a great dearth of English chronicles for the latter years of Edward III. The signal exception is the important St. Alban's _Chronicon Angliæ_ already mentioned.

In the age of Edward III. the _Flores Historiarum_ were superseded by the _Polychronicon_ (often called the "Brute" after WACE'S _Brut d'Angleterre_), the voluminous compilation (to 1352) of RANDOLPH HIGDEN, a monk of Chester (edited by Babington and Lumby, Rolls Series). ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, PETER LANGTOFT, and ROBERT MANNYNG have been referred to elsewhere. The first is of some original value for the Barons' Wars and Edward I., while Langtoft, a Yorkshire canon specially interested in the Scottish wars, is a contemporary for all Edward I.'s reign. Among rhyming chronicles, French in tongue but English in origin, may be mentioned _Le Siège de Carlaverock_, 1300 (ed. Nicolas, 1828), of value for heraldry, and CHANDOS HERALD'S _Prince Noir_ (ed. H.O. Coxe, whose edition was pillaged by F. Michel for his more accessible version of 1883). _L'Histoire de Foulques Fitz Warin_ (d. 1260?), a picturesque marcher hero, a prose romance of the end of the thirteenth century, can be read in Stevenson's edition of COGGESHALL (Rolls Series), or Englished by A. Kemp-Welch (1904).

No contemporary Scottish chronicles of importance deal with the War of Independence, though fairly full Scottish versions of it exist in later books. The earliest of these is the _Bruce_ of JOHN BARBOUR, Archdeacon of Aberdeen. Written in 1375 at the instigation of Robert II., Barbour's spirited verses are inspired by patriotic rather than historic motives. His details are minute, but impossible to control by other sources, and he is more valuable as the epic poet of Scottish liberty than as an historical authority. He is edited by Skeat (Early English Text Soc.), Jamieson, and Innes. The earliest prose Scottish chronicle, that of JOHN FORDUN, who died about 1384 (ed. Skene, in _Historians of Scotland_), is of value for the fourteenth century. ANDREW WYNTONN'S _Originale_, a metrical history written in the fifteenth century, has next to no authority until the end of this period (ed. Laing, in _Historians of Scotland_), BLIND HARRY'S _Wallace_, written in 1488, is romance not history.

Wales is more fortunate than Scotland in preserving contemporary thirteenth century annals, of which a Latin chronicle, _Annales Cambriæ_, extending to 1288, and a Welsh one, _Brut y Tywysogion_ (i.e., _Chronicle of the Princes_), down to 1278, are edited by J. Williams in the Rolls Series, the latter with an English translation. A more critical version of the Welsh text of the _Brut_ is that of J. RHYS and J.G. EVANS' _Red Book of Hergest_, vol. ii. (1890).

The close relations between England and France for the whole of this period render the French chronicles by far the most important of foreign sources for English history. They are enumerated in detail by Auguste Molinier in vols. iii. (up to 1328) and iv. (after 1328) of the first part of _Les Sources de l'Histoire de France (Manuels de Bibliographie historique_). The chief French chronicles of the period 1226-1328 are collected in vols. xx.-xxiv. of the _Recueil des Historiens de la France_ begun by Dom Bouquet. Some of them are of special importance for English history. For Anglo-Netherlandish relations under Edward I. see _Annales Gandenses_ (1296-1310), "la chronique la plus remarquable de la fin du xiiie siècle," the French _Chronique Artésienne_ (1295-1304), and the _Chronique Tournaisienne_ (1296-1314), all edited by F. Funck-Brentano in the already mentioned _Collection de Textes_. For the Hundred Years' War the French chroniclers are indispensable, especially for military history. The most famous of these writers, JEAN FROISSART, has been characterised in my text (p. 419). He can best be studied in Luce and Raynouart's excellent edition for the Soc. de l'Histoire de France (tomes i.-viii., 1869-1888) which completes the story up to Edward III.'s death. Luce's careful "sommaire et commentaire critique" often affords means of checking Froissart by other sources. The magnificent volumes of indexes of Kervyn de Lettenhove's complete edition (vols. XX.-XXV.) are still of immense use, though his text and comments are inferior to those of Luce, Froissart's spirit may well be caught in Lord Berners's racy English translation (Tudor Translations), or in G.C. Macaulay's useful abridgment. The three redactions of Froissart's first book (from 1327 to 1373-1377), which is all that concerns our period, have been clearly distinguished by Luce. (1) The first edition, written about 1373, at the request of Count Robert of Namur, is inspired by an English bias. Up to 1360 it is largely derived from the chronicle of JEAN LE BEL, Canon of St. Lambert of Liège; after that date it is original. (2) The second edition, only represented by two MSS., of which one is incomplete, is a modification of the first with a French bias. The earlier part is more independent of Jean le Bel. (3) The third edition, preserved in a single MS., ends with the death of Philip VI in 1350, and, written after 1400, is even more hostile to England than the second. The best edition of Jean le Bel is by Polain for the Académie royale de Belgique.

A few of the more important French chronicles after 1328 may be mentioned shortly. (1) _Grands Chroniques de France_ (ed. Paulin Paris). Original from 1350 to 1377, a work of first-rate importance, where, if truth is altered, it is altered deliberately from political motives. (2) JEAN DE VENETTE, 1340-1368, written with a popular bias, and partly favourable to Charles of Navarre (edited as a supplement to Géraud's edition of Guillaume de Nangis, ii., 178-378, Soc. de l'Hist. de France). (3) _Chronique Normande du xiv'e siècle_, 1337-1372 (ed. Molinier, Soc. de l'Hist. de France, 1882), exact and very important for the wars 1337 to 1372. (4) _Chronique des quatre premiers Valois_ (Soc. de l'Hist. de France). (5) CUVELIER'S poetical _Vie de Bertrand du Guesclin_ (2 vols., _Doc. inédits_). Further details can be found in Molinier's bibliography. Netherlandish sources for the Hundred Years' War are summarised in PIRENNE'S _Bibliographie de l'Histoire de Belgique_ (1895). Of special importance is JAN VAN KLERK'S _Van den Derden Edewaert Rym Kronyk_. (1840), useful for 1337-1341, and written with an English bias.

The unofficial legal literature of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries is of exceptional variety and value. Many lawyers' treatises throw light on matters far beyond legal technicalities. HENRY OF BRACTON or BRATTON'S _De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliæ_ illustrates the union of English and Roman juridical ideas characteristic of the age of Henry III. It has been edited badly by Sir T. Twiss in six volumes (Rolls Series), and some portions well by Professor Maitland in his _Select passages from Bracton and Azo_ (Selden Soc.). Maitland's _Bracton's Note Book_ includes extracts from plea rolls seemingly made by Bracton. Bracton's book on the laws was translated, condensed, and rearranged by a writer of the next generation called Britton. It may be studied in a modern edition in NICHOLLS'S _Britton on the laws of England_, while _Fleta_, an almost contemporary Latin law book, must be read in Selden's seventeenth century edition. Another thirteenth century law-book, _Le Mirroir des Justices_, has been edited by Maitland and W.J. Whittaker for the Selden Society. From Edward I.'s time onwards unofficial reports of trials called YEAR BOOKS, written in French, become valuable for their vividness and detail, and for the light which they throw on the more technical records of the plea rolls. Many of them are printed in unsatisfactory seventeenth century editions, but the Year Books of five of Edward I.'s regnal years, between 1292 to 1307, together with the Year Book of 11-12 Edward III., are accessible in A.J. Horwood's editions in the Rolls Series. L.O. Pike has also edited in the Rolls Series the _Year books of Edward III._ from 1338 to 1345, and Maitland's _Year books of Edward II._ for the Selden Society are the first two instalments of a scheme for publishing the Year Books of the reign. Besides their legal value, the Year Books are an almost unworked mine for social and economic, and often even political and ecclesiastical, history.

Of literary aids to history T. WRIGHT'S _Political Songs_ (Camden Soc.) illustrate this period to the reign of Edward II. One of Wright's pieces has been more elaborately edited in C.L. KINGSFORD'S Song of _Lewes_ (1890), and C. Hardwick published a _Poem on the Times OF Edward II._ for the Percy Soc. (1849). With Edward III. such literature becomes copious. Of special importance are T. Wright's _Political POEMS and SONGS FROM the accession of Edward III._, vol. i. (Rolls Series, 1859), J. Hall's _Poems of_ LAURENCE MINOT, Skeat's editions of CHAUCER and LANGLAND, and G.C. Macaulay's edition of GOWER. The Latin works of Wycliffe, published by the Wycliffe Society, mainly belong to the succeeding period, but _De Dominio Divino_ and _De Civili Dominio_, as well as some tracts printed in the appendix to LEWIS'S _Life of Wiclif_ and in Shirley's edition of _Fasciculi Zizanioram_ (Rolls Series), were written before 1377.

Of modern works treating of this period, many monographs, dealing with particular points, have been mentioned in notes in the course of the narrative. Of general guides to the period the best by far are Stubbs and Pauli. STUBBS'S _Constitutional History_ (vol. ii.) is as valuable for the chapters summarising the political history as for the more strictly constitutional matter. R. PAULI'S _Geschichte von England_, iii., 489-896, and iv., 1-505, 716-741, remains, after half a century, the fullest and most satisfactory working up in detail of these reigns, though the great additions to our material make parts of it a somewhat unsafe guide. It can be supplemented for particular aspects of history by the following: For legal history, POLLOCK and MAITLAND'S _History of English Law before the time of Edward I._, especially vol. i., book i. (chapters iv.-vi.), and book ii.; and most of vol. ii.; to which should be added the prefaces by Prof. Maitland and others to the volumes of the Selden Society. MAITLAND'S _Roman Canon Law in the Church of England_ (1898) is also of great importance. For economic history, W.J. ASHLEY'S _Economic History_, parts i. and ii.; W. CUNNINGHAM's _Growth of English Industry and Commerce, Early and Middle Ages_; VINOGRADOFF'S _Villainage in England_, S. DOWELL'S _History of Taxation_ (2nd edition), H. HALL'S _Customs Revenue of England_, and, as a collection of materials, J.E. THOROLD ROGERS' _History of Agriculture and Prices_, vols. i. and ii. For ecclesiastical history, W.R.W. STEPHENS'S _History of the English Church, 1066-1272_; W.W. CAPES'S _History of the English Church in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries_, and F. MAKOWER'S _The Constitutional History and Constitution of the Church of England_ (translated from the German). For academic history, DENIFLE'S _Entstehung der Universitäten des Mittelalters bis 1400_, especially pp. 1-40, 237-251 (Oxford) and pp. 367-376 (Cambridge), HAURÉAU'S _Histoire de la Philosophie scholastique_ and RASHDALL'S _Universities of the Middle Ages_, i., 1-74, and ii., part ii. (Oxford and Cambridge). For military history, KÖHLER'S _Entwickelung des Kriegswesens in der Ritterzeit_, OMAN'S _History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages_, CLARK'S _Mediæval Military Architecture_, and (above all) J.E. MORRIS'S _Welsh Wars of Edward I_. For naval history, NICOLAS'S _History of the Royal Navy_, and C. DE LA RONCIÈRE'S _Histoire de la Marine Française_. For particular reigns the following may be found useful: For Henry III., PETIT-DUTAILLIS'S _Étude sur Louis VIII._, GASQUET'S _Henry III. and the Church_ (1905), BÉMONT'S _Simon de Montfort_, PROTHERO'S _Simon de Montfort_, and BLAAUW'S _Barons' Wars_ (2nd ed., 1871). For the reign of Edward I., SEELEY's _Life and Reign of Edward I._ (1872), my _Edward I._; GOUGH'S _Itinerary of Edward I._, MAXWELL'S _Robert the Bruce_ (Heroes of the Nations), and MORRIS'S above-mentioned _Welsh Wars of Edward I._ For some aspects of Edward II.'s reign, STUBBS'S prefaces to _Chronicles of Edward I. and Edward II._ are of special value. For Edward III.'s reign, BARNES's _History of Edward III._ (1688) is not quite superseded by LONGMAN'S _Life and Times of Edward III._ (2 vols., 1869), and MACKINNON'S _History of Edward III._ (1900). For the Hundred Years' War, E. DÉPREZ'S _Préliminaires de la Guerre de Cent Ans_ (1328-1342) (Bibl. de l'Ecole française de Rome, 1902) for diplomatic history, and DENIFLE's _Désolation des Églises et Monastères de la France pendant la Guerre de Cent Ans_ (ii., part i., 1899) for the best general survey of the war to 1380. See also LUCE'S _La Jeunesse de Bertrand de Guesclin and La France pendant la Guerre de Cent Ans_, and (for Brittany) A. DE LA BORDERIE'S _Histoire de Brétagne_ (1899). The end of Edward III.'s reign is illustrated by S. ARMITAGE SMITH'S _John of Gaunt_ (1904), J. LECHLER'S _Wiclif und die Vorgeschichte der Reformation_ (2 vols., 1873), also translated, not very adequately, _Wycliffe and His English Precursors_ (1878 and 1881), F.D. MATTHEW'S introduction to _Wyclif's English Works_ (Early English Text Society), and R.L. POOLE'S _Illustrations of the History of Mediæval Thought_ (1884), and _Wycliffe_ (1889). G.M. TREVELYAN's _England in the Age of Wycliffe_ (1899) is interesting but not always very scholarly.

