CHAPTER XX.

ISOLATION IN EUROPE AND THE IRISH UNION.

During the earlier part of the war of the second coalition in 1799 the allies gained a series of victories. In Germany Jourdan was defeated by the Archduke Charles in the country between the Lake of Constance and the Danube, and the French withdrew across the Rhine. In Italy they were repulsed by the Austrians, retreated across the Mincio and, on April 12, fell back behind the Adda. Then a Russian army joined the Austrians, and Suvorov, the captor of Ismail, took command of the allied forces. He conquered Lombardy at the battle of Cassano on the 27th-29th. Moreau retreated behind the Ticino, and called on Macdonald to bring his army from Naples to help him. Suvorov's blows fell in quick succession; he advanced into Piedmont, cut Moreau off from communication with Massena, who was operating in Switzerland, and invited Charles Emanuel, who had been forced to abdicate his continental possessions, to return to Turin. Everywhere the Italian people rose against the French. Suvorov designed to crush Moreau and Macdonald separately, to cross the Alps, and restore the French monarchy. He was thwarted by the Austrian court. Thugut disapproved of the proposed restoration of the King of Sardinia, for he was set on the aggrandisement of Austria at the expense of Piedmont. The tsar aimed at the re-establishment of the old order in Europe, the emperor at the increase of his own dominions. Suvorov, though indignant at Austrian opposition, turned to the work immediately before him, and inflicted a crushing defeat on Macdonald at the Trebbia on June 19. Macdonald made a rapid retreat, and finally led his shattered army to Genoa. A new French army was defeated by Suvorov at Novi on August 15, its commander, Joubert, falling early in the battle.

The English government approved of the emperor's designs on Piedmont, for under a strong power the country would be a barrier to French aggression,[301] and as the difference of policy between Austria and Russia hindered the progress of the war, devised a plan for bringing them into accord as regards operations. Suvorov, after completing the conquest of Italy, was to enter Switzerland and prosecute his intended invasion of France; the Austrians were to remain in occupation of Piedmont and enter France by Savoy, while the archduke was to act on the Rhine where his presence would forward a scheme for an invasion of Holland by England and Russia. During the spring and summer the archduke had been struggling with Massena in Switzerland without making much progress, though in August the French evacuated the Grisons country. Shortly before he left for the upper Rhine he was joined by a new Russian army under Korsakov. After his departure Massena utterly defeated Korsakov and his Austrian allies near Zurich on September 26. When, then, Suvorov had, in spite of great hardships, led his army over the St. Gothard, he found his whole plan of campaign overset and his position seriously endangered by Korsakov's defeat. He abandoned the campaign, and at the head of only 25,000 men of the 70,000 sent by the tsar to the war, retired into Germany. In the Mediterranean, Corfu, the other Venetian islands, and several important posts were captured by the combined Russian and Turkish squadrons. Valetta was closely besieged under Nelson's direction; Italy was virtually lost to the French, though they still held Genoa.

[Sidenote: _NELSON AT NAPLES._]

England bore a part in the war both by sea and land. On April 25 a powerful French fleet slipped out from Brest. All the southern coast of England was disturbed by the fear of invasion. The French, however, sailed into the Mediterranean. The fleet under St. Vincent was scattered on different services and each division was far weaker than the French, who were expected at Naples, at Malta, and at Alexandria. A crisis was impending at Naples. The upper and middle classes were largely republican, the poor throughout the kingdom were attached to the monarchy. In February, Cardinal Ruffo, as the king's vicar-general, set on foot a counter-revolution. At the head of a horde of peasants he quickly regained Calabria for the king, while a Neapolitan diplomatist, Micheroux, with the help of some Russian and Turkish ships, won back Apulia. On April 3 Troubridge captured Procida and Ischia from the republicans, but on the arrival of the French fleet in the Mediterranean, was summoned by Nelson to join him at Maritimo, and left only one British ship off Naples under Captain Foote. On June 13, after Macdonald had withdrawn his army, the bands of Ruffo and Micheroux entered Naples and took cruel vengeance on the republicans. The castle of St. Elmo, held by a French garrison, and the castles Dell' Uovo and Nuovo by Neapolitan republicans, were besieged by the royalists, by Foote, and by the Russian and Turkish allies. Both sides expected the arrival of the French fleet, and Ruffo was anxious to gain speedy possession of the forts. An armistice was arranged, and on the 19th a capitulation of the forts Dell' Uovo and Nuovo was agreed upon, was signed by Ruffo, Foote, and the Russian and Turkish commanders, and was ratified by the French commandant of St. Elmo.

The capitulation provided that the rebels should surrender the two forts and evacuate them unharmed as soon as transports should be ready to convey to Toulon such of them as desired to depart. On the 21st Nelson, after an interview with the king, sailed from Palermo for Naples. As soon as he arrived, on the 24th, he signalled to annul the armistice, and sent word to Ruffo that he disallowed the capitulation. The next day he sent Ruffo a declaration that he should not allow the rebels to embark; they must surrender to the king's mercy, and he bade Ruffo inform them of his decision. Ruffo refused, and remonstrated in person with Nelson, who gave him a written "opinion" that the capitulation could not be carried out without the king's approbation. The cardinal then sent the rebels Nelson's declaration. On the 26th Nelson promised him that he would not break the armistice and, further, sent him word that he would not oppose the embarkation of the rebels. Did not Ruffo, anxious for British help in case the French and the rebels should renew hostilities, yield to Nelson's opinion that the question of the capitulation should be reserved for the king? We have no absolute proof that this was so, but Sir John Acton, Ferdinand's minister, in a letter of August 1, says that the king pardoned Ruffo because he yielded to Nelson's wise declarations.[302] After receiving a communication from Ruffo, Micheroux informed the rebels, no doubt in good faith, that Nelson had consented to the capitulation. The evacuation was arranged, and the rebels embarked that evening in the belief that they would be allowed to proceed to Toulon. Nelson prevented the transports from leaving the harbour. The king disallowed the capitulation, and put to death a large number of the rebels.

Such are the main outlines of this extremely complicated affair. It is certain that Ruffo exceeded his authority in arranging the capitulation, and that Nelson knew and carried out the king's wishes. He evidently acted with full authority; he neither changed his opinion as regards the capitulation nor did he deceive either Ruffo or the rebels. That the rebels were deceived is certain, but for that Ruffo was responsible, though he may only have been guilty of gross carelessness in not making Micheroux understand the position of affairs. But Nelson's conduct was not creditable. The capitulation was not less valid because Ruffo acted disobediently in arranging it, and it was signed by a British captain. Nelson was justified in suspending its execution until King Ferdinand's will was declared; but, as the rebels could not then be restored to the position they held before it was made, he was bound to use every effort to induce the king not to break it, and to allow the rebels to proceed to Toulon. Unfortunately he had imbibed the vengeful spirit of the Neapolitan court. Blinded by the blandishments of his mistress and the flattery of the court, he forgot the conduct which became a British admiral and the representative of his own sovereign, and pandered to the cruel desires of the Bourbon king and queen for vengeance on those who had revolted against their detestable government.[303]

With the fate of one Neapolitan rebel Nelson was immediately concerned. Francesco Caracciolo, formerly commander of the royal fleet, had joined the republicans, taken command of their vessels, and fired on his king's frigate, the _Minerva_. He escaped from Naples on June 17, and so was not included in the capitulation; he was arrested, and on Nelson's repeated request was handed over to him by Ruffo on the 29th. Nelson immediately ordered the captain of the _Minerva_ and other royal officers to try him by court-martial on board his own flagship, the _Foudroyant_. Caracciolo was found guilty of treason, and sentenced to death with ignominy. Nelson ordered that he should be hanged that same evening from the yard-arm of the _Minerva_, which was accordingly done. He was forty-seven at the time of his death. His treason was patent, and its penalty inevitable. Although Nelson does not appear to have received any written commission from Ferdinand, he evidently had a right to order the court-martial and to enforce its sentence,[304] but the eagerness with which he acted and the indecent haste of the execution are lamentable illustrations of his animosity. The garrison of St. Elmo surrendered on terms, and the royal power was re-established in Naples. The French fleet was still in the Mediterranean. Large as it was, it did nothing of importance, save effecting a junction with the fleet of Spain. The combined fleets reached Brest in September, outstripping the pursuit of the British under Lord Keith, who succeeded St. Vincent as commander-in-chief. In April, 1800, St. Vincent took command of the channel fleet and instituted a strict blockade of Brest.