Some account of the general foreign history of the period can be found in LAVISSE and RAMBAUD'S _Histoire générale_ (tomes ii. and iii.), LOSERTH'S _Geschichte des späteren Mittelalters_ (good bibliographies), and, briefly, in my _Papacy and Empire_ (up to 1273), and LODGE'S _Close of the Middle Ages_ (after 1273). For French history of the period LAVISSE'S _Histoire de France_ (iii., pt. i., 1137-1226, by A. LUCHAIRE; iii., pt. ii., 1226-1328, by C.V. LANGLOIS, and iv., pt. i., 1328-1422, by A. COVILLE) cover the whole of the period. More detailed works are, PETIT-DUTAILLIS'S _Louis VIII._, E. BERGER'S _Blanche de Castile_, WALLON'S _Louis IX._, BOUTARIC'S _Saint Louis et Alfonse de Poitiers_, C.V. LANGLOIS'S _Philippe le Hardi_, BOUTARIC'S _France sous Philippe le Bel_, LEHUGEUR'S _Philippe le Long_, PETIT'S _Charles de Valois_, FOURNIER'S _Royaume d'Arles et de Vienne_, L. DELISLE'S _Hist. de Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte_, and (for the south) the new edition of DE VIC and VAISSÈTE's _Hist. générale de Languedoc_. Much recent work has been done by French scholars towards the reconstruction of the external history of England during the whole of our period. For the Low Countries, PIRENNE'S _Hist. de Belgique_, ii., ASHLEY'S _James and Philip van Artevelde_, and VANDER KINDERE'S _Le Siècle des Arteveldt_. PAULI is good for the relations of England and Germany.

Maps illustrating the period are to be found in POOLE'S _Oxford Historical Atlas_, LONGNON'S _Atlas historique de la France_, and SPRUNER-MENKE'S _Historischer Hand-Atlas_; special maps of Edward I.'s Scottish expeditions in GOUGH'S _Itinerary of Edward I._, of Edward III.'s and the Black Prince's campaigns in THOMPSON'S _Chronicon Galfridi le Baker_, and KERVYN'S _Froissart_, of John of Gaunt's in ARMITAGE-SMITH's _John of Gaunt_, and of Wales in the thirteenth century in _Owens College Historical Essays_. VIDAL DE LA BLACHE'S _Tableau de la Géographie de la France_ (LAVISSE, _Hist. de France_, i., pt. i.) is instructive for the physical features of the campaigns of the Hundred Years' War.

Further details as to English authorities, ancient and modern, can be found in GROSS'S excellent Sources _and Literature of English History_ (1900). The _Monumenta Germaniæ Historica_, _Scriptores_, vols. xxvii., xxviii., consist of excerpts from English writers of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; the introductions (in Latin) by Pauli and Liebermann contain noteworthy estimates of the works from which the extracts are taken.

NOTE TO PAGES 390-92.

My reasons for my account of the battle of Poitiers demand longer explanation than can be given in a footnote. Like most modern writers, I have based my narrative on the _Chronicle_ of Geoffrey le Baker as expounded by Sir E.M. Thompson, though I agree with Professor Oman in holding that Baker's "ampla profundaque vallis et mariscus, torrente quodam irriguus," must be the valley of the Miausson. I also, however, agree with Father Denifle in not setting great store on Chandos Herald, though I would not reject him altogether, as all prudent writers must reject Froissart. My conjectural account of the movements of the armies is an attempt to combine Baker with what may be true in the Herald. I hope elsewhere to be able to justify my narrative at length.

INDEX.

Aachen. Abbeville. Aberconway Abbey. Aberdeen. Aberdeen, John Barbout, Archdeacon of. See Barbour, John. Abergavenny, town, castle and lordship. Abergavenny, Lords of. See Hastings. Aberystwyth. Abingdon. Abingdon, Edmund of. See Rich, Edmund. Acre. Acre, Joan of. See Joan. Acton Burnell. Adolf of Nassau, King of the Romans. Adour, the river. Agen. Agenais, the. Agnelius of Pisa. Aigueblanche, Peter of, Bishop of Hereford. Aiguillon. Albemarle, William of Fors, Earl of. Albemarle and Devon, Isabella of Fors, Countess of. Albigenses, the. Albert the Great. Albret, Lord of. Aldgate. Alencon, Count of. Alexander II., King-of Scots. Alexander III., King of Scots. Alexander, son of Alexander III of Scotland. Alexander IV., Pope. Alexander of Hales. See Hales. Alfonso X., King of Castile. Alfonse of France, Count of Poitiers. Alice, Countess of Lancaster. Alice of Lusignan. Aliens. Almaine, Henry of. See Henry of Almaine. "Almaines, The." Almond, the river. Alnwick Castle. Alton Castle. Amadeus III., Count of Savoy. Amesbury. Amice, mother of the elder Simon de Montfort. Amiens, cathedral; mise of; treaty of. Amory, Roger of. Anagni. Andrew, St. Anne of Brittany. Angers. Anglesey. Anglia, East. Angoulême. Angoulême, Isabella, Countess of. See Isabella, Queen of England. Angoumois. Anjou. Anjou, Charles of. See Charles. Anjou, Louis, Duke of. See Louis. Annandale. Antrim. Antwerp. Apulia. Aquinas, St. Thomas. Aquitaine, See also Gascony. Aquitaine, Dukes of. See under the Kings of England. Aquitaine, Edward, Prince of. See Edward the Black Prince. Aquitaine, Eleanor of. Aragon. Aragon, James, King of. See James. Aragon, Peter, King of. See Peter. Archers, English; Welsh; Scottish. Architecture, gothic; ecclesiastical; domestic; military; "decorated" style, "flamboyant"; "perpendicular"; Norman; French. Arden, forest of. Argenton. Aristotle. Armagh, Archbishop of. See Fitzralph, Richard. Armagnac, Counts of. Armagnac, John, Count of. Arnold, T., his edition of _Memorials of St. Edmund's Abbey_. Art. _See_ also Architecture. Artevelde, James van. Arthur I., Count of Brittany. Arthur II., Duke of Brittany. Arthur, King. Arthurian Legend, the _Articuli super cartas_. Artois. Artois, Blanche of. See Blanche. Artois, Maud, Countess of. See Maud. Artois, Robert of. See Robert. Arundel, the Countess of. Arundel, Edmund Fitzalan, Earl of. Arundel, Richard Fitzalan, Earl of. Arvon. Ashley, W.J., his _Economic History_; his _James and Philip van Artevelde_. Assisi. Athenry, battle of. Athis, treaty of. Athol, David of Strathbolgie, Earl of. Auberoche, battle of. Aubigny, Philip of. Aude, the river. Audley, Hugh of. Audley, Earl of Gloucester. See Gloucester. Audley, James (1258). Audley, James (d. 1369). Audleys of Shropshire. Audrehem, Marshal. Aumâle, Counts of, See also Albemarle. Auray; battle of; Church of St. Michael. _Ausculta, Fili_, bull. Austin Canons of Lanercost. Austin Friars. Austria. Austria, Duke of. Auvergne. Auvergne, Counts of. Auvézère, the river. Avalon, Hugh of. See Hugh, St. Avesbury, Robert of, chronicler. Avesnes; house of. Avesnes, William of. See William, Count of Hainault. Avignon, the papal court at; records of Popes of. Avon, the river. Axholme. Ayermine, William, Bishop of Norwich. Aymer of Valence, Bishop of Winchester. Aymer of Valence, Earl of Pembroke. See Pembroke. Ayr.

"Babylonish Captivity, the." Bacon, Roger. Bacon, Robert. Badenoch, John Comyn, lord of, See Comyn. Badlesmere, Bartholomew, Lord. Badlesmere, Lady. Baker, Geoffrey le, _Chronicle_ of. "Balance of Power," the. Baldock (town). Baldock, Ralph, chancellor and bishop of London. Baldock, Robert, chancellor. Baldwin, Count of Flanders, Latin Emperor of the East. Ball, John, Balliol, Edward, eldest son of King John of Scotland. Balliol, John (d. 1269). Balliol, John, lord of Barnard Castle, and of Galloway, son of the above, See also John, King of Scots. Balsham, Hugh, Bishop of Ely. Barnburgh Castle. Bampton in the Bush. Banaster, Adam. Banbury. Banff. Bankers, foreign; Jewish; Italian. Bannatyne club, publications of the. Bannock, the river. Bannockburn, battle of. Bar, Joan of. See Joan. Bar, Count of. Barbavera. Barbezieux. Barbour, John, _Bruce_. Bardi, the. Bardolf, William. Barfleur. Bar-gate, the, Lincoln. Barnard Castle. Barnes's _History of Edward III_. Barnwell. Barnwell, Canon of. Barons' war, the. Barres, William des. Basset, Gilbert. _Bastides_. _Bastilles_. Bath. Bath and Wells, Bishop of. See Burnell, Robert; Drokensford; Shrewsbury, Ralph of, and Harewell, John. Battle Abbey, chronicle of. Battles of ---- Athenry. Auberoche. Auray. Ayr. Bannockburn. Boroughbridge. Bourgneuf Bay. Cassel. Chalon. Chesterfield. Cocherel. Corte Nuova. Courtrai. Crecy. Dupplin Moor. Dunbar. Dundalk. Evesham. Falkirk. Halidon Hill. La Rochelle. Lewes. Lincoln. Lisieux. Madog's Field. Maes Madog. Mauron. Methven. Morgarten. Morlaix. Myton. Nájera. Neville's Cross. Orewyn Bridge. Poitiers. Pontvallain. Sandwich. Sluys. Stirling Bridge. The Thirty. Winchelsea. Bayonne. Bazas. Béarn. Béarn, Gaston, Viscount of. See Gaston. Beatrice, daughter of Henry III. and wife of John II. of Brittany. Beatrice, sister of Amadeus III., Count of Savoy, wife of Raymond Berengar IV., Count of Provence. Beaucaire. Beauce, the. Beauchamp, Thomas. See Warwick, Earl of. Beauchamp, William. See Warwick, Earl of. Beauchamps of Warwick, the. Beaumanoir, commandant at Josselin. Beaumaris Castle. Beaumont, Henry de. Beaumont, Louis de, Bishop of Durham. Beaumont, Robert of, Earl of Leicester. See Leicester. Beaumonts, the. Beauvais. Becket, Archbishop, St. Thomas. Bedale, 182. Bedford, Castle of; scutage of. Bedfordshire. Bégard, Abbey of. Beghards, the. Beguines, the. Béhuchet, Nicholas. Bek, Anthony, Bishop of Durham. Bek, Thomas, Bishop of St. David's. Belleville. Bembro, Robert. Bémont, Charles; his _Rôles Gascons_; his _Chartes des libertés anglaises_; his Simon _de Montfort_. Bénauge. Béne, Amaury of. Benedict XI. Benedict XII. Bengeworth, near Evesham. Bentley, Sir Walter. Bere Castle. Bereford, Sir Simon. Berg, Count of. Berger's _Blanche de Castile_. Bergerac. Berkeley Castle. Berkeleys, the. Berkhampstead, siege of. Berkshire. Berkstead, Stephen, Bishop of Chichester. Bermingham, John of. See Louth, Earl of. Bernabò, Visconti, Lord of Milan. Berners, Lord, translator of Froissart. Berri, John, Duke of. Bertrand, Cardinal. See Montfavence. Berwick. Béthune, _Chronique de l'Anonyme de_. Bibliographies, historical Bidassoa, the. Bigod, the house of. Bigod, Hugh, justiciar. Bigod, Roger, earl marshal and Earl of Norfolk. See Norfolk, Earl of. Bigorre, county of. Biscay, Bay of. Blaauw's _Barons' Wars_. Black Prince, the. See Edward, Prince of Wales and Aquitaine. Black death, the. Blacklow Hill. Blanche of Artois, Queen of Navarre. Blanche of Bourbon, wife of Peter the Great of Castile. Blanche of Castile, Queen of Louis VIII. and regent of France. Blanche, Duchess of Lancaster. Blanche taque, the, in estuary of Somme. Blaneforde's _Chronicle_ Blankenberghe. Blavet, the river. Blaye. Bliss' _Calendars of Papal Registers_. Blois. Blois, Charles of. See Charles. Blois, Theobald, Count of. Blount, Sir Thos., Blundeville, Randolph of, Earl of Chester. See Chester, Randolph, Earl of. Boccaccio. Bohemia. Bohemia, Ottocar, King of. Bohun, Humphrey, Earl of Hereford. See Hereford. Bohun, Humphrey of Brecon, son of the Earl of Hereford. Bohun, Margaret. Bohun, William, Earl of Northampton. See Northampton. Bohuns, the. Bollers, house of. Bologna. Bolton. Bonhommes, order of. Boniface VIII., Pope. Boniface of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury. Bordeaux; truce of. Bordeaux, Bertrand de Goth, Archbishop of. See Clement V. Bordelais, the. Borderie's _Histoire de Brétagne_. Boroughbridge; battle of. Boroughs; growth of; representation of. Bothwell Castle. Boulogne. Bouquet, Dom, his _Recueil des Historiens de la France_. Bourbon, Blanche of. See Blanche. Bourbonnais. Bourchier, Sir Robert. _Bourg_, of Limoges, the. Bourg. Bourgneuf, Bay of. Bourne. Boutaric's _St. Louis et Alfonse de Poitiers_; his _France sous Philippe le Bel_ Bouvines, battle of. Brabant. Brabant, Dukes of. See John II., John III., and Wenceslaus. Brabant, Mary of. See Mary, Queen of France. Brabazon, Roger de, chief justice after 1295. Bracton, Henry of, his book _De Legibus_; his Note Book. Bradwardine, Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury. Brandenburg. Brandenburg, Elector of. Brantingham, Thomas, treasurer, Bishop of Exeter. Brantôme. Braose, house of. Braose, William de, his daughter. Bratton, Henry. See Bracton. Braybrook, Henry de. Bréauté, Falkes de. Brechin. Brecon. Bren, Llewelyn. See Llewelyn. Brentwood. Bremen. Brest. _Brétagne bretonnante, La_. Brétigni, treaty of, See also Calais, treaty of. Bretons. See Brittany. Brewer's _Monumenta Franciscana_. Bridgnorth. Bridlington. Bridlington, Canon of, his _Gesta Edwardi de Carnarvon_. Bridlington, John of. Brie. Brigham, treaty of. Bristol, council meets at; confirmation of the Great Charter at; castle of; channel; disturbances at. Brittany, Celtic; French. Brittany, Counts, afterwards Dukes, of. See Arthur I., Arthur II., John II., John III., John IV., John V., Peter Mauclerc. Brittany, Constance of, wife of Randolph of Chester. See Constance of Brittany. Brittany, John of, Earl of Richmond. See John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond. Britton, lawyer, his treatise _On the Laws of England_. Bromfield. Brotherton, Thomas of, Earl of Norfolk. See Thomas of Brotherton. Bruce, David. See David II., King of Scots. Bruce, Edward, "King of Ireland." Bruce, Elizabeth, Queen of Scots. See Elizabeth. Bruce, Joan, Queen of Scots. See Joan. Bruce, Robert, Lord of Annandale, claimant to the Scots throne (d.1295). Bruce, Robert, Earl of Carrick, son of the above (d. 1304). Bruce, Robert, Earl of Carrick, son of the above. See also Robert, King of Scots. _Bruce_, John Barbour's. Bruges, the Matins of. truce of (1375). Brussels. Brut, the Trojan. _Brut d'Angleterre_, Wace's. _Brut y Tywysogion_. Buch, Captal de. Buchan, Comyn, John, Earl of. Buchan, Henry de Beaumont, Earl of, See also Beaumont, Henry de. Builth, town and castle. Buironfosse. Bulgaria. Burgh, the family of. Burgh, Elizabeth de, wife of Robert, King of Scots. See Elizabeth, Queen of Scots. Burgh, Elizabeth de, wife of Lionel of Clarence. Burgh, Hubert de, Earl of Kent. Burgh, Richard de, Earl of Ulster. See Ulster. Burgh, Richard de, Lord of Connaught. Burgh, William de, Lord of Connaught and Earl of Ulster, See Ulster. Burgh-on-Sands. Burghersh, Bartholomew, Bishop of Lincoln. Burgos. Burgundy. Burgundy, Duke of. See Philip the Bold and Philip de Rouvres. Burnell, Robert, Chancellor, and Bishop of Bath and Wells. Burton-on-Trent. Bury, Richard of, Bishop of Durham. Bury St. Edmunds. Busses, Spanish. Butler, Edmund. Butler of Ireland, James, the. Byland Abbey. Bytham Castle.

Cader Idris. Cadzand, island of. Caen; abbeys of; church of St. Peter at. Caerlaverock. See Carlaverock. Caerleon, Morgan of. Caerphilly Castle. Cahors; bishopric of, See Quercy. Calais; treaty of, See also Brétigni. _Calendar of Close Rolls_. _Calendar of Charter Rolls_. Calendars of _Documents relating to Scotland and Ireland_. _Calendar of Inquisitions Post-mortem and other analogous documents_. _Calendars of Papal Registers_. _Calendar of the Patent Rolls_. _Calendarium Genealogicum_, C. Roberts'. _Calendarium Inquisitionum sive Eschætarum_. _Calendarium Rotulorum Cartarum_. Calveley, Sir Hugh. Cambrai. Cambrésis, the. Cambridge; university of. Cambridge, Edmund of Langley, Earl of. See Edmund. Camville, Nichola de. "Candlemas, The Burnt,". Canfranc, treaty of. Canons, Austin, annals by. Canterbury; cathedral; hall, Oxford; register. Canterbury, Archbishops of. See Langton, Stephen; Grand, Richard le; Neville, Ralph, and Blunt, John (archbishops elect); Rich, Edmund; Boniface of Savoy; Kilwardby, Robert; Peckham, John; Winchelsea, Robert; Cobham, Thomas (archbishop elect); Reynolds, Walter; Meopham, Simon; Stratford, John; Bradwardine, Thomas; Islip, Simon; Langham, Simon; Whittlesea, William, and Sudbury, Simon. Cantilupe, St. Thomas of, chancellor and Bishop of Hereford. Cantilupe, Walter of, Bishop of Worcester. Cantilupes, the. Cantreds, the four. See also Perveddwlad. Caours, Raoul de. Capes's, W.W., _History of the English Church_. Capetians, the. Captal de Buch, the. See Buch. Captivity, the Babylonish, of the Papacy. Carcassonne. Cardiff Castle. Cardigan and Cardiganshire. Cardinerie, La. Carlaverock, castle; chronicle of the siege of. Carentan. Carhaix. Carlisle, town and castle; parliament of 1307 at; Statute of. Carlisle, Andrew Harclay, Earl of. Carmarthen, town and castle, and Carmarthenshire; justice of. Carmelites, the. Carnarvon, town and castle. Carnarvon, Edward of. See Edward. Carnarvonshire. Carrick, Earl of. See Bruce, Robert. Carrickfergus. _Carta menatoria_. Cartmel. Cartularies. Cassel, battle of. Cassingham (Kensham), William of. Castile. Castile, Alfonso, King of. See Alfonso. Castile, Blanche of. See Blanche. Castile, Constance of. See Constance. Castile, Eleanor of. See Eleanor. Castile, Ferdinand the Saint, King of. See Ferdinand. Castile, Henry of Trastamara, King of. See Henry. Castile, Isabella of. See Isabella. Castile, Peter the Cruel, King Of. See Peter. Castile, John, King of Leon and Duke Lancaster. See John of Gaunt. Castle of Aberconway or Conway. Abergavenny. Aberyswyth. Alnwick. Alton. Bamburgh. Barnard. Beaumaris. Bedford. Bere. Berkeley. Berwick. Bothwell. Bristol. Builth. Bytham. Caen. Caerphilly. Cardiff. Carlaverocc. Carmarthen. Carnarvon. Castleton, Liddesdale. Chepstow. Christchurch. Clare. Colchester. Conway. See Aberconway. Conisborough. Corfe. Cornet. Criccieth. Deganwy. Devises. Diserth. Dolwyddelen. Dover. Drysllwyn. Dublin. Dumfries. Dunbar. Dynevor. Edinburgh. Flint. Fotheringhay. Gloucester. Grosmont. Harlech. Hawarden. Hedingham. Josselin. Kenilworth. Kilkenny. Kidwelly. Knaresborough. Leeds (Kent). Limoges. Lincoln. London. See Tower of London, the. Maud's. Monmouth. Montgomery. Mount Sorrel. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Norham. Norwich. Nottingham. Orford. Peebles. Pevensey. Pontefract. Powys. Rhuddlan. Rising. Rochester. Rockingham. Romorantin. Rose. Roxburgh. Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte. Scarborough. Skelton. Skenfrith. Stirling. Swansea. Tickhill. Tintagel. Tunbridge. Tutbury. Usk. Wallingford. Wark, Warwick. Whitecastle. Wigmore. Windsor. Wolvesey (Winchester). Castles; royal; adulterine; Welsh; of South Wales; Edward I.'s; concentric; Scottish. Castleton Castle, Liddesdale. Castor, Church of St., Coblenz. Castorplatz, the, Coblenz. Caversham. Celestine V., Pope. Celts, Irish. Celts of Scotland, the. Chaboterie, la. Chalon, little battle of. Champagne, Blanche of Artois, Queen of Navarre and Countess of. See Blanche. Champagne, Edmund, Count of. See also Edmund of Lancaster. Champagne, Henry, Count of. See Henry. Champagne, Joan of. See Joan. Champagne, Theobald IV., Count of. See Theobald. Champagne. Champollion-Figeac's _Lettres des rots d'Angleterre_. Chancellor, office of. Chancery courts, for Wales; records. Chandos, Sir John. Chandos Herald. Channel, the Bristol; the English. Channel Islands, the. Charente, the river. Charing. Charles IV., the Emperor. Charles IV., the Fair, King of France. Charles V., King of France. Charles of Anjou, younger brother of Louis IX., Count of Provence and Charles I., King of Sicily. Charles the Bad, Count of Evreux and King of Navarre. Charles of Blois, claimant to Duchy of Brittany. Charles of La Cerda. Charles of Moravia, King of the Romans. See Charles IV., the Emperor. Charles, Duke of Normandy. See also Charles V., King of France. Charles of Salerno, afterwards Charles II. of Sicily. Charles, Count of Valois. Charlemagne. Charlton, Tohn, lord of Powys. Charltons of Powys, the. Charter, the Great; the forest; Rolls, the, See Rolls. Charterhouse, the London. Charters, confirmations of the; of London; _Carta Mercatoria_; as sources for history. Chartley. Chartres. Châteauneuf. Châteauroux. Châtelherault. Chaucer, Geoffrey. Chauvigny. Chaworth, Payne of. Cheapside. Chepstow. Cher, the river. Cherbourg. Cheshire; palatine earldom of; palatine courts of; records of county palatine of. Chester. Chester, Edward, Earl of. See Edward I., Edward II. and Edward III. Chester, John de Lacy, Constable of. See Lacy. Chester, John the Scot, Earl of. See also Huntingdon. Chester, Simon de Montfort, Earl of. See Leicester. Chester, Randolph Blundeville, Earl of. Chesterfield, battle of. Chichester. Chichester, Bishops of. See Berkstead, Stephen; Neville, Ralth, and Stratford, Robert. Chilham, barony of, Kent. Chilterns, the. Chinon. Chirk. Chirk, Roger Mortimer of. See Mortimer, Roger, of Chirk. Christchurch Castle. _Christopher, The_. Chroniclers, the. Chronicles as sources of history. Cinque Ports, the. Cirencester. Cistercian, nuns of Eastminster; monks of Whalley. Cistercians, the. Clare Castle; the house of. Clare, Eleanor de. See Despenser, Eleanor de. Clare, Elizabeth of. Clare, Gilbert of, Earl of Gloucester. See Gloucester. Clare, Margaret of. Clare, Richard of, Earl of Gloucester. See Gloucester. Clarence, Duchy of. See Lionel of Antwerp. Clarendon. Clares, the poor. Clark's, G.T., _Mediæval Military Architecture_. Clark's, J.W., _Observances in use at Barnwell Priory_. Clement IV., Pope. Clement V., Pope. Clement VI., Pope. Clergy, taxation of the. _Clericis laicos_, the bull. Clerkenwell. Clermont, Marshal. Cleves, Count of. Clifford, Robert. Clifford, Roger. Cliffords, the. Clinton, Earl of Huntingdon. See Huntingdon. Clisson, Oliver de. Cloth, manufacture of English. Clydesdale. Clwyd, the river. Clun. Cobham, Thomas of, Archbishop elect of Canterbury. Coblenz. Cocherel, battle of. Cog Thomas, the. Coggeshall's _Chronicle_. Cognac. Coinage. Colchester, Castle of. Coldstream. Colleges, growth of. Cologne. Cologne, Archbishop of. Colons, faction of the. Commerce under Edward III. Comminges, Counts of. Commons, house of. Companies, the free. Company, the White. Compiègne. Compostella. Comyn, John, the elder, lord of Badenoch. Comyn, John, of Badenoch, the younger, or the Red, regent of Scotland. Comyn, John, of Buchan. See Buchan, Earl of. Confirmation of the charters. See Charters. Conisborough Castle. Connaught. Connaught, Phelim O'Connor, King of, Connaught, King of. Conrad, son of Frederick II. Conservators of the Peace. _Consilium ordinarium_, the. Constable, office of. Constance of Brittany. Constance of Castile, daughter of Peter the Cruel, wife of John, Duke of Lancaster. Convocation. Conway, the river. Corfe Castle. Cormeilles, Abbey of. Cornet Castle, Cornouailles. Cornwall; earldom of. Cornwall, Dunstanville, Earls of. See Dunstanville. Cornwall, Edmund, Earl of. See Edmund. Cornwall, Edward, Duke of. See Edward, the Black Prince. Cornwall, John of Eltham, Earl of. See John. Cornwall, Peter Gaveston, Earl of. See Gaveston. Cornwall, Richard, Earl of. See Richard. Corte Nuova, battle of. Cosneau's _Grands Traités de la Guerre de Cent Ans_. Côtentin, the. Cotton, Bartholomew's _Historia Anglicana_. Coucy, Enguerrand de. Councils, General, at Lyons. Court of King's Bench, records of. Court of Common Pleas, records of. Court of the County. Courts of Chancery and Exchequer in Wales. Courtenay, House of, Earls of Devon. Courtenay, William, Bishop of London. Courtrai; battle of. Coventry, Roger Northburgh, Bishops of. See Northburgh, Roger. Coville's _Histoire de France_. Craven. Crécy, battle of. Crécy-en-Ponthieu. Cree, the river. Cressingham, Hugh. Creuse, the river. Criccieth Castle. Crockart. Crossbowmen, Genoese. Crotoy, Le. Crusades, the. Crutched friars, the. Cumberland. Cunningham's, W., _Growth of English Industry_. Curzon, Robert. Customs. "Custom, the Great and Ancient,"; "the New and Small,". Cuvelier's _Vie de Bertrand de Guesclin_. Cymry, the. See also Wales. Cyprus. Cyprus, Lusignan kings of.