[Sidenote: _EXPEDITION TO THE HELDER._]

On June 22, 1799, Pitt made a convention with Russia for a joint invasion of Holland. On the part of England the principal object was the capture of the Dutch fleet in the Texel and the destruction of the naval depot, which would deprive France of maritime aid from Holland, while both the allied powers hoped to follow up the Austrian successes by threatening the French frontier. It was expected that the Orange party would be strong enough to give the invaders effectual help and that the Dutch would rise against the French. The tsar promised 17,500 men, and England agreed to send 13,000, to pay the tsar L88,000 for first expenses, and a subsidy of L44,000 a month, and to provide transports and horses. On August 27 a British force of 10,000 men under Sir Ralph Abercromby landed at the Helder, a point by no means suited for an invasion, which was chosen on account of its proximity to the Dutch fleet. Abercromby repulsed an attack of the Dutch and threw open the Texel to the British ships, under Admiral Mitchell. The Dutch seamen, who were attached to the house of Orange, forced their officers to hoist the prince's flag, and the fleet, consisting of thirteen ships carrying from sixty-four to forty-four guns and other smaller vessels, surrendered, and was carried to Yarmouth. The arrival of the Russians was delayed, and the republicans had time to make preparations for defence. Brune, a French general, took command of the combined French and Dutch forces, and failing in an attempt on the British position, established his quarters before Alkmaar.

On September 12 the first division of the Russians arrived, and reinforcements from England brought up the number of the combined army to about 30,000 men. The Duke of York was ostensibly in command, but the cabinet ordered that all operations should be directed by a standing council of war. A general advance was attempted on the 18th-19th. It was not well planned, and failed owing chiefly to the undisciplined impetuosity of the Russians on the right wing. The British lost over 1,000 killed and wounded, the Russians about 2,500, but the allies took some 3,000 prisoners, mostly Dutch. Heavy rains set in; the republicans broke up the roads and laid the country in front of the allies under water. The invaders, cooped up in a sandy corner of land, were in a sorry plight. A fresh advance was attempted on October 2; there was some heavy fighting in which General, afterwards Sir John, Moore and his brigade highly distinguished themselves, and Moore was twice wounded. It was a drawn battle; and Brune fell back on the formidable line of Beverwyk. The duke attacked him on the 6th, and failed to drive him from his position. It became evident that the allies would not succeed in forcing their way out of the small district they occupied, and that the hopes entertained in England of assistance from the Dutch were fallacious, for the people showed no sign of deserting the French alliance. Accordingly, on the 18th, the duke capitulated; it was agreed that the allies should re-embark unmolested and that England should restore 8,000 French and Dutch prisoners. The British troops returned home and the Russians were assigned winter-quarters in the Channel islands. Dearly as this ill-planned expedition cost England, both in men and money, the country was consoled for its failure by the acquisition of the Dutch fleet, which passed into the king's service in virtue of a convention with the Prince of Orange. About the same time came news of the surrender of the rich Dutch colony of Surinam to Admiral Lord Hugh Seymour.

[Sidenote: _PAUL DESERTS THE COALITION._]

During the winter the coalition was broken up by the defection of Russia. Paul was angered by the policy of Austria which, under Thugut's direction, was dictated by anxiety for the acquisition of Piedmont; he was irritated by the support Thugut received from the English government which, so far as the continental war was concerned, based its hopes on Austrian success, and he was disgusted by the failure of his arms. He considered that his troops were sacrificed in Switzerland to Austrian selfishness, that they were not well treated in the expedition to the Helder, and, which seems to some extent true, that they were shabbily provided for in the Channel islands.[305] He recalled his troops and withdrew from the coalition. His political attitude exhibited "daily tergiversation," the result of palace intrigues.[306] The hope of gaining Malta for himself and the knights still allured him, and on December 31, he assumed the grandmastership of the order. He kept his fleet in the Mediterranean to assist in the blockade of Valetta, in the hope of making other acquisitions, and to support the King of Naples. Yet his unsettled mind sometimes veered towards France; the "virtues of Bonaparte" would suddenly become his chief topic of conversation and "everything would be in suspense" as regards his policy.[307] Bonaparte had returned to France, and his return was to decide the issue of the war on the continent, though that result could not be foreseen immediately. From the newspapers sent him by Sidney Smith he learnt in Egypt the news of the early successes of the Austrians and the distracted state of France. The government was unpopular, the taxes were heavy, the revenues fell short of the expenditure, commerce was destroyed, the royalists were in arms in the north-west, and brigandage was rife. He left his army in the charge of Kleber, embarked on August 23, evaded the British cruisers, and landed at Frejus on October 9. He joined a party which was plotting against the directory. On November 9 and 10 (18th and 19th Brumaire) he overthrew not only the directory, which was ready to fall, but the legislature also. A provisional government was set up, and on December 13 a new constitution was published. Bonaparte was declared first consul for ten years with powers which, under a thin disguise, made him virtually master of France.

Kleber found his resources failing, no help came to him, for England was supreme in the Mediterranean, and the Turks threatened to attack him. With the assistance of Sidney Smith, who acted on his own responsibility, he arranged a capitulation with the grand-vizier. The convention of El Arish, signed on January 24, 1800, provided that the French should evacuate Egypt and return home unmolested, and it contained no stipulation that they should not serve again during the war. The English ministers, aware that Kleber was in straits, had already ordered Keith not to agree to any terms short of the surrender of the French troops as prisoners of war. Keith informed Smith of this order, but his letter did not reach him until after the convention was signed. On receiving it, Smith sent word to Kleber that his government refused to sanction the convention. When the ministers heard that Smith had assented to it, they generously resolved not to disavow the act of a British officer, and ordered that the convention should be recognised. By that time, however, the French had defeated the Turks at Heliopolis and were determined to make further efforts to hold the country.