Dagworth, Sir Thomas. Damietta, Crusade of. Damietta, Archbishop of. See Roches, Peter des. Damme. Dampierre, Guy, Count of Flanders. See Guy. Dancaster, John. Dante. Darlington, John of, Archbishop of Dublin. David I., King of Scots. David II., son of Robert Bruce, King of Scots. David I., an Llewelyn, Prince of Wales. David II., ap Griffith, Prince of Wales. David, Earl of Huntingdon. See Huntingdon. David of Strathbolgie, Earl of Athol. See Athol. Dax. Dean, Forest of. "Decorated" style of architecture. Deddington. Deganwy, Castle of. Delisle's _Histoire de Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte_. Denbigh, town, lordship and castle of. Denifle's _Désolation des Églises de France_, etc.; his _Entstehung der Universitäten_. Déprez's _Préliminaires de la Guerre de Cent Ans_. Derby, Henry of Grosmont, Earl of. See also Lancaster. Derby, Robert Ferrars, Earl of. Derby, Thomas, Earl of Lancaster and. See Lancaster. Derby, William of Ferrars, Earl of. Deschamps, Eustace. Despenser, Eleanor de, wife of Hugh le Despenser, the younger. Despenser, Hugh, justiciar. Despenser, Hugh, the elder, Earl of Winchester, son of the justiciar. Despenser, Hugh, the younger, Lord of Glamorgan, son of the foregoing. Devizes, Castle of. Devon, earldom of, Falkes de Bréauté as warden of. Devon, Courtenays, earls of. _Dictum de Kenilworth_, the. Dinan. Disafforestments. Diserth, Castle of. Disinherited, the (after Evesham); the, Scotch. _Disseisin_, novel. Dolwyddelen Castle. Dominic, St. Dominicans. Don, the river. Donaldbane, brother of Malcolm Canmore. Dordogne, the river. Dordrecht. Dorking. Dorsetshire. Douai. Douglas, Sir Archibald. Douglas, Sir James. Douglas, Sir William. Douglas, Sir William (at Poitiers). Dover, town and castle; straits of. Dovey the river. Dowell's, S., _History of Taxation_. Downs, the north; the south. Drokensford, Bishop of Bath and Wells. Dublin, Castle of. Dublin, Archbishop of. See Hotham, William of, Archbishop of. Dubois, Peter. Dugdale's _Monasticon_. Dumfries. Dunbar, battle of. Dunfermline. Dunkeld, Bishop of. Duns Scotus. Dunstable. Dunstanville, house of. Dupplin Moor, battle of. Durham; bishopric of; records of. Durham, Bishops of. See Bek, Anthony; Beaumont, Louis de; and Bury, Richard of. Dynevor Castle.

Earn, the river. Eastminster, the, London. Eastry, Henry of, prior of Christ Church, Canterbury. Ebro, the river. Eccleston, William of, his _De adventu fratrum minorun_. Edinburgh, town and castle. Edington, church of. Edington, William of, Bishop of Winchester. Edmund of Almaine, Earl of Cornwall, son of Richard of Cornwall. Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, Leicester and Derby, some time titular King of Sicily, son of Henry III. Edmund of Langley, son of Edward III., Earl of Cambridge, afterward Duke of York. Edmund of Woodstock, son of Edward I., Earl of Kent. Edmund (Rich). St. See Rich, Edmund. Edmund, St., of East Anglia. Edward the Confessor, saint and king; translation of. Edward I.; authorities for reign of. Edward II.; sources for the reign of. Edward III.; sources for the reign of. Edward, son of Henry III. See also Edward I. Edward of Carnarvon, Prince of Wales. See also Edward II. Edward of Windsor, Duke of Aquitaine. Edward, Prince of Wales and of Aquitaine, called the Black Prince. Education; of clergy. Elbeuf. Egypt. Elderslie. Eleanor of Aquitaine, Queen of Henry II. Eleanor of Castile, Queen of Edward I. Eleanor, second daughter of Raymond Berenger IV., Count of Provence, Queen of Henry III. Eleanor, younger sister of Henry III., married (1) William Marshal, (2) Simon de Montfort. Elgin. Elizabeth, daughter of Edward I., Countess of Holland, afterwards of Hereford. Elizabeth de Burgh, queen of Robert (Bruce), King of Scots. Ellis, Sir Henry, ed. of _Chronica I. De Oxenedes_. Eland, William. Ely, bishopric of, isle of. Ely, Bishops of. See Marsh, Adam; Balsham, Hugh; Langham, Simon; Hotham, John. Eltham. Eltham, John of. See John. Englefield. English language; in law courts. Eric, King of Norway. Escheats. Esplechin, treaty of. Essex; earldom of. Essex, Countess of. See Isabella of Gloucester. Estates, the three. _Etsi de statu_, bull. Etaples. Ettrick forest. Eu, Count of, constable of France. Eure, the river. _Eulogium Historiarum_. Eustace the Monk. Evans, J.G., his edition of the _Red Book of Hergest_. Eversden, John of. Evesham, battle of; Abbey. Evreux. Evreux, Counts of. See Charles the Bad, King of Navarre; Philip the Bold. Evreux, Louis, Count of. See Louis. Exchequer courts for Wales. Exchequer records. Exeter, Bishops of. See Brantingham, Thomas; Stapledon, Walter. Exeter College, Oxford. Exports. Eynsham, Walter of. Eyville, John d'.

Fair of Lincoln, the. See Lincoln, battle of. Falkirk; battle of. Famine, of 1316, the; of wool, in Flanders. Farnham. Farrer's, W., _Lancashire Final Concords_. Faucigny. Fecamp. Fecamp, Peter Roger, Abbot of. See Clement VI. _Feet of Fines_. Felton, Sir Thomas, Seneschal of Aquitaine. Ferdinand of Portugal, Count of Flanders. Ferdinand III. the Saint, King of Cast& [Castile]. Ferrars, house of. Ferrars, Robert of, Earl of Derby. See Derby. Ferrars, William of, Earl of Derby. See Derby. Fife. Fife, Earl of. Fifteen, the Council of. Figeac. Firstfruits. Fitzalan, Edmund, and Richard, Earls of Arundel. See Arundel. Fitzalan of Bedale, Brian. Fitzalans, the. FitzAthulf, Constantine, sheriff of London. FitzGeoffrey, John. Fitzgerald, governor of Ireland. Fitzgerald, Maurice, justiciar of Ireland. Fitzgeralds, the. Fitzralph, Richard, Archbishop of Armagh. Fitzthedmar, Arnold. FitzWalter, Robert. Flemings, the. See Flanders. _Fleta_, law-book. Fletching. Flint, county of; town and castle of. Flodden, battle of. Florence. Florence, count of Holland. Florence of Worcester, Continuators of the _Chronicle_ of. _Flores Historiarum_, Roger of Wendover's. _Flores Historiarum_ (fourteenth century). Flagellants, the. Flamangrie, La. Flanders, county of. Flanders, counts of. See Ferdinand of Portugal, Guy of Dampierre, Louis of Male, Louis of Nevers, Robert of Béthune and Thomas of Savoy. Flanders, Joan, Countess of. See Joan. Flanders, Margaret of. See Margaret. _Foedera_, Rymer's. Foix. Foix, Count of. Foix, Gaston Phoebus, Count of. Fontenelles, Cistercian Abbey of. Fontevraud. Fordun, John, his _Chronicle_. Forests, charter of the; perambulation of the; enlargement of the. Fors, William of, Earl of Albemarle. See Albemarle. Fors, Isabella of. See Albemarle, Countess of. Forth, the. Fotheringhay, Castle of. Foulquois, Guy, Cardinal-bishop of Sabina. See Clement IV. Fountains Abbey. Fournier, James. See Benedict XII. Fournier's _Royaume d'Arles_. France; records of; chronicles of. France, King of, Edward III. takes title of. France, Kings of. See Philip Augustus, Louis VIII., Louis IX., Philip III., Philip IV., Louis X., Philip V., Charles IV., Philip VI., John and Charles V. Francis, St., of Assisi. Franciscans, the; the spiritual. Franks, the Salian. Frankton, Stephen of. Frascati. Fraser, William, Bishop of St. Andrews. Frederick II., the emperor. French language, the. Frescobaldi, the. Freynet, Gilbert of. See Gilbert. Friars, the; the four orders of; See Austin or hermits of order of St. Augustine; Bonhommes; Carmelite or White; Crutched; Dominicans; Francisans; ---- of the Penance of Jesus Christ or ---- of the Sack; Trinitarians or Maturins. Froissart, John. Froissart, _Chroniques_, ed. Luce; ed. Kervyn. Fronsac, Viscount of. Funck-Brentano's, F., editions of the _Chronique Artésienne_ and _Annales Gandenses_. Furness.

Gabaston. Gaetano, Benedict. See Boniface VIII. Galeazzo Visconti, Lord of Pavia. Galloway. Garonne, the river. Garter, Order of the. Gascony, See also Aquitaine. Gaston, Viscount of Béarn. Gaveston, Peter, Earl of Cornwall. Gelderland, Duke of. _Genitours_. Genoa. Genoese, the; crossbowmen. Geraldines of Leinster, the. Germany. Ghent. Ghent, Gilbert of. See Lincoln, Earls of. Giffard, Walter, Archbishop of York; his register. Giffords, the. Gilbert of Freynet. Gilsland. Gironde, the river. Glamorgan, lordship of. Glamorgan, Lords of. See Gloucester, Earls of. Glasgow, Robert Wishart, Bishop of. See Wishart. Glendower, Owen. Gloucester; St. Peter's Church; statute of; earldom of. Gloucester, Richard of Clare, Earl of. Gloucester, Earl of, Gilbert of Clare, son of the above. Gloucester, Earl of, Gilbert of Clare, son of the above. Gloucester, Ralph of Monthermer, Earl of. Gloucester, Audley, Earl of. Gloucester, Thomas of Woodstock, Earl of. See Thomas. Gloucester, Isabella, Countess of. See Isabella, Queen of King John. Gloucester, Robert of. Gloucestershire. Gomez, Peter, Cardinal. Gordon, Adam. Gothic architecture. See Architecture. Gough's _Itinerary of Edward I_. Gower, Gower, John; his works. Grampians, the. Granada. Grand, Richard le, Archbishop of Canterbury. Grandisons, the. Greek, study of. Greenfield, William, Archbishop of York. Gregory IX., Pope. Gregory X., Pope. Gregory XI, Pope. Grey, Reginald. Grey, Richard of. Grey's Sir T., _Scalachronica_. Grey, Walter, Archbishop of York; his register. Griffith ap Gwenwynwyn. Griffith ap Llewelyn. Griffith of Welshpool. Grosmont, castle of. Grosmont, Henry of, Earl of Derby. See Derby and Lancaster. Gross's, C., _Select Cases from the Coroners' Rolls_; his _Bibliography of British Municipal History_; his _Sources of English History_. Grosseteste, Robert, Bishop of Lincoln. his _Epistoae_. Gualo the legate. Guérande, treaty of. Guernsey. See also Channel Islands. Guesclin, Bertrand du. Guienne. See also Aquitaine and Gascony. Guillon, treaty of. Guînes. Guînes, Baldwin of. Guînes, Count of. Gurney, Thomas. Guy of Brittany, Count of Penthièvre. Guy of Dampierre, Count of Flanders. Guy of Lusignan, Lord of Cognac. Gwent. Gwenwynwyn, house of. Gwynedd. See also Wales, North. Gwynedd, house of.