[Sidenote: _BONAPARTE'S LETTER._]

Bonaparte lost no time in setting about the pacification of civil strife in France. In December, 1799, Pitt, untaught by experience, was planning an expedition to co-operate with the royalists in La Vendee and Brittany, with the object of reducing Brest, compelling the surrender of the French fleet, which was to be held in the name of Louis XVIII. (the Count of Provence), and taking the Spanish fleet as prize. Bonaparte's skilful policy pacified the disturbed districts, and foiled the hopes of the royalist conspirators. Pitt was forced to postpone his scheme and after a time abandoned it. While he was engaged on it, Bonaparte sent a letter addressed to the king personally, in which he declared his desire for peace. In later days he said that his object was merely to increase his popularity; for the French were weary of war. In this case he probably spoke the truth. Be this as it may, he certainly would not have agreed to such terms as would have given to England and to Europe the security for which England was fighting. His letter was answered by Grenville, who said that the king could not enter into negotiations unless he had a satisfactory assurance that France would abandon the system of aggression, that while he did not prescribe the form of government she should adopt, no assurance would be so satisfactory as the restoration of the monarchy, and that her present government afforded no evidence either of a change of system or of stability. George thought this letter "much too strong," but suggested no alteration. Talleyrand, then French minister of foreign affairs, wrote in favour of a negotiation between the two powers, and was told by Grenville that if the king could see the security of his own dominions and of Europe assured, he would gladly negotiate "in concert with his allies". The position taken by the ministers was sound and honourable, but the tone of their answer to Bonaparte was unwise, for it played his game by uniting the French in a determination to resist foreign dictation with respect to their domestic affairs.

An address to the crown on the French overtures was moved in the lords by Grenville, and was carried by 92 votes to 6. In the commons it was supported by George Canning, already one of the ablest speakers on the government side, and by Pitt who, in one of his finest speeches, reviewed the relations of France with other states from 1792 onwards, as proving that the proposed negotiations would have been illusory; he urged that the exhausted state of France held out hope of a permanent peace, and declared that as a lover of peace he would not sacrifice it by grasping at a shadow. The address was opposed by Fox, who returned to parliament for the occasion. He effectively ridiculed Pitt's oft-repeated assurances that France was exhausted; but his main contention, that if France as a republic had been aggressive, so she had been when under Louis XIV., that she had not acted worse than the allies of Great Britain, and that there was therefore no reason to refuse to negotiate with her, seems academic and feeble. The opposition mustered in full strength, but was defeated by 265 to 64. The divisions prove that the position of the government was unimpaired in parliament.

In the country generally the patriotic spirit aroused by the military aggressions of France and the achievements of the British navy was strong, and revolutionary principles were seldom publicly professed. Some abortive projects of Irish conspirators in 1798 for co-operating with the corresponding society led to the appointment of a committee of the commons, which reported on the revolutionary societies in March, 1799. Bills were passed for suppressing these societies and restricting debating societies, and for compelling printers to obtain certificates and to affix their names to all matter that they printed. In evident connexion with these measures was the law against combinations of workmen enacted in this, and amended in the next session, to which reference has already been made (p. 277); though probably political in intention, it had an oppressive effect on the condition of the working classes. Only three trials for sedition took place during the year, one of them of the printer and publisher, and another of the author of the same libel, a pamphlet by Gilbert Wakefield in answer to one on the government side. Wakefield, who had taken deacon's orders and afterwards left the Church, was a distinguished scholar and a friend of Fox. He was prosecuted by Scott, the attorney-general, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and to find sureties for his future behaviour. The severity of the sentence excited the indignation of the opposition, and L5,000 was subscribed for him. In July Scott was appointed chief-justice of the common pleas, and received a peerage as Lord Eldon.

[Sidenote: _THE INCOME TAX._]

The burdens of the country were increasing. In December, 1798, Pitt announced that the supplies exceeded the ordinary revenue by L23,000,000. He repeated the principle which he enunciated when proposing the triple assessment, that loans should not exceed such amount as could be defrayed within a limited time by temporary taxation. The triple assessment had failed, though the deficiency had been supplied by voluntary contributions. He proposed to substitute an income tax of 2s. in the pound on all incomes of and above L200, and of graduated amounts between L60 and L200. The produce, he calculated, would be at least L10,000,000 a year. The opposition, led by Tierney, objected to the tax as inquisitorial, as a grievous confiscation, and as unjust, in that it would fall equally on precarious and on settled incomes, on the produce of industry and on the wealth of the idle. It was carried in the lords without a division, and in the commons by a large majority, and came into operation on April 5, 1799. During the year 1799 Pitt raised L15,000,000 by loan, including L3,000,000 for Ireland, charging the income tax with the interest and redemption of L11,000,000. The loan was raised in the 3 per cents; it created L175 debt for each L100 money, and the rate was therefore 5-1/4 per cent. In his next budget, for 1800, Pitt reported the supplies for the year at L39,500,000. The produce of the income tax for the first year was disappointing, and for the coming year he reckoned it only at L7,000,000. In return for a renewal of its charter the bank of England granted a loan of L3,000,000, without interest, for six years, and Pitt further borrowed L20,500,000, including L2,000,000 for Ireland. The income tax was charged with L13,500,000 of the British loan, and additions were made to the taxes on tea and spirits. Public credit was good and commerce and manufactures rapidly increasing, and Pitt obtained the loan at an average rate of not quite 4-3/4 per cent.

But while commerce was flourishing the poor were suffering terribly from scarcity. The spring and summer of 1799 were cold and wet, and the harvest was wretched. During the twelve months which succeeded September 1, 1799, the average price of wheat rose to 106s. a quarter. Parliament held several debates on the scarcity. Whitbread for the second time brought in a bill for the regulation of the wages of agricultural labourers; Pitt opposed it on sound economic grounds and it was again rejected. During the spring of 1800 parliament made some proposals for the husbanding of wheat and for bounties on importation, but, as we shall see later, the scarcity grew more grievous. The distress of the poor and the burden of taxation strengthened the desire for peace, and a large meeting of London citizens petitioned parliament for negotiations with France. In May the king was shot at in Drury Lane theatre. The incident had no political significance; his assailant, Hadfield, a discharged soldier, was insane and was sent to Bedlam.

At the beginning of 1800 Pitt's hopes were mainly founded on his scheme of co-operation with the French royalists, which was rendered abortive by Bonaparte's measures of pacification, and on the arms of Austria. Thugut knew that from Bonaparte the emperor could not expect to gain better terms than those of the treaty of Campo Formio, and held that the best chance of forwarding Austrian interests lay in prosecuting the war in alliance with England. Austria, however, could not move without English money. The English government promised a loan of L2,000,000 and made subsidiary treaties with the Elector of Bavaria, the Duke of Wurtemberg, and the Elector of Mainz for contingents to serve with the Austrian armies. In April the Austrians under Melas defeated the French in the mountain passes to the west of Genoa, shut up the left wing of their army within the lines of Genoa, and forced the right wing under Suchet across the Var. Their advance was stayed by Massena's defence of Genoa. His troops suffered terribly from famine; they were shut in on land by the Austrians and bombarded from the sea by British ships. Meanwhile Bonaparte was preparing to attack the Austrians in northern Italy as soon as their chief army in the Black Forest country under Kray was effectually held in check by the French army of the Rhine, so as to enable the French to use the Swiss passes. If Massena could detain the Austrians before Genoa until Bonaparte descended into Italy, they might then be taken in the rear. A promise had been made that a British force would co-operate with the Austrians and excite the royalists of southern France to insurrection. If such a force had landed on the rear of the French, Suchet's corps must have been destroyed, Genoa would probably have fallen, and the campaign might have had a different event. But the ministers failed to see the supreme importance of supporting the Austrians. They hesitated, and withdrew troops which should have been sent to Minorca to form an army to co-operate with Melas, in order to employ them in Portugal. There, however, they were not wanted, for Portugal was not attacked. The great opportunity was lost. Sir Ralph Abercromby with 5,000 men sailed from Minorca for Genoa on June 22, but then it was too late.

[Sidenote: _BATTLE OF MARENGO._]

In April Moreau defeated Kray in a series of engagements and forced him to retire to Ulm. Bonaparte, who had formed "an army of reserve" at Dijon, crossed the Great St. Bernard in May with 41,000 men, reached Aosta on the 22nd, and entered Milan on June 2. On the 4th Massena capitulated, and led his half-starved force out of Genoa with the honours of war. It had done its work by keeping the Austrians before the city. The successes of Moreau secured Switzerland and enabled Bonaparte to summon other French divisions, partly composed of detachments from Moreau's army, to enter Italy by the passes of the Simplon and the St. Gothard. Their appearance upset the plans which Melas was making for defence. He met Bonaparte at Marengo on the 14th, and after a hard-fought battle was totally defeated. On the 16th he signed a convention at Alessandria, which left the French masters of the country as far as the Oglio. Hostilities in Germany were suspended on July 9. Bonaparte returned to Paris in triumph after an absence of less than two months. On June 20, before the news of Marengo reached Vienna, Minto signed a convention with Austria which guaranteed the loan to the emperor, and stipulated that neither power should make peace without the consent of the other. Pitt's hopes were defeated; for the time Austria was completely paralysed. The opposition reproached the government with the failure of its plans. The country, it was urged, desired peace; another defeat would reduce Austria to impotence, and France, disengaged from all continental war, would direct her whole strength against England. Parliament remained steadfast in its support of the government.

Bonaparte, anxious to detach Austria from her alliance with England, offered peace to the emperor, who sent an envoy to Paris to find out what terms he proposed. It was a dangerous move, for the English ministers might have interpreted the mission as a negotiation for a separate peace, contrary to the convention of June 20; and Thugut feared that England might take offence and leave Austria to Bonaparte's mercy. The emperor's envoy was in fact persuaded by Talleyrand to sign articles of peace, generally on the basis of the treaty of Campo Formio. The emperor disavowed his unauthorised action. Austria's interests would be best served by a general peace, arranged at a European congress, at which Great Britain should be represented. This was in accordance with the views of the British government, and on August 9 Minto informed the emperor that his court desired to take part in negotiations for a general peace. The emperor proposed a congress at Luneville in which England should be invited to take part. Bonaparte's design of disuniting Austria from England and treating separately with the emperor was foiled; he could not reject the emperor's proposal, for France was eager for peace. Pitt and Grenville believed that negotiations were certain, and Thomas Grenville was chosen to attend the congress.

But Bonaparte's diplomatic resources were not exhausted. He declared that if the continental armistice with Austria was to be prolonged, it must be supplemented by a naval armistice with Great Britain, and in September he employed an agent named Otto to negotiate this armistice and to propose a separate peace between France and England. Bonaparte's project would have enabled France to revictual Malta and to send supplies and reinforcements to her army in Egypt, and would thus have robbed England of the most powerful means of enforcing her demands in the proposed congress. The king was for rejecting the project absolutely. The cabinet was divided: Dundas and some others were for making a separate peace; Pitt and Grenville were determined to maintain the alliance with Austria, to insist that all negotiations should be for a general peace, and to refuse to throw away the advantages which England derived from her naval supremacy, but, as a speedy termination of the armistice would have been fatal to Austria, they hoped to modify Bonaparte's demands. Pitt, of course, had his way, and the government, after sending Bonaparte a counter-project which he refused, finally rejected his proposal. Bonaparte was enraged and stormed against England's usurpation of the lordship of the sea. Determined to isolate her, he pressed the emperor's ministers to negotiate separately. They foresaw that they might be forced to yield, but so long as they were not assured of advantageous terms, decided to remain united to England; for they were unwilling to stand alone, to lose the money of England, or to risk a possible alliance between England and Prussia.

[Sidenote: _AUSTRIAN POWER CRUSHED._]

While the proposed naval armistice was still in debate, the blockade of Valetta came to an end. England's supremacy in the Mediterranean prevented France from relieving the garrison. The only two ships which remained to France of the fleet defeated in Abukir bay were captured, one of them by Nelson himself. The blockade was kept up until September 15, when the place was surrendered after a siege of two years, and Malta passed into the possession of Great Britain. About the same time the Dutch island of Curacao put itself under the king's protection. Earlier in the year Goree was surrendered to a British squadron. Elsewhere British ships were less profitably employed. Some attacks on the Breton coast did little damage to the enemy, and brought no material advantage to England. The government employed the troops which should have been sent in the spring to the support of the Austrians in desultory expeditions. In August a considerable force under Sir James Pulteney was sent against Ferrol. After landing his men Pulteney found that the place was too strong to be taken by a _coup-de-main_, and abandoned the enterprise. An equally abortive attempt was made on Cadiz in October by a force of 22,000 men under Abercromby, then commanding at Minorca, and by the Mediterranean fleet under Keith. The plague was raging in the town, and Keith could not guarantee that, if the troops were landed, the weather might not cut them off from communication with the fleet, and possibly hinder re-embarkation. Abercromby therefore refused to land his troops, and decided to sail off to Gibraltar. He received orders to attack the French in Egypt in co-operation with the grand-vizier. The troops landed in Abukir bay on February 8 and 9, 1801, with results which must be deferred to our next volume.

The armistice in Germany ended on November 28. A strong Austrian army under the archduke John, a general of no experience, held the line of the Inn. The archduke adopted the offensive, crossed the river, attacked the French under Moreau at Hohenlinden on December 3, and was totally defeated, losing ninety-seven guns and 15,000 men, or more, killed, wounded, or prisoners. The Austrians were utterly crushed; the French crossed the Inn and the Salzach without meeting serious opposition. The archduke Charles again took command of the defeated army, and on the 25th signed an armistice at Steyer. Meanwhile Cobenzl, the imperial ambassador, was haggling over terms of peace with Joseph Bonaparte at Luneville; he refused to negotiate officially without the participation of England, and at last proposed that if a treaty was made, it should not be announced until after March 10 when the Anglo-Austrian alliance would lapse. The battle of Hohenlinden brought the alliance to a premature end. The emperor informed the British court that he was no longer able to maintain the alliance, and gave Cobenzl authority to sign preliminaries independently of Great Britain. The splendid achievement of Macdonald, who led the "second army of reserve" from the Grisons across the Splugen, and the subsequent success of the French under Brune, who forced the passage of the Mincio and crossed the Adige, enabled Bonaparte to dictate his own terms to Austria. By the treaty of Luneville, signed on February 9, 1801, Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine were ceded to France, and the line of the Adige was made the Austrian boundary in Italy; the grand-duchy of Tuscany was to be transferred to the house of Parma, and Modena annexed to the Cisalpine republic, and the independence of the Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian republics was acknowledged by Austria; they remained practically under French domination.

In addition to the loss of her ally, new dangers threatened England in the later part of the year. They arose from the animosity of the tsar. He was angered by England's alliance with Austria, and by the certainty that his hostile attitude would prevent her from handing over Malta to him; for though the government would have ceded the island to him as grand-master of the knights, if he had continued to co-operate with England, it was not bound to do so by treaty, and would not cede it to a sovereign who was fast becoming an open enemy. Paul was greatly enraged, and on February 1, 1800, wrote to Vorontsov, his minister in England, desiring that Whitworth (created Lord Whitworth in March) should be recalled, as he did not want "liars as ministers at his court".[308] He refused a passport to Whitworth's messenger in March, and behaved, Whitworth wrote, in the way which showed that he was "literally not in his senses".[309] At last, apparently on April 1, he demanded Whitworth's recall.[310] After long delay Whitworth obtained a passport and returned to England, leaving the embassy to a _charge d'affaires_, who was peremptorily dismissed by Paul, and left Russia with the embassy in June. Bonaparte was quick to take advantage of Paul's anger against England. After some overtures to him, begun as early as March,[311] he proposed in July to restore to him 6,000, and, later, a larger number of Russian prisoners taken in Holland and Switzerland, and suggested ceding to him Malta, which was then hard pressed by the British fleet. Paul was delighted, and made arrangements for garrisoning Valetta; but the place was surrendered to Great Britain, and the British government would not part with it.