Haddan and Stubbs' _Councils_. Haddington. Hadenham's, Edmund of, _Chronicle_. Haggerston. Hainault. Hainault, Counts of. See John and William. Hainault, Countess of, Abbess of Fontenelles. Hainault, Philippa of. See Philippa Queen. Hales, Alexander of. Halidon Hill, battle of. Halifax, John of. Hall's, H., _Customs Revenue_. Hall's, J, ed. of Minot's _Poems_. Hamilton, H.C., ed. of Walter of Hemingburgh. Hampole. Hampshire. Hapsburg, house of. Hapsburg, Rudolf of. See Rudolf. Harby. Harclay, Andrew, governor of Carlisle. See Carlisle, Earl of. Harcourt, Geoffrey of. Harcourts, the. Hardy, _Registrum Palatinum Dunelmense_. Harewell, John, Bishop of Bath. Harlech Castle. Harry's, Blind, _Wallace_. Hastings, battle of. Hastings, John, first Earl of Pembroke. See Pembroke. Hastings, John, second Earl of Pembroke. See Pembroke. Hastingses of Abergavenny, the. Hathern. Hauréau's _Histoire de la philosophie scholastique_. Haverfordwest. Hawarden. Hawkwood, John. Hay. Haydon's ed. of _Eulogium Historiarum_. Hearne. Hebrew, study of. Hebrews. See also Jews. Hedingham Castle. Hengham, Justice. Henley, Walter of. Hemingburgh, Walter of. Hennebont. Henry I., King of England. Henry II.. Henry III.; chroniclers for the reign of. Henry VIII. Henry, King of the Romans, son of Frederick II. Henry II. of Navarre. Henry II. of Trastarnara, King of Castile. Henry, Earl of Derby, afterwards King Henry IV. Henry of Lancaster, younger son of Earl Edmund; Earl of Leicester; Earl of Lancaster. Henry of Grosmont, Earl of Derby, then Earl afterwards Duke of Lancaster. Hereford; earldom of. Hereford, Bishops of. See Aigueblanche, Peter of; Cantilupe, St. Thomas of; Orleton, Adam. Hereford, Humphrey Bohun, Earl of. Hereford, Humphrey Bohun, grandson of above, Earl of. Hereford, Humphrey Bohun, son of above, Earl of. Herefordshire. Heretics, Albigensian. Hertford. Hesdin. Hewlett's editions of _Chronicles_. Hexham. Hexhamshire. Higden's, Randolph, _Polychronicon_. Highlands, the. Hingeston-Randelph's _Exeter Registers_. History, study of. Hohenstaufen, the. Holderness, ruled by Counts of Aumâle. Holland. Holland, Florence, Count of. Hollands, Earls of Kent. Holy Land, the. See Palestine and Crusades. Holywood, John of. See also Halifax. Honorius III, Pope. Honorius IV., Pope. Hood, Robin. Horn, Andrew. Horstmann, Dr., his _Legenda Anglie_. Horwood's, A.L., editions of _Year Books_. Hospitallers, the. Hotham, John, Bishop of Ely. Hotham, William of, Archbishop of Dublin. Hougue, La. Hoveden, or Howden, Roger of; his continuator. Howlett's ed. of _Monumenta Franciscana_. Howel the Good. Huelgas, las, monastery of. Hugh, Choir of St., at Lincoln. Hugh of Avalon, Bishop of Lincoln, St., Little St. Hugh of Lincoln. Hugh X., of Lusignan. See also Lusignan. Hugh XI. of Lusignan. See also Lusignan. Hull. Hulme, St. Benet's. Humanism. Humber, the. _Hundred Rolls_, the. Hungary, Primate of, visits Canterbury. Hungerford, Sir Thomas. Hunter's _Leet Jurisdiction of Norwich_; _Rotuli Selecti_. Huntingdon, David, Earl of. Huntingdon, Honour of. Huntingdon, Earl of, John the Scot. Huntingdon, Clinton, Earl of. Husbandry, Walter of Henley's treatise on.

_Imperium_, the. Immunities, baronial. Indre, the river. Ingham, Sir Oliver. Infantry, English; French; Irish; Scotch; Welsh. Innocent III., Pope. Innocent IV., Pope. Innocent VI., Pope. Inquisition, the, in England; in the Netherlands. Interregnum, the Great. Inverness. Iolande, daughter of Peter Mauclerc, Count of Brittany. Ireland. Ireland, the Butler of, made Earl of Ormonde. See Ormonde. Irthlingborough, Northamptonshire. Irvine. Isabella of Castile, daughter of Peter the Cruel, wife of Edmund, Earl of Cambridge. Isabella Marshal, wife of Richard of Cornwall. See Marshal. Isabella of Angoulême, Queen of John, and wife of Hugh of Lusignan. Isabella of France, Queen of Edward II.. Isabella of Gloucester, divorced wife of John, wife of Hubert de Burgh. Isabella, sister of Henry III., queen of Frederick II. Isabella, younger sister of Alexander II., wife of Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk. Islands, the Channel. See Channel Islands, the. Isleworth. Isle, the river. Isle de France, the. Isle Saint-Jean, Caen. Islip, Simon, Archbishop of Canterbury. Italy.

James, King of Sicily, son of Peter of Aragon; afterwards James II. of Aragon. Jaudy, the river. Jedburgh. Jerusalem, Latin kingdom of. Jerusalem, Patriarch of. See Bek, Antony. Jews, in England, the; expulsion of the. Joan of Champagne, Queen of Philip the Fair. Joan of Ponthieu, Queen of Ferdinand the Saint. Joan of the Tower, sister of Edward III., Queen of David Bruce. Joan, sister of Henry III., Queen of Alexander II. of Scotland. Joan, Countess of Flanders, wife of Thomas of Savoy. Joan, Countess of Kent, Princess of Wales, wife of Edward the Black Prince. Joan, daughter of Edward III. Joan, eldest daughter of Charles of Valois. Joan of Acre, daughter of Edward I. and Countess of Gloucester. Joan of Bar, grand-daughter of Edward I. Joan of Flanders, Countess of Penthièvre, wife of Charles of Blois. Joan of Toulouse, daughter of Raymond of Toulouse, wife of Alfonso of Poitiers. Joan, Princess of North Wales, wife of Llewelyn ap Iorwerth. Joan, sister of Richard I., grandmother of Joan of Poitiers. John, King. John, King of Bohemia. John, King of France. John (Balliol), King of Scots. John XXII., Pope. John, Duke of Berri. John II., Duke of Brabant. John III., Duke of Brabant. John II., Duke of Brittany. John III., Duke of Brittany. John IV., Duke of Brittany (Montfort). John V., Duke of Brittany (Montfort). John, Duke of Normandy. See also John, King of France. John of Avesnes, Count of Hainault. John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond, son of John II., Duke of Brittany, and nephew of Edward I. John of Eltham, son of Edward II., Earl of Cornwall. John of Gaunt, son of Edward III., Duke of Lancaster. John of Hainault, brother of William II. of Hainault. John of Montfort, Earl of Richmond. See John V., Duke of Brittany. John of Montfort, half-brother of John III. of Brittany. See John IV., Duke of Brittany. John the Scot, Earl of Chester. See Chester. Joinville, Joan of. Joinvilles, the. Joinville's _History of St. Louis_. Josselin Castle. Jowel, John. Judges, the. Jülich, Dukes of. Jurisprudence, Anglo-Norman; Roman. Justiciar, office of. Justiciars. See Burgh, Hubert de; Marshal, William; Roches, Peter des; Segrave, Stephen. Justiciars of Ireland. See Marsh, Geoffrey, and Fitzgerald, Maurice. Justiciars of Scotland. See Ormesby, William.

Keighley, Henry of, knight of the shire for Lancashire. Kelso. _Kenilworth, Dictum de_. Kenilworth Castle. Kennington. Kensham. Kent; earldom of. Kent, Earl of, Hubert de Burgh. See Burgh. Kent, Edmund of Woodstock, Earl of. See Edmund. Kerry (Wales); Vale of; scutage of. Kervyn de Lettenhove's edition of _Froissart_. Kesteven, South. Kidwelly, castle and lordship. Kildare, Curragh of. Kildare, Earl of. Kilkenny, Castle; statute of. Kilwardby, Robert, Archbishop of Canterbury. Kinghorn. Kingsford's, C.L., Song of _Lewes_. Kingston-on-Thames. Kinloss. Kintyre. Kirk's _Accounts of the Obedientiaries of Abingdon_. Kirkby, John, treasurer of Edward I and Bishop of Ely. Kirkby's _Quest_. Kirkcudbright, stewartry of. Kirkliston, 213. Klerk, Jan van, his _Chronicle_. Knaresborough, castle and town. Knighton's, Henry, _Chronicle_. Knights, of the Shire; Templars; of St. John; of the Garter; of the Star. Knowles, Sir Robert. Knyvett, Sir John. Köhler's _Entwickelung des Kriegswesens in der Ritterzeit_.