[Sidenote: _THE ARMED NEUTRALITY._]

Paul had already laid his hand on the weapon forged by his mother Catherine in 1780, an armed neutrality of the Baltic powers. The war put many difficulties in the way of neutral commerce. England's maritime supremacy gave the trade of Europe into her hands. For her own purposes she encouraged neutral trade with herself to the great profit of those who engaged in it, but she placed rigorous restrictions on the trade of neutrals with her enemy. France, in a more lawless fashion, had attempted to destroy neutral trade with England, but had only succeeded in driving the ships of neutral states from her own ports.[312] England could enforce her system in every sea. She refused to allow that an enemy's goods were covered by a neutral flag, and insisted that naval stores were contraband of war, and that no trade should be carried on with a port of which she declared a blockade. In 1798 Sweden and Denmark adopted the plan of sending their merchant ships under convoy to exempt them from search. Paul saw his opportunity in the annoyance which the British system caused to neutral states, and in May and June, 1800, invited Sweden and Denmark to resist it. In July a Danish frigate, the _Freya_, with a convoy was stopped by British ships in the Channel; her captain refused to allow the ships under his convoy to be searched, and after a short resistance the _Freya_ was captured and taken into the Downs. The government despatched Whitworth to Copenhagen to remonstrate on this act of war on the part of Denmark, and enforced his representations by sending a squadron into the Sound.

Christian VII. gave way, and promised to send no more convoys until the question was decided by treaty. He complained to Russia, and Paul in November laid an embargo on all British ships, imprisoned the crews of those in his ports, and seized British merchandise. He further invited Denmark, Sweden, and Prussia to form an alliance for the protection of their flags on the basis of insisting that the neutral flag should cover an enemy's goods, not being contraband of war, that contraband should not include naval stores, and that if a declaration of blockade was to be respected, the blockade must be effectual, and that ships convoyed by a man-of-war belonging to their sovereign should be exempt from search by a belligerent on a declaration by the captain of the convoying ship that they were not carrying contraband goods. This move was highly gratifying to Bonaparte, for it struck at England's naval and commercial ascendency, and a treaty which he concluded with the United States in September contained provisions of a like kind. Frederick William III. of Prussia, seeing that Austria was at its last gasp, was anxious to please him, for he hoped to gain some advantage from him in Germany, and specially coveted the possession of Hanover. He complained that a Prussian ship, laden with timber and bound for Amsterdam, had been seized by a British cruiser and taken into Cuxhaven, a port belonging to the state of Hamburg, and he ordered his troops to occupy Cuxhaven, a measure which threatened George's electoral dominions. That would not in itself have concerned England, but Cuxhaven was at the mouth of the Elbe, the principal route by which British commerce was carried on with central Europe. In the existing state of affairs it was not advisable to give the Prussian king a cause of grievance. The government, therefore, directed the restoration of the ship in the hope of pacifying him, but he nevertheless persisted in the occupation of the port. On December 16 the maritime confederacy was signed by Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, and on the 18th by Prussia.

[Sidenote: _ENGLAND TO BE HUMBLED._]

In January, 1801, Paul sent an ambassador to Paris to arrange a treaty of alliance. Bonaparte's hopes seemed likely to be more than fulfilled. An attempt made on his life on December 24, which many Frenchmen absurdly believed to have been abetted by the English government, gave him the opportunity of crushing his domestic foes. England, the object of his passionate hatred, was bereft of her Austrian ally; he was pressing Spain to invade Portugal unless she would close her ports against English ships; the northern powers were striking at England's maritime lordship; her navy would be deprived of stores, and her people of foreign wheat. An alliance with Russia would enable France to become dominant in central Europe, to overthrow the British supremacy in the Mediterranean, and to preserve her hold on Egypt. Soon every state would shut its ports against British ships, and England's sea-power would be overthrown by the power of France on land. Paul held out yet greater hopes; he would undertake a joint invasion of India and drive the British from the east. Though his wild schemes did not meet with Bonaparte's approval, Paul set an army in motion for the conquest of India. Yet neither the government nor the people of England was dismayed by the isolation of their country nor the number of their foes. Nor had they cause. Bonaparte, great general as he was, could not understand the nature of England's strength, and was indeed profoundly ignorant of all that concerned maritime power and commerce. The British navy was in admirable condition, both as regards material and men; it was blockading the Dutch in the Texel, and the ships of France and Spain in every port in which they lay from Toulon to Flushing, and the thunder of its guns was soon to be heard in the north. In India Lord Wellesley had not only crushed resistance and added a vast territory to the company's possessions, but was establishing the British rule on a firm basis, and there, too, British ships would have to be reckoned with. On January 14 the government placed an embargo on the ships of Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. Orders were sent for the capture of the Danish colonies in the West Indies, and a fleet was prepared to sail for the Baltic under Sir Hyde Parker, and with Nelson as second in command.

Yet, though undismayed by her foes, England was sorely dismayed by the sufferings of her poor. Peace was very needful for her. Wealth indeed was rapidly increasing; her foreign trade which in 1792 was L44,500,000 in value had risen to over L73,750,000. But the poor lacked bread. The increase in the manufacturing population caused an increased demand for food, and England depended on supplies of cereals from abroad. The war restricted the importation of corn and sent up its price. The hopes fixed on the harvest of 1800 were disappointed; the stock of the previous year was exhausted, and wheat rose to the famine price of 120s. a quarter. Bread riots were raised in various places, and were in some cases due to a belief, existing even among persons of education, that the high price of corn was largely caused by the dealers. Some dealers were prosecuted under the old statutes against "forestalling and regrating," and when one named Rusby, charged with buying oats at 41s. a quarter and selling them again in the same market at 44s., was found guilty, Lord Kenyon congratulated the jury on the benefit which their verdict conferred on the country. On appeal his law was questioned and the proceedings dropped. The future looked even darker than the present, for the Russian embargo cut off a main source of supply. The desire for peace was general. Pitt, whose health was giving way, was full of anxiety, for the scarcity seemed likely to embarrass the government in its efforts to maintain the honour of England, and might even compel the country to assent to a peace alike disadvantageous and fallacious. "The question of peace or war," he wrote in October, "is not in itself so formidable as that of the scarcity with which it is combined".

He determined on an early meeting of parliament, believing that some relief might be afforded by legislation, and that, at the least, it would quiet the public mind and check the rise of disaffection. Besides measures for the encouragement of home agriculture, which would necessarily operate slowly, he planned others to meet the immediate crisis, for though as a disciple of Adam Smith he disliked interference with the regular course of trade, he considered that the situation of the country rendered some regulation necessary. Grenville differed from him. He held closely to the maxims of political economy, and though he did not oppose him in the cabinet, he urged on Pitt in private that all interference with the process by which supply and demand counteracted each other must be harmful. Pitt held to his own opinion. Parliament met on November 11. The king's speech invited it to consider means by which agriculture might be extended, and, for the present, the best means of stimulating the importation of grain and promoting frugality in using it, and checked the foolish and mischievous outcry against the dealers by pointing out that the ordinary practices of buying and selling were necessary in the existing state of society. Acting on the reports of committees, parliament granted bounties on the importation of corn and rice, and prohibited the use of corn in distillery and the manufacture of starch, the exportation of provisions, the making of bread solely from fine flour, and the sale of bread within twenty-four hours of its baking. The opposition reproached the government, and especially Pitt, with having caused the scarcity by the rejection of Bonaparte's proposals for peace; but motions for an inquiry into the state of the nation, for immediate negotiations with France, and for the dismissal of the ministers received scarcely any support. It was not from parliament that Pitt's ministry was to receive its death-blow.

[Sidenote: _IRISH UNION DESIRABLE._]

Almost as soon as the Irish rebellion was quelled, the project of a legislative union with Great Britain was publicly discussed. Such a union existed from 1654 to the restoration in 1660. At the time of the union with Scotland, in 1703 and 1707, the Irish parliament proposed a union, and its wish was disregarded. Since then various writers on politics had recommended it, chiefly as a means of giving Ireland freedom of trade. The improvement in the material condition of the country which began in the fourth decade of the century strengthened the spirit of nationality, the Irish interest became dominant in politics, religious animosity decreased, and during the American war Ireland, instead of looking to a union as a means of attaining prosperity, found herself in a position to demand the concessions she desired. The abolition of restrictions on her trade in 1779-80 removed the chief motive which had impelled Scotland towards union; the grant of legislative independence fostered the national pride. The constitution of 1782 left Ireland connected with Great Britain only by the unity of the executive in both countries. The Irish parliament might have expressed disapproval of a war or alliance entered on by Great Britain and might have refused supplies; it might have imposed excessive duties on English goods, might have refused a commercial compact with Great Britain, and did so in 1785; it might have taken a different course from the British parliament on a constitutional question, and did so on the regency question in 1789. The empire was weakened by lack of union. English statesmen, and above all Pitt, saw that the tie, precarious in quiet times, might break under some stress, and desired to strengthen it by an incorporate union, and the king heartily agreed with them.

For Ireland a union afforded the only chance of tranquillity, for catholic emancipation could not safely be granted without it. Since the extension of the suffrage to Roman catholics in 1793, emancipation unaccompanied by union would have placed the government of the country in the hands of a popish democracy; for the catholics outnumbered the protestants by three to one, and the act of 1793 established little short of manhood suffrage. A catholic parliament would have made Ireland no place for protestants, and would have provoked a civil war, in which, unlike the late rebellion, England would probably have had almost the whole catholic population arrayed against her. With a united parliament the catholics might enjoy equal privileges with their protestant neighbours, and would be powerless to oppress them. The war with France revealed the dangers of the existing system; the rebellion left the two religious parties at deadly feud; the protestants feared catholic vengeance, the catholics held the protestant ascendency in deeper hatred since the rise of Orangeism and the barbarities of '98. The time seemed ripe for the fulfilment of Pitt's long-cherished hope of union. He desired to do the catholics justice and intended that the union should provide for emancipation, a provision for their priesthood, to be accompanied by an increase of the _regium donum_, the endowment granted by William III. for the support of the Irish presbyterian ministers, and the commutation of tithe; and this comprehensive scheme was warmly approved by Cornwallis. But the principal men of the government party in Ireland were strongly opposed to the admission of catholics into the united parliament, and in October, 1798, Clare convinced Pitt that the proposal would wreck the chances of union. Pitt therefore dissociated emancipation from union, adopted a scheme of union on a protestant basis, and left the settlement of the just claims of the catholics, which was necessary to the successful working of a union, to be effected later.

[Sidenote: _CATHOLIC SUPPORT._]

The intended union was announced and advocated in a pamphlet by Cooke, the Irish under-secretary. The protestants generally were hostile to the scheme, some from feelings of national pride, others from dislike to the threatened overthrow of the political ascendency of their party. Catholic support might be gained if there was reason to expect that union would be followed by emancipation, a provision for the clergy, which would entail a royal power of veto over episcopal appointments, and the commutation of tithe. Dublin was strongly against a measure which would injure its position as a capital; and the lawyers, who would also lose by it, were formidable opponents. In preparation for the coming struggle the government informed the catholic bishops that, though emancipation could not be included in the measure, they were anxious to make provision for their clergy; a few anti-unionist officials resigned or were dismissed, and the demands of some of the government party, who, as usual, clamoured to be rewarded beforehand, appeared to have been satisfied. The king's speech at the opening of the Irish parliament on January 22, 1799, though not mentioning union, recommended some effectual means of strengthening the connexion. The address was carried in the lords by 52 votes to 17. In the commons it was moved by Lord Castlereagh, the chief secretary, and was strongly opposed by Plunket, Ponsonby, and others. After a debate which lasted from 4 P.M. to 1 P.M. the next day, the government had a majority of only one, and in a subsequent division was in a minority of 5. On the 31st Pitt, in an eloquent speech, moved resolutions for a union in the British house of commons. Sheridan, Grey, and Burke's friend, Laurence, fought hard against them, but were in a minority which varied from 45 to 15. In the lords they were agreed to without a division, and in April both houses adopted an address in favour of union.

The failure of the government in the Irish parliament was hailed with delight and rioting in Dublin. The prospects of the union soon began to brighten. The cabinet made it clear that the measure would not be abandoned. As it seemed likely that the protestants would offer the catholics emancipation in order to induce them to combine against union, Cornwallis was authorised to declare that the government would resist to the utmost any concession to the catholics so long as a separate parliament existed. No definite promise was made to the catholics, but their hopes were excited. In the autumn, Castlereagh, who came over for the purpose, represented to the cabinet the importance of gaining their support; he was told to inform Cornwallis that the cabinet was favourable to emancipation, and that without giving the catholics "any direct assurance," he might safely solicit their support. This he did with general success; and the catholic bishops and many of their clergy, allured by the prospect of a provision from government, were active on the unionist side. The unionist party was further strengthened by the state of the country. Many districts were infested by bands of men, survivals of the rebel armies, who murdered, robbed, and intimidated their neighbours, and mutilated cattle. A fresh outbreak of rebellion seemed likely in the spring; the large British force already in Ireland was augmented, and an act was passed giving the lord-lieutenant power to authorise the capital or other punishment of those convicted by court-martial of rebellion or attacks on the king's subjects. The opinion that Ireland needed a new system of government gained ground. Yet the feeling against union remained overwhelmingly general, specially among the protestants.

[Sidenote: _A MAJORITY SECURED._]

A majority in parliament had to be gained by the ministers. The county members, who were independent, for the most part were, and remained, anti-unionists. The preponderance of power lay with the 236 members for the 118 boroughs, of which only eight were free from all patronage. Nearly all the remainder belonged to borough-owners and were regarded as their personal property. A large number of them would be disfranchised by a union. Not to compensate the owners would have been contrary to the general moral standard of the age when uninfluenced by party feelings, and would have made union impossible. As Pitt in his reform bill of 1785 proposed to buy up the patronage of the English close boroughs, so the government determined to compensate those Irish borough-owners whose boroughs were to lose both members. The price of each borough was eventually fixed at L15,000, the market value, and as eighty-four were disfranchised, the sum paid for them was L1,260,000. This was not bribery; it was an open transaction, and the money was paid alike to opponents and supporters of the union. The services of great men were secured by peerages and other dignities. During and at the end of the struggle twenty new Irish peerages were created, sixteen peers were promoted, and five received English peerages. Most of these grants were mere bribes, and so too were the many places and pensions which helped to swell the unionist party in parliament. Some money, though the amount must have been small, was probably also spent in bribery. The government would not risk a general election; the union was to be carried by the existing parliament. Gradually sixty-three vacancies were created in the commons, some by death, some by acceptance of office, most of them doubtless by the resignation of members who would not follow their patrons by becoming unionists, and others, probably, through the purchase of seats by the government from sitting members. The vacancies were eventually filled by supporters of the union. While, then, the extent of the corruption practised by the government has been exaggerated, the union was undoubtedly carried by corrupt means.