Labourers, Statute of. Lacy, Alice, Countess of Lancaster. Lacy, Henry, Earl of Lincoln. See Lincoln. Lacy, Hugh de, Earl of Ulster. See Ulster. Lacy, John de, Constable of Chester. See also Lincoln, Earls of. Lacy, the house of; the house of, in Meath. Lagny, Abbot of. Lalinde. Lamberton, Bishop of St. Andrews. Lambeth, treaty of. Lancashire. Lancaster, Alice, Countess of. See Alice. Lancaster, Blanche, Duchess of. See Blanche. Lancaster, Edmund, Earl of. See Edmund. Lancaster, Henry, Earl of. See Henry. Lancaster, Henry of Grosmont, Earl and Duke of. See Henry. Lancaster, honour of; town; house of; records of Duchy of. Lancaster, John of Gaunt, Duke of. See John. Lanercost; chronicle of. Langham, Simon, Chancellor and Archbishop of Canterbury. Langland, William. Langley. Langley, Geoffrey of. Langlois, Charles V., his _Philippe le Hardi_; his _Histoire de France_. Langon. Langtoft's, Peter, _Chronicle_. Langton, John, Bishop of Chichester. Langton, Simon, Archdeacon of Canterbury. Langton, Stephen, Archbishop of Canterbury. Langton, Walter, Bishop of Lichfield. Language, English; French; German; Latin; Scottish. Languedoc. Laon. Laon, Robert Lecoq, Bishop of. Laonnais, the. Lapsley's County _Palatine of Durham_. Latimer, Lord, Chamberlain. Latin-language. Lavisse and Rambaud's _Histoire Générale_. Lavisse's _Histoire de France_. Law, study of English; literature of; the Salic; English. Laws, Celtic, of Highlanders and Strathclyde Welsh. Lawyers, Italian; English. Layamon's English version of Wace's _Brut_. Lechler's _Wycliffe_. Lecoq, Robert, Bishop of Laon. Leeds Castle (Kent). Leek, treaty of. Lehugeur's _Philippe le Long_. Leicester; earldom of. Leicester, Abbot of. Leicester, Countess of. See Eleanor. Leicester, Henry, Earl of. See Henry, Earl of Lancaster. Leicester, Robert Beaumont, Earl of. Leicester, Simon de Montfort, Earl of. Leicester, Simon de Montfort, the elder, Count of Toulouse and titular Earl of. Leicester, Thomas, Earl of. See Thomas, Earl of Lancaster. Leicestershire. Leinster. Leon. Leon. L'Estrange, Roger. Levant, the. Lewes; battle of; mise of. Lewis' _Life of Wiclif_. _Libellus Famosus_, Edward III.'s. Libourne. Lichfield, Bishops of. See Langton, Walter; Northburgh, Roger. Liddesdale. See also Liddell. Liddell. Liebermann, Dr., works by. Liege, William, Bishop of. See William. Liege. Lille. Limburg. Limerick. Limoges; sack of. Limousin. Lincoln; Castle; battle of; Cathedral; parliament of (1301); parliament at (1316). Lincoln, Bishops of. See Wells, Hugh of; Hugh, St., of Avalon; Grosse-teste, Robert; Burghersh, Henry. Lincoln, Richard le Grand, Chancellor of. See Canterbury. Lincoln, Gilbert of Ghent, Earl of. Lincoln, Henry Lacy, Earl of. Lincoln, John de Lacy, Earl of, 45, 47. Lincoln, Randolph de Blundeville, Earl of. See also Chester. Lincoln, Thomas of Lancaster, Earl of. See Thomas, Earl of Lancaster. Lincolnshire. Linlithgow. Lionel of Antwerp, son of Edward III., Duke of Clarence and Earl of Ulster. Lisieux; battle near. Literature in the thirteenth century; French; English. Literature in the fourteenth century; English; French. Littleton's _Tenures_. Llandaff, Bishop of. Llandilo. Llewelyn ap Griffith, Prince of Wales. Llewelyn ap Iorwerth, Prince of North Wales. Llewelyn Bren. Lleyn. Lloughor. Lochmaben Castle. Lodge's _Close of the Middle Ages_. Logroño. Loire, the river. Lombards. Lombardy, cities of. London. London, Bishops of. See Sainte-Mère-Eglise, William of; Basset, Fulk; Baldock, Ralph; Courtenay, William. London, Mayors of. See Serlo; Waleys, Henry le, and Pyel, John. London, Sheriffs of. See FitzAthulf, Constantine. London, treaty of. Longjumeau. Longman's _Life and Times of Edward III._. Longnon's _Atlas historique de la France_. Longsword, William, Earl of Salisbury. See Salisbury. Lorraine. Loserth's _Geschichte des späteren Mittelalters_. Lot, the river. Lothians, the. Loughborough. Louis, Count of Evreux. Louis, Duke of Anjou, brother of Charles V. of France. Louis of Bavaria, the Emperor. Louis of France, afterwards Louis VIII. Louis IX. (St. Louis), King of France. Louis X., King of France. Louis of Male, Count of Flanders. Louis of Nevers, Count of Flanders. Louth; Earldom of. Louth, John of Bermingham, Earl of. Louvain. Luard, Dr. H.R., his _Roberti Grosse-teste Epistolæ_; his editions of _Annales Monastici_; B. Cotton, and _Flores Historiarum_, and Matthew Paris' _Chronica Majora_. Luce's _Jeunesse de Betrand du Guesclin_; _La France pendant la Guerre de Cent An_. Luce and Raynouart's edition of Froissart's _Chronicle_. _Lucy_, Anthony. Ludlow. Lundy Island. Lusignan, Alice of. Lusignan, Aymer of. See Valence, Aymer de. Lusignan, Guy of. Lusignan, House of. Lusignan, Hugh X. of. Lusignan, Hugh XI. of. Lusignan (town). Lusignan, William of. See Valence, William of. Lussac, bridge of. Luxemburg, house of. Lyons, Richard. Lyons. Lyons, Council at (1245). Lyons, Council at (1274). Lyrics, English. Lys, the river.

Macaulay's, G.C., edition of Gower's _Works_. Mackinnon's _History of Edward III._ Macon, league of. Madden's, Sir F., edition of Matthew Paris' _Historia Minor_. Madog ap Llewelyn. Maelgwn. Maenan. Maes Madog, battle of. Maidstone. Maine. Mains. Elector of. Maitland's, F.W., _Memoranda de Parliamento_; _Select Pleas of the Crown_; _Bracton's Note Book_; _Le Mirroir des Justices_; _Select Passages from Bracton,_ etc.; _Year Books of Edward II._ and _Canon Law_. Maitland, F.W., and Pollock, Sir F., _History of English Law_.

Makower's, F., _Constitutional History of the Church of England_. Malestroit, truce of. Malmesbury, the Monk of. Malmesbury, William of. Malton. Maltravers, John. Mandeville, Geoffrey de. Manfred, King of Sicily. Mangonels. Manny, Sir Walter. Mannyng, Robert. Mansel, John. Mansura. Maps for period. Mar, Donald, Earl of. Marcel, Stephen. March of Calais. March (of Scotland), Patrick, Earl of. March of Wales, the. March of Wales, Earl of the. See also Mortimer, Edmund, and Mortimer, Roger. March, Edmund Mortimer, Earl of (d. 1381). March, Roger Mortimer, first Earl of (d. 1330). See also Mortimer, Roger, of Wigmore (d. 1330). Marche, Counts of La. Marche, La. Mare, Sir Peter de la. Margam, annals of abbey of. Margaret of England, Queen of Alexander III. of Scotland. Margaret of Flanders. Margaret of France, sister of Philip the Fair, and second Queen of Edward I. Margaret of Hainault, sister of Queen Philippa, Empress of Louis of Bavaria. Margaret of Provence, Queen of Louis IX. of France. Margaret, Queen of Eric, King of Norway, and mother of Margaret, Queen of Scots. Margaret, Queen of Scots, the Maid of Norway, daughter of Margaret and Eric of Norway. Margaret, sister of Alexander II. of Scotland, wife of Hubert de Burgh. Margaret, sister of David of Scotland. Margaret, Viscountess of Limoges. Margaret, wife of Philip of Burgundy. Mark, Count of. Marlborough, statute of. Marseilles. Marsh, Adam; _Letters of_. Marsh, Geoffrey, justiciar of Ireland. Marshal, office of. Marshal, house of. Marshal, the Earls. See Pembroke, Earl of; Thomas of Brotherton, Earl; March, Mortimer, Edmund, Earl of March; and Percy, Henry. Marshal, Gilbert. See Pembroke, Gilbert Marshal, Earl of. Marshal, Isabella, wife of Richard of Cornwall. Marshal, Richard. See Pembroke, Richard Marshal, Earl of. Marshal, William. See Pembroke, William Marshal, the elder, Earl of, regent of England. Marshal, William, the younger. See Pembroke, William Marshal, the younger, Earl of. Martin IV., Pope. Martin, papal envoy. Martin's, C. Trice, _Registrum Epistolarum J. Peckham_. Mary of Brabant, Queen of France. Maturins, the. Mauclerc, Peter, Count of Brittany. See Peter. Maud, daughter of Henry, Duke of Lancaster. Maud of Artois, wife of Otto, Count of Burgundy. Maud's Castle. Mauléon, Savary de. Mauley, Peter de. Mauleys, the family of. Maupertuis. Mauron, battle of. Maxwell's _Robert the Bruce_. Maye, the river. Meath. Meaux, treaty of. Mechlin. Mediterranean, the. Melton, William, Archbishop of York. Melrose Abbey. Melrose, chronicle of. Menai Straits, the. Mendicants, the See also Friars. Meopham, Simon, Archbishop of Canterbury. Mercenaries. Merchants, statute of; foreign; English. Meredith ap Owen. Merioneth. Merionethshire. Merlin. Merton. "Merton, Rule of,". Merton, Walter of. Messina, Archbishop of. Methven, battle of. Metingham, John of. Meyer, Paul, his edition of the _Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal_. Miausson, the river. Michel, Francisque. Milan. _Ministers' Accounts_. Minorites, the, See also Franciscans. Minot, Lawrence. Minsterworth, Sir John. Miracle plays. Mirambeau. Miranda. _Mirroir des Justices, Le_. Mise of Amiens, the. Mise of Lewes, the. Model Parliament, the. See Parliament. Mohammedans, the. Molinier, Auguste, Sources _de l'histoire de France_. Monasteries. _Monasticon_, Dugdale's. Monmouth, castle and town of. Monnow, the river. Mont Cenis, the. Montague, Sir William. See also Salisbury, Earls of. Montague; the house of. Montfavence, Bertrand of, Cardinal. Montfichet, Richard of. Montfort l'Amaury. Montfort, county of. Montfort, Amaury of. Montfort, the house of (Dukes of Brittany). See also John IV. and John V., Dukes of Brittany. Montfort, the house of (Earls of Leicester). Montfort, Henry of. Montfort, John of, the elder. See Brittany, John, Duke of. Montfort, John of, the younger. See Brittany, John, Duke of. Montfort, Peter of. Montfort, Simon of, Count of Toulouse. See also Leicester. Montfort Simon of, Earl of Leicester. See Lester. Montfort, Simon of, the younger, son of Simon, Earl of Leicester. Montgomery, castle and town of. Monthermer, Ralph of. Monthermer, Thomas of, _Montjoie_. Montmorenci, Matthew of. Montpellier, University of. Montpezat, lord of. Montreuil-sur-mer. treaty of. Montrose. Mont-Saint-Martin, Monastery of. _Monumenta Franciscana_, Brewer's. _Monumenta Hist. Germanicae, Scriptores_, Pertz'. Moors of Granada. Moor, Sir Thomas de la. Moray. Moray, Randolph, Earl of. Moray, Sir Andrew. Morbihan. Morgan of Caerleon. Morgan, leader of Glamorganshire rebels. Morgarten, battle of. Morlaix. battle of. Morley, Robert. Mortimer, Edmund (d. 1303). Mortimer, Edmund (d. 1381). See March, Edmund Mortimer, Earl of. Mortimer, Roger, of Chirk. Mortimer, Roger, of Wigmore (d. 1282). Mortimer, Roger, of Wigmore (d. 1330). See also March, Roger Mortimer, first Earl of. Mortimer, Roger, grandson of Roger Mortimer, first Earl of March. Mortimer, Roger, son of Edmund, Earl of March. Mortimer, the house of. _Mortmain_, Statute of. Moselle, the river. Mountchensi, Joan of. Mount Sorrel. Mowbray, John of (of Scotland). Mowbray, John of. Murimuth, Adam. Myton, battle of.

Najarilla, the river. Nájera, battle of. Nantes. Naples. Narbonne. Nassau, Adolf of. King of the Romans. See Adolf, King of the Romans. Navarre, Blanche of Artois, Queen of. See Blanche. Navarre, Henry III., King of. See Henry. Navarre, King of, Charles the Bad. See Charles. Navarre, Philip of. See Philip. Navarre, Theobald IV., King of. See Theobald. Navarre. Navarete, Navy, the English; the French; the Norman. Neath Abbey. Netherlands, the. Neufbourg, house of. Neufbourg, Henry of, Earl of Warwick. See Warwick. Nevers, Louis of. See Louis of Nevers, Count of Flanders. Nevers, the Count of. Neville of Raby, Lord. Neville, Ralph, Bishop of Chichester and Chancellor. Nevilles, the. Neville's Cross, battle of. Newark. Newcastle-on-Tyne. Newport-on-Usk. Nicholas IV., Pope. Nicolas's _History of the Royal Navy_. Nine, Council of. Niort. Nivernais, the. Norfolk; earldom of. Norfolk, Roger Bigod, Earl of. Norfolk, Roger Bigod, Earl of, nephew of above. Norfolk, Thomas of Brotherton, Earl of See Thomas. Norham Castle. Norman architecture. Normandy. Normandy, Charles, Duke of. See Charles. Normandy, John, Duke of. See John, King of France. Normans, the; in Ireland, the. Norsemen in Scotland, the. Northallerton. Northampton; parliaments at; treaty of Brigham confirmed at; treaty of; earldom of. Northampton, William Bohun, Earl of. Northamptonshire. Northburgh, Roger, Bishop of Lichfield or Coventry and treasurer. Northumberland. Norway, Eric, King of. See Eric. Norway, Margaret, the Maid of, Queen of Scotland. See Margaret. Norwich. Norwich, Bishops of. See Ayermine, William, and Pandulf. Nottingham. Nouaillé.

Ochils, the. Ockham, William of. O'Connor, Phelim, King of Connaught. See Connaught. Odiham. O'Donnells, the. Oléron, Isle of. Oliver, illegitimate son of King John. Oloron, treaty of. Oman's _History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages_. O'Neils, the. Oise, the river. Ordainers, the Lords. Order of the Garter, the. Order of the Star, the. Orders, the Religious. Orders of Friars. Orewyn Bridge, battle of. _Originalia_ Rolls, the. Orkneys, the. Orleans, Duke of. Orleton, Adam, Bishop of Hereford. Ormonde, the Butler of Ireland, made Earl of. Ormesby, William, justiciar. Orne, the river. Orvieto. Orwell, port and river. Oseney Abbey; _Annals_ of. Oswestry. O'Tooles, the. Otto, nuncio to England; legate. Otto, Count of Burgundy. Ottobon, Cardinal, legate. Ottocar, King of Bohemia. Ouistreham. Ouse, the river. Owain _Lawgoch. See_ Owen of Wales. Owen of Wales, Sir Owen ap Thomas ap Rhodri. Owen the Red, son of Griffith ap Llewelyn. Owens College _Historical Essays_. Oxford, University of, Balliol College, Merton College, the Provisions of, parliament at, Exeter College. Oxfordshire. Oxnead, John of.

Painting in Westminster Abbey. Palatine, the Elector. Palermo. Palestine. Palestrina, Cardinal-bishop of. Palgrave's, Sir F.T., _Parliamentary Writs and Writs of Military Service_. his _Documents illustrating the History of Scotland_. Pamplona. Pandulf, Papal Legate and Bishop of Norwich. Pantheism. Papacy, the, See also under Popes. Paris, University of, College of the Sorbonne in, Cathedral of, parliament of, treaty of (1259), treaty of (1303), treaty of (1327). Paris, Matthew. Parliament, of, the mad (1258), of Oxford, growth Of, at Oxford (1264), at Northampton (1267), at Bury (1267), of 1273, at Westminster (1275), of 1283, at Shrewsbury (1284), at Acton Burnell (1284), of 1289, at London (1294), the model(1295), of the perambulation (1300), at Lincoln (1301), at Westminster (1305), of Carlisle (1307), of 1308, at Westminster (1309), at Stamford (1309), of London (1310), at London (1315), at Lincoln (1316), the Irish, at York (1318), at York (1319), in London (July, 1320), at York (May, 1322), at Westminster (January, 1327), at Salisbury (October, 1328), at Northampton (1329), at Winchester (March, 1330), prorogued to Westminster (November, 1330), of April 23, 1341, of April, 1343, of 1347, of 1371, of 1372, the Good (April, 1376), of 1377, of Paris, see Paris, parliament of. Parthenai. Passelewe, Robert. _Pastaureaux_, the. Patrick, Earl of March, See also March (Scotland), Earl of. Pauli's, R., _Geschichte von England_. Pavia, Galeazzo Visconti, Lord of. Paynel, Fulk. _Pearl_, the, poem of. Peasants' revolt, the. Peasants, revolts of French. Peckham, John, Archbishop of Canterbury. Peebles. _Pell Records_, the. Pembroke, earldom of. Pembroke, Gilbert Marshal, Earl of. Pembroke, Richard Marshal. Earl of. Pembroke, William Marshal, the elder, Regent and Earl of, _History of_. Pembroke, William Marshal, the younger, Earl of. Pembroke, Aymer of Valence, Earl of. Pembroke. John Hastings, second Earl of that house. Pembroke. William of. See William of Valence. Pembrokeshire, palatine county of. Penance of Jesus Christ, Friars of the. Penne. Penrith. Penthièvre, county of. Penthièvre-Tréguier, county of. Perche, Count of. Percy, Henry, grandson of Earl Warenne. Percy, Henry, marshal of England. Percy, Sir Thomas, seneschal of Poitou. Percy, the family of. Périgord. Périgord, Count of. Périgueux, bishopric of. Péronne. Perpendicular style in architecture. Perrers, Alice. Perth. Pertz's _Monumenta_. Peruzzi, the. Perveddwlad. Peter, Cardinal. See Gomez, Peter. Peter III., King of Aragon. Peter Mauclerc, Count of Brittany. Peter of Aigueblanche, Bishop of Hereford, See Aigueblanche. Peter of Gaveston. See Gaveston. Peter of Savoy, Earl of Richmond. Peter of Spain, Cardinal. Peter Roger, Archbishop of Rouen. See Roger, Peter, and Clement VI. Peter the Chamberlain. Peter the Cruel, King of Castile. Peterhouse, Cambridge. Peter's Pence. Petit's _Charles de Valois_. Petit-Dutaillis, M., his _Étude sur Louis VIII._ Petrarch, Francis. _Petrariae_. Pevensey Castle. Philip II., Augustus, King of France. Philip III., the Bold, King of France. Philip IV., the Fair, King of France. Philip V., the Long, King of France. Philip VI. of Valois, King of France. Philip, Count of Savoy. Philip, Count of Valois, See also Philip VI., King of France. Philip of Navarre. Philip of Rouvres, Duke of Burgundy. Philip the Bold, Count of Évreux. Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, son of John, King of France. Philippa, daughter of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, Countess of March. Philippa of Hainault, Queen of Edward III. Philippine, daughter of Guy of Dampierre, Count of Flanders. Philpots, the. _Philobiblon,_ the, of Richard of Bury. Philosophy. Picardy. Pike, L.O., his editions of the _Year Books_. Pipe, James. Pipe Rolls. Pipton, treaty o. Pirenne's _Bibliographie de l'histoire de Belgique_. _Histoire de Belgique_. Pisa, Agnellus of. See Agnellus. Plague, the. See Black Death. Plays, miracle. Plessis, John du, Earl of Warwick. See Warwick. Ploermel. Plympton. Poissy. Poitevins. Poitiers, battle of, sources for. Poitiers, Alfonse of. See Alfonse. Poitou, scutage of. Poitou, Count of, Richard, son of King John, Count of. See Richard. Polain's edition of _Jean le Bel,_ Pole, the house of Pole, William de la. Pollock, Sir P., and Maitland's _History of English Law,_ _Polychronicon,_ Higden's. Pons. Pont-Sainte-Maxence. Pontefract, Castle. Ponthieu. Pontigny. Pontoise. Pontvallain, battle of. Poole's, R.L., _Mediæval Thought,_ his _Wycliffe_, his _Oxford Historical Atlas_. Popes. See under Innocent III., Honorius III., Gregory IX., Innocent IV., Alexander IV., Urban IV., Clement IV., Gregory X., Nicholas III., Martin IV., Honorius IV., Nicholas IV., Celestine V., Boniface VIII., Benedict XL, Clement V., John XXII., Benedict XII., Clement VI., Urban V., Gregory XL. Port Blanc. Ports, the Cinque. Portsmouth. Portugal, Ferdinand of. Powys; Castle. Powys, Charltons of. See Charltons. _Praemunire_ statute of. Preachers, Order of. See Dominicans. Pressuti's Registers of _Honorius III._ Preston. Prices, rise in, after the Black Death. Principality of Wales, the. Priories, the alien. Proclamation in English, French and Latin. Prothero's _Simon de Montfort_. Provençals. Provence. Provence, Raymond Berengar IV., Count of, See Raymond Berengar. Proving. Provisions, papal; of Oxford, the; of Westminster, the; of Worcester. Provisors, statute of. Public Record Office, the. Purveyance. Puymirol. Pyel, John, mayor of London. Pyrenees, the.

Quercy _Quia Emptores_ statute. Quièret, Hugh. Quincy, Saer de, Earl of Winchester. See Winchester.

Rageman, statute of. Ragman. Roll, the. Ranee, the river. Randolph, Sir Thomas, Earl of Moray. Rashdall's _Universities of the Middle Ages_. Rathlin Island. Rationalism. Ravenspur. Raymond Berengar IV., Count of Provence. Raymond VII., Count of Toulouse. Record of Carnarvon, the. Record Commission, the. Records, as sources for history; of Court of Chancery; of Court of Exchequer; of Common Law Courts; of King's Bench and Court of Common Pleas; of Scotland; Welsh; Papal. _Recueil des historiens de la France_, begun by Dom Bouquet. Red Hills, the. Redesdale. Redesdale, Gilbert of Umfraville, Lord of. See Umfraville. Regalis Devotionis, Bull. Reginald, Count of Gelderland. Registers, Bishops; Papal Calendars of. Reims. Reims, Archbishop of. Renaissance of the twelfth century, the. Rennes. Réole, La. _Reports of Deputy-keeper of the Records_; _of Historical Manuscripts Commission_. Revolt, the peasants'. Reynolds, Walter, Treasurer of England and Archbishop of Canterbury. Rhine, the. Rhine, Count Palatine of the. Rhineland, the. Rhos, Cantred of. Rhone Valley, the. Rhuddlan Castle. Rhunoviog, Cantred of. Rhys ap Howel. Rhys ap Meredith. Rhys, J., and J.G. Evans' _Red Book of Hergest_. Rich, St. Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury. Richard I. Richard of Bordeaux, son of the Black Prince. Richard, son of King John, titular Count of Poitou, Earl of Cornwall and King of the Romans. Richmond, John, Earl of. See John of Gaunt. Richmond, John of Brittany, Earl of. See John of Brittany. Richmond, Peter Mauclerc, Earl of. See Peter, Count or Duke of Brittany. Richmond, Peter of Savoy, Earl of. See Peter of Savoy. Richmond (place). Richmond, Simon de Montfort, made Earl of. See Leicester, Earl of Rievaux. Rigaud, Bishop of Winchester Rigaud, Eudes, Archbishop of Rouen. Rigg's, J.M., _Select Pleas of the Jewish Exchequer_. Riley's, H.T., his edition of _Rishanger_, etc. Rioms. Ripon. Rishanger, William. Rivaux, Peter of, treasurer. Robert I, Bruce, King of Scots. See also Bruce, Robert. Robert II, Steward of Scotland, afterwards King Robert II. Robert, Steward of Scotland. Robert, Count of Artois. Robert of Artois, enemy of Philip VI. Robert, Count of Namur. Roberts' _Calendarium Genealogicum_. Roche Derien, La, battle of. Rochelle, La. Rochelle, battle of La. Roches, Peter des, Bishop of Winchester. Rochester, Castle and city. Rockingham Castle. Rodez, Bishop of. Roger, Peter. See also Clement VI Pope. Rogers, J.E. Thorold, _History of Agriculture and Prices_. Roles Gascons. See Rolls Roll, the Ragman. Rolle, Richard Rolls; the hundred; patent; the close; of parliament; series, the; of Court of Chancery; Charter; _Escheat_ or _Inquisitiones post mortem_; fine; _Excerpt a e Rotulis Finium_ (C. Roberts'); exchequer; Assize; Coroners; _Romana Mater_, bull. Romances. Romanesque architecture. Romans, Adolf of Nassau, King of the, see Adolf of Nassau; Charles of Moravia, King of the, see Charles IV; Henry, King of the, see Henry; Rudolf of Hapsburg, King of the, see Rudolf; William of Holland, King of the, see William of Holland. Rome. Romney. Romont. Romorantin Castle. Roncesvalles, Pass of. Roncière, de la, _Histoire de la Marine Française_. Rose Castle. Roslin. Rostein, the family of. Rotuli. See Rolls. Round Table at Windsor. Rouen, Archbishops of. See Rigaud, Eudes, Roger, Peter. Rouergue, Counts of. See Armagnac, Count of. Roussillon. Roxburgh, town and castle; treaty of. Royan. Rudel, Elie, lord of Bergerac. Rudolf of Hapsburg, King of the Romans. Runnymede. Ruthin. Rye. Rymer's _Foedera_.