Nevertheless, Pitt did not corrupt the Irish parliament; it was corrupt already: he merely continued the immemorial methods of dealing with it on a larger scale than before. Nobles and gentry chose to sell themselves, and, in order to rid Ireland of a source of trouble and danger, and Great Britain of a cause of weakness, he paid them their price. Cornwallis murmured at having to negotiate and job with "the most corrupt people under heaven"; but he did his share of the work. Castlereagh, personally not less honourable, who had much of it to do, did it without compunction, for it was, he said, "to buy out and secure to the crown for ever the fee-simple of Irish corruption, which has so long enfeebled the powers of the government and endangered the connection". It was essential to the welfare both of Great Britain and Ireland that the union should be effected, and that it should be effected without delay; and it could not have been effected by any other means than those which Pitt adopted. It was better by giving these greedy politicians their price to put an end to a system maintained by perpetual corruption, worked in the interests of an ascendant minority, distrusted by the mass of the people, incapable of affording the country the blessings of domestic peace, and dangerous to the security of the empire.

The Irish parliament began its last session on January 15, 1800, and the address was hotly debated. Grattan, who had not appeared there since 1797, spoke with extraordinary eloquence in support of an amendment on the side of legislative independence. Though the vacant seats were not nearly all filled up, the amendment was rejected by 138 votes to 96. The anti-unionists were furious; they raised a fund of L100,000, paid or promised, for the purpose of out-buying the ministers, bought some seats, and paid and offered bribes. The catholics, the yeomanry, and the Orangemen were urged to combine to withstand the union. Some rioting took place in Dublin, but there was no serious outbreak; for the Orange grand lodge kept the society quiet, and the mass of the people, except when excited by agitation, regarded the question with indifference. A fierce struggle ensued in parliament, and it was not until March 28 that the articles of union were carried and sent to England. They were debated at some length in both houses of the English parliament, but were carried by large majorities. They were next presented in the Irish parliament in the form of a bill. It was vehemently opposed. In the debate on the commitment, on May 26, Grattan delivered an oration against it, splendid in diction and inflammatory in tone, and was answered by Castlereagh who spoke, as indeed he spoke throughout these debates, with conspicuous dignity and moderation. The majority for committing the bill was 118 to 73. It was then passed by the English parliament and received the royal assent on August 1. A new great seal and a new royal standard were made for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and on January 1, 1801, the king's new title was proclaimed, from which the words "King of France," retained since the time of Edward III., were omitted.

By the act of union Ireland was to be represented in the united parliament, in the upper house by four spiritual lords sitting in rotation and twenty-eight temporal lords elected for life by the Irish peerage, and in the lower by 100 members.[313] The right of the crown to create fresh Irish peerages was restricted. The established Church of Ireland was declared one with the Church of England, and the preservation of the united Church of England and Ireland was to be "an essential and fundamental part of the union". Commercial interests were mainly settled in accordance with the proposals of 1785, and some Irish manufactures were temporarily protected from suffering by British competition. The debts of the two countries were to be kept separate for twenty years, or until they should be to each other in the same proportion as the respective contributions of the two countries; and until their amalgamation the annual contribution of Great Britain towards the expenditure of the United Kingdom was fixed at fifteen parts and of Ireland at two parts. The first session of the united parliament was opened on January 22, 1801, the members for Great Britain being the same as those of the previous parliament.

[Sidenote: _THE CATHOLIC QUESTION._]

The Irish catholics could have prevented the union. They made it possible, some by giving active help, others by maintaining neutrality; and though no definite promise had been made to them, they were led to expect that union would be followed by emancipation, a provision for their clergy, and the commutation of tithe. Pitt recognised this, and further held that his work would be incomplete without these healing measures, which would give "full effect to the great object of the union--that of tranquillising Ireland and attaching it to this country". Accordingly, in September, 1800, as soon as the union was effected, he called a meeting of the cabinet to consider these questions. He said nothing to the king on the subject, thinking, doubtless, that it would be less difficult to gain his consent if a complete plan was presented to him as the policy adopted by the cabinet. The risk was great, for in 1795 George, as we have seen, held that to consent to emancipation would be a breach of his coronation oath, and so lately as the autumn of 1799 he told Dundas that he hoped the government was "not pledged to anything in favour of the Roman catholics". Loughborough, the chancellor, saw an opportunity for ingratiating himself by betraying the prime minister. When he received Pitt's letter summoning him to the cabinet meeting on the catholic question, he was with the king at Weymouth, where George often resided in the summer since his recovery in 1789. He showed the king Pitt's letter, excited him against emancipation, and furnished him with arguments. Lord Auckland, the postmaster-general, who was allied with the chief Irish anti-catholics, was his cousin, and, probably at Auckland's suggestion, the Archbishops of Canterbury and Armagh wrote to the king to strengthen him against emancipation. When the cabinet met, Loughborough agreed to the commutation of tithe, but objected to any further concession, and the matter was adjourned.

Pitt again brought it before the cabinet in January, 1801. The king's feelings were then generally known, and the Duke of Portland and Lords Westmorland and Liverpool more or less decidedly joined Loughborough in opposing emancipation. On the 28th George attacked Dundas on the subject at a levee: "I shall," he said, "reckon any man my personal enemy who proposes such a measure". He requested Addington, the speaker, to remonstrate with Pitt. On the 31st Pitt wrote him a long letter setting forth the general grounds of his desire for emancipation, by the substitution of a political oath for the sacramental test, and for a provision for the catholic clergy, adding that if the king refused his consent, he must resign office. George, after taking counsel with Addington, replied that he was bound by his coronation oath to refuse his consent, and proposed that both he and Pitt should say no more on the subject. In answer Pitt wrote on February 3 that he must resign office as soon as a new ministry could be formed. George, who was incapable of appreciating his splendid services, and showed later that he must often have chafed under his control, invited Addington, a dull man after his own heart, to form a ministry. He consented, and on the 5th the king accepted Pitt's resignation. Dundas, Grenville, Spencer, and Windham decided to go out with Pitt, so did Canning and others who held minor offices, and Cornwallis and Castlereagh also retired. Pitt promised his help to Addington, whose father had physicked the Pitt family, and persuaded some of his followers to join the new ministry. As it was to be an anti-catholic ministry, his conduct has been held to prove that he was paving his way to a return to office, and that the change, so far as he was concerned, was, to use Fox's expression, "a juggle". It should be remembered that the country was engaged in a deadly conflict, and that its safety was always Pitt's first consideration. Emancipation was hopeless. He had felt bound in honour to break up a strong ministry because he could not carry it, and it was his duty to do what he could to strengthen the new ministry so long as it did not prove incapable of guiding the country in critical times.