Sabina, Guy Foulquois, Cardinal-bishop of, papal legate. See Clement IV. Sacerdotium, the. Sack, Friars of the. Sailors, English. Saints, English, honour paid to. St. Albans; abbey; chroniclers of abbey of; St Albans, Abbot Simon of. St Andrews; Bishops of. See Fraser and Lamberton. Saint-Bavon, abbey of. St. Davids, Bishop of. See Bek, Thomas. Saint-Denis. Saint-Émilion. Saint-Germain-en-Laye. St. Giles, John of. Saint-James-de-Beuvron. Saint-Jean-d'Angely. Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port. St. John, John of. Saint-Lo. Saint-Macaire. Saint-Mahé. Saint-Malo. Saint-Omer. Saint-Pol-de-Leon. St. Paul's, London; canons of; dean of; annalist of; See also London. Saint-Quentin. Saint-Sardos. Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte. Saint-Sever. Saint-Vaast-de-la-Hougue. Saint-Valery. Sainte-Mère-Eglise, William of, Bishop of London. Saints, English. Saintes. Saintonge. Salerno, Charles, Prince of. Salic Law, the. Salisbury; cathedral; treaty of; parliaments at. Salisbury, Henry, of Lacy, Earl of. See Lincoln. Salisbury, Thomas of Lancaster, Earl of. See Thomas. Salisbury, William Longsword, Earl of. Salisbury, William Montague, Earl of. See also Montague, William. Salisbury, William Montague, Earl of (son of the above). Salvatierra. Sambre, the river. Sanchia of Provence, second wife of Richard of Cornwall. Sandal Castle. Sandale, Bishop of Winchester. Sandwich. Santander. Satires, English. Savoy; palace of the. Savoy, Amadeus III., Count of Savoy. See Amadeus. Savoy, Boniface of. See Boniface. Savoy, Peter of. See Peter. Savoy, Philip of. See Philip. Savoy, Thomas of. See Thomas. Savoyards, the. Saxony. _Scalachronica_, Sir T. Grey's. Scarborough Castle. Scheldt, the river. Schiltron of pikemen. Schism between eastern and western Churches. Scholasticism. Science. _Scimus Fili_, papal letter. Scone. Scotland. Scrope, Sir Richard le, treasurer. Sculpture. Scutage of Bedford, the; of Kerry; of Poitou. Seeley's _Life and Reign of Edward I._ Segrave, John. Segrave, Stephen. Seine, the river. Selby, William. Selden Society, the. Selkirk; forest of; See Ettrick. Sens. Sens, William of. Septs, the Irish. Serlo, Mayor of London. Severn, the river. Sheen. Sherburn-in-Elmet. Sheriffs; for Scotland. Shire, system in Wales; courts; knights of the. Shrewsbury; Castle of; treaty of; parliament at. Shrewsbury, Ralph of, Bishop of Bath and Wells. Shropshire. Sicilian Vespers, the. Sicily. Silegrave's Henry of, _Chronicle_. Simony. Siward, Richard. Skeat's editions of Chaucer and Langland. Skelton Castle. Skenfrith, Castle of. Skicsea Castle. Sluys. Smith's, S. Armitage, _John of Gaunt_. Smithfield. Snowdon. Soissonais, the. Soisy. Sellers, Rostand de, seneschal of Gascony. Sologne, the. Solway, the. Somme, the river. Sorbon, Robert of. Soubise. Southampton. Southwark. Spalding, Peter of. Spain. See also Aragon and Castile. Spain, Peter of, Cardinal. See Peter. Speaker, office of. Spruner-Menke's _Historischer Hand-Atlas_. Staffordshire. Stammoor. Stamford; parliaments at; statute of. Stanley Abbey, Chronicle of. Staple, ordinance of the; system the. Stapledon, Walter, Bishop of Exeter. Statute of ---- Acton Burnell. Carlisle (1307). _De Donis_. Gloucester. Kilkenny. Marlborough. Merchants. Mortmain. _Praemunire_. Provisors. _Quia Emptores_. Rageman. Stamford. Treasons (1352). Wales. Westminster, the first; the second; the third. 1341 as to election of auditors of royal officers. _Statutum de Tallagio won concedendo_ Stephen, papal collector. Stephen, King. Stephens, W. R W., his _History of the English Church_. Stevenson's, J., _Documents of Scotland_; _Chronicon de Lanenost_; edition of _Coggeshall's Chronicon Anglicanum_. Stevenson's, W.H., _Records of Nottingham_. Steward, of England, Simon de Montfort; of Scotland, the. Stewart Kings of Scotland. Stirling Bridge, battle of. Stirling, castle and town. Stone, use of, in building houses. Stratford. Stratford, John, chancellor, Bishop of Winchester and Archbishop of Canterbury. Stratford, Robert, Bishop of Chichester, chancellor. Strathearn. Strathspey. Stratton, Adam of. Strongbow. Stubbs' _Select Charters_; Councils; edition of Walter of Coventry; _Chronicles of Edward I and Edward II._; _Constitutional History_. _Studium_, the. _Studium Generale_. See University. Subinfeudation. _Subsidy Rolls_. Sudbury, Simon of, Archbishop of Canterbury. Suffolk. Suffolk, Ufford, Earl of. Surrey. Sussex. Swale, the river. Swaledale. Swansea, castle and town. Swinbrooke. Syria.

Taillebourg, battle of. _Tallagio non concedendo, Statutum de_. Talleyrand, the Cardinal. Tancarville, Lord of, Chamberlain of France. Tany, Luke de, seneschal of Gascony. Tarascon, Treaty of. _Taxatio Ecclesiastica Angliæ et Walliae_. Taxation; papal; of clergy. Taxes, on exports; on land. Taxster, John de, Chronicle of. Tayster. See Taxster. Teivi, the river. Templars, Order of the; suppression of the. Temple, Church of the; the New. Temple, Knights of the. See Templars. Tertiaries. _Testa de Neville_, the. Thames, the. Theiner's _Vetera Monumenta Hib. et Scot. Historiam Illustrantia_. Theobald IV, Count of Champagne and King of Navarre. Theology. Thérouanne. Thiérache, the. Thirty, battle of the. Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, Leicester and Derby. Thomas of Brotherton, Earl of Norfolk, son of Edward I. Thomas of Savoy, uncle of Eleanor of Provence. Thomas of Woodstock, Earl of Gloucester. Thomas, St. Aquinas See Aquinas, St. Thomas. Thomas, St., of Canterbury; translation of relics of. See also Becket. Thomas, St., of Cantilupe. See Cantilupe. Thomist teaching. See Aquinas, St. Thomas. Thompson's, Sir E. Maunde, _Chronicon Angliæ_; _Chronicon Galfridi le Baker_. Thoresby, John, Archbishop of York. Thorpe, Benjamin, his _Florence of Worcester_. Thorpe, Sir Robert, Chancellor and Chief Justice. Thouars, house of. Thouars, the Viscount of. Tintagel Castle. Tickhill Castle. Torksey. Torture. Toulouse. Toulouse, Joan, Countess of. See Joan. Toulouse, Raymond VII., Count of. See Raymond VII. Touraine. Tournai. Tournaments. Tours. Tout's _Edward I._; _Papacy and Empire_. Tower, of London, the; the Round, Windsor. Tower Hill. Towns, growth of; Gascon; Welsh; "Staple". Towy, the river. Trade. Trailbaston, Ordinance of. Translations into English. Treasons, Statute of. Treasurer, office of. Treaty of ---- Aberconway. Amiens. Athis. Berwick. Bordeaux. Brétigni. Brigham. Bruges. Calais (1347); (1360). Canfranc. Coblenz. Esplechin. Guérande. Guillond. Lambeth. Leek. London. Malestroit. Meaux. Montreuil. Newcastle. Northampton. Oloron. Paris (1259); (1303); (1327). Pipton. Roxburgh. Saint-Germain. Salisbury. Shrewsbury. Tarascon. Valenciennes. Vincennes. _Trébuchet_, the. Tréguier; County of Penthièvre-Tréguier. Trent, the river. Trevelyan's, G.M., _England in the Age of Wycliffe_. Trevet. See Trivet. Trier. Trim. Trinitarian Friars, the. Trivet, Nicholas, Dominican chronicler. Trokelowe, J. de, _Annales_. Troyes. Trussell, Sir William. Tunbridge. Tunis. Turner's, G.J., _Pleas of the Forest_; _Select Pleas of the Forest_; _Minority of Henry III., 1_. Turberville, Payne of. Turberville, Sir Thomas. Turks, the. Tuscans. Tuscany. Tutbury Castle. Tweed, the river. Tweeddale. Twemlow's _Calendars of Papal Registers_. Twenge, Sir Robert. "Twenty-Four," the. Twiss, Sir T.'s edition of Bracton. Tyburn Elms. Tynedale. Tynemouth. Tyre, Archbishop of.

Ufford, Earl of Suffolk. See Suffolk. Ughtred, Sir Thomas. Ulster. Ulster, Hugh de Lacy, Earl of. Ulster, Lionel of Clarence, Earl of. See also Lionel. Ulster, Richard de Burgh, Earl of. Umfravilles, the. Umfraville, Gilbert of, Lord of Redesdale. _Unam Sanctam_ Bull. Union, treaty of, between England and Scotland. Universities, the. See also Cambridge, Montpellier, Oxford, Paris. Urban IV, Pope. Urban V, Pope. Ure, the river. Usk Castle and town. Usk, River; Valley, the. Usury.

Vaissète's _Histoire de Languedoc_. Vallée aux Clercs, near Crecy. Valois, house of. Valois, Charles of. See Charles. Valence, Aymer of. See Pembroke, Aymer, Earl of, and Aymer, Bishop of Winchester. Valence, William of, Lord of Pembroke. Valence, William of Savoy, Bishop-elect of. Valenciennes. Vander Kindere's _Siècle des Artevelde_. Vannes. Venice. Vercelli, Church of St. Andrew at. Vermandois, the. Verneuil. Vescy, John de, 131 Vescy, Lady, 248 Vespers, the Sicilian, 146 Vic, De, his _Histoire de Languedoc_, 462. Vidal de la Blache's _Tableau de la Géographie de la France_. Vienne, the river; Council of. Vierzon. Villeins, the. Vincennes, Convention of the Wood of. Vinogradoff's _Villainage in England_. Visconti, Bernabò. Visconti, Galeazzo. Visconti of Milan, the. Visconti, Violante, daughter of Galeazzo, of Pavia. _Vision of Piers Plowman_, Langland's. Viterbo. Vitoria, Vyve-Saint-Bavon, truce of.

Wadicourt. Wace's _Brut_. Wages affected by Black Death. Wake, Lord. Wakes, the, of Liddell and Lincolnshire. Waleis, Henry le, Mayor of London. Wales; statute of; records of; annals of. Wallace, Sir William, of Eldershe. Wallon's _Louis IX._ Wallingford Castle and town. Walsingham, Thomas, _Gesta. Abbatum S. Albani_; _Historia Anglicana of_. Walton. Wardrobe accounts. Ware. Warenne, William, Earl (d 1240). Warenne, John, Earl (d 1304), son of above. Warenne, John, Earl (d 1347), grandson of above. Wark, the Lord of. Warwick Castle. Warwick, Beauchamps of. See Beauchamps; Neufbourg, Earls of. Warwick, Guy of Beauchamp, Earl of. Warwick, Henry of Neufbourg, Earl of. Warwick, John du Plessis, Earl of. Warwick, Thomas of Beauchamp, Earl of. Warwick, William Beauchamp, Earl of. Waverley, Annals of Abbey of. Weald, the. Wear, the river. Wells, Hugh of, Bishop of Lincoln. Wells, Bishops of Bath and, See Burnell; Robert; Drokensford; Sandale. Wenceslaus of Luxemburg, Duke of Brabant, brother of the Emperor, Charles IV. Wendover, Roger of; his _Flores Historiarum_. Westminster; Abbey; the Provisions of; the first statute of; second statute of; third statute of; Hall; St. Stephen's Chapel. Westminster, Abbot of. See also Lansham, Simon. Westminster, Matthew of, imaginary chronicler. Westmoreland. Weyland, Sir Thomas, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas. Weymouth. Whalley Abbey. Wharton's _Anglia Sacra_. Whitecastle. White Friars, the. Whittaker, W.J., his edition of _Le Mirroir des Justices_. Whittingtons, the. Whittlesea, William, Archbishop of Canterbury. Wicklow. Wigford. Wight, Isle of. Wigmore, Castle; house of. Wigmore, Roger Mortimer of. See Mortimer, Roger. Wilkin of the Weald. Wilkins' _Concilia_. William I. of Avesnes, Count of Hainault, Holland and Zealand. William II. of Avesnes, Count of Hainault, Holland and Zealand. Son of the above. William of Bavaria, Count of Hainault, Holland and Zealand. William of Hatfield, son of Edward III. William of Holland, King of the Romans. William of Norwich, St. William of Savoy, Bishop-elect of Valence and Winchester. William of Valence, Lord of Pembroke. William I. the Conqueror. William the Lion, King of Scots. Wiltshire. Winchelsea; naval battle off. Winchelsea, Robert, Archbishop of Canterbury. Winchester; bishopric of; Cathedral of; parliament of March 1330, at; Annals of. Winchester, Bishops of. See Edington, William; Roches, Peter des; Stratford, John; Aymer of Valence; Woodlock, Henry; William of Savoy; Wykeham, William of. Winchester, Hugh Despenser, the elder, Earl of. See Despenser. Winchester, Saer de Quincy, Earl of. Windsor, town and castle; Round Table at; Chapel, St. George's at. Wingham, Henry. Wishart, Robert, Bishop of Glasgow. Wither, William. Wolvesey Castle, Winchester. Women in the law courts; French law of succession of. Woodlock, Henry, Bishop of Winchester. Woodstock. Wool trade. Worcester; Bishops of, see Cantilupe, Walter; Reynolds, Walter. Worcester, Provisions of; _Annals of_. Wright's, T., _Political Songs_; _Political Songs and Poems_. _Writs, Parliamentary_, edited by Sir F. Palgrave. Wycliffe, John; his writings. Wye, the river. Wykeham, William of, Bishop of Winchester; his _Register_. Wykes, Thomas, _Chronicle of_. Wynn, John. Wyntoun, Andrew, _Originale_ by.

Yale. Yarmouth. _Year Books_, the. York; parliaments at; house of. York, Archbishops of. See Giffard, Walter; Greenfield, William; Grey, Walter; Melton, William; Thoresby, John; Zouch, William de la. York, Edmund of Langley, Earl of Cambridge, Duke of. See Edmund. Yorkshire. Ypres. Yrvon, the river. Ystradvellte.

Zealand, county of. Zouch, William de la, Archbishop of York. Zwyn, the river; harbour.

CORRIGENDA