[Sidenote: _PITT'S IMPENDING RESIGNATION._]

In this, as in every part of these transactions, his conduct was honourable and straightforward. He would not continue in office when thwarted by the king on a question of great importance, nor would he consent to disappoint hopes which he had encouraged and by which he had benefited. That he was influenced by any other motive, such as that his continuance in office would hinder peace, is a vain imagining. He has been blamed by an eminent historian for not having persevered in his attempt to overcome the king's determination, which on other occasions had yielded to pressure.[314] On none of these occasions had George's religious convictions been concerned. Some experience of the power exercised by religious prejudice in strengthening the resistance which a naturally obstinate person can make to reason, persuasion, and the force of circumstances, leads me to believe that Pitt was right in accepting the king's decision as final and in not engaging in a struggle which might, especially at that time, have had disastrous consequences. Short of such a struggle he did insist on his policy in the only way open to him; he resigned. Where he was to blame, and he acknowledged it, was in keeping his intentions secret from the king. Whether if he had communicated them to the king at an early date, he would have gradually won George over to his policy, it is impossible to say; he certainly went the wrong way to work in disregarding the right of the crown to be consulted on the policy which the prime minister hopes to carry out.

The impending resignations were announced in parliament, and Sir John Mitford, the attorney-general, was chosen speaker in place of Addington, but the completion of the ministerial arrangements was delayed, and Pitt remained _de facto_ prime minister. To prevent public inconvenience he brought forward his budget on the 18th. He announced a loan of L25,500,000 for Great Britain and L1,500,000 for Ireland, afterwards increased by another L1,000,000, which the commercial prosperity of the country, though then in the ninth year of the war, had enabled him to negotiate, at the rate of about 5-1/4 per cent., and he proposed fourteen new taxes to defray the interest. The budget was well received. The delay in the change of ministry was prolonged by the king's illness. He had been much excited and distressed by the late events, and on the 20th again became insane. The Prince of Wales approached Pitt on the subject of a regency, and Pitt told him that, if the necessity should arise, he should propose the restrictions of 1789. By March 6 the king's condition was materially improved and the question became of no further importance. George bade Willis, his doctor, tell Pitt that he was quite well, adding, "but what has he not to answer for who is the cause of my having been ill at all?" Pitt was much distressed. Would an assurance, he asked Willis, that he would not again trouble the king on the catholic question "be material to his health?" "Certainly," Willis replied, "and to his life also."[315] Pitt bade him give the king the assurance. George was much comforted. Pitt's surrender has been blamed in strong terms.[316] It cannot be defended completely. The question was of deep importance to Ireland, and he treated it as a personal matter. It is, however, unfair to represent his conduct as an attempt to resume office. His followers constantly urged him to invite Addington to retire, for they justly regarded him as incompetent, and when they heard of Pitt's message to the king, they expected that their wish would be fulfilled. But Addington had received his appointment, and was not likely to resign it willingly, and Pitt, as Canning complained, would not make any "forward movement towards the king". Nothing was to be got from him except that, if the king and Addington earnestly wished him to continue, he was ready to discuss matters. On the strength of this, Dundas and others went to Addington, who rejected their proposal that he should offer to make way for Pitt, and Pitt himself told them that their action was improper.

[Sidenote: _PITT RESIGNS OFFICE._]

Pitt would willingly have continued in office. He loved power, and he knew that England needed him and the strong ministry of which he was the head and soul, but he was not a man to barter principle for office. His message to the king is intelligible, as a prime minister of our own time has pointed out, without so mean an interpretation.[317] He recognised that while the king lived catholic emancipation could not be gained save at too high a price. George was sixty-two, and his life was thought to be precarious; no one could foresee that he would outlive Pitt, who was twenty years younger. An attempt to force the question on him would have again brought on insanity, and would perhaps have killed him. Pitt was deeply moved by the king's words, and yielded to feelings of pity and personal affection for the sovereign he had served for seventeen years. On March 14 he gave back the seal of the exchequer into the king's hands. Once again then, and not for the last time, did George defeat the policy of his ministers and drive them from office. In this case the blame chiefly rests on the traitor Loughborough, who, for his own purposes, happily to be foiled, interfered between the king and Pitt and excited the king's religious prejudices. But George's conduct at this crisis cannot be viewed wholly apart from his earlier attempts at personal rule, for it proves that he was unable to understand that his ministers were responsible for his political acts. His refusal to assent to emancipation deprived Ireland of the happy results which Pitt expected, and brought much trouble on the country. As regards its effect on the empire at large, it is enough to say that it took the helm of state out of the hands of Pitt.

FOOTNOTES:

[301] Grenville to Whitworth, Nov. 1, 1799, MS. Russia, R.O.

[302] Acton to Nelson, Aug. 1, 1799, _Nelson and the Neapolitan Jacobins_, p. 325.

[303] The latest discussions on this affair are in Captain Mahan's _Life of Nelson_, 2nd edition, 1899; _Engl. Hist. Rev._, April, 1898, July, 1899, October, 1900; _Athenaeum_, July 8 and Aug. 5, 1899; Mr. Gutteridge's _Nelson and the Neapolitan Jacobins_ (Navy Records Soc.), 1903, containing documents, with the _Diario Napol._ and the _Compendio di Micheroux_ from the _Archivio Storico per le province Napol._, xxiv. (1899), pt. iv.; Marchese Maresca's _Il Cavaliere Micheroux_, 1895; Madame Giglioni's _Naples in 1799_, 1903, and two articles by Dr. Hueffer in the _Revue Historique_, Sept.-Dec, 1903, and Jan.-April, 1904, to which I am indebted.

[304] Mahan, _Life of Nelson_, i., 439.

[305] Whitworth to Grenville, Nov. 1 and 13, and Dalrymple to Huskisson, Dec. 31, 1799, MS. Russia, R.O.

[306] Whitworth to Grenville, Dec. 5 and 24, 1799, MS. Russia, R.O.

[307] Whitworth to Grenville, Dec. 13, 1799, MS. Russia, R.O.

[308] Martens, _Recueil des Traites conclus par la Russie_, xi., 5-7.

[309] Whitworth to Grenville, March 18, 1800, MS. Russia, R.O.

[310] Same to same, April 2, 1800, MS. Russia, R.O.

[311] Whitworth to Grenville, March 6, 1800, MS. Russia, R.O.

[312] Mahan, _Influence of Sea Power on the French Revolution_, ii., 17, 18.

[313] In 1801 the population of Great Britain was about 10,500,000, and of Ireland about 4,500,000; in 1901 the population of Great Britain was 36,999,946, and of Ireland 4,458,775.

[314] Lecky, _History_, viii., 512.

[315] Lord Colchester, _Diary_, i., 255-61. Malmesbury (_Diaries_, iv., 31-32) says that Pitt wrote a contrite letter to the king, which seems a mistake (see Stanhope, _Life_, iii., 303-4).

[316] Lecky, _Hist._, viii., 523. Pitt has been admirably defended by Lord Rosebery (_Pitt_, pp. 226-28).

[317] Lord Rosebery, _u.s._

APPENDICES.

I. ON AUTHORITIES.

II. ADMINISTRATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN, 1760-1801.

III. THE GRENVILLES.

APPENDIX I.

ON AUTHORITIES.

For the sake of convenience an attempt is made to classify the authorities used in writing this volume under different heads; the plan adopted is unscientific, and books noted under one head belong partly to others, but it has, perhaps, the one merit of clearness. The editions quoted here are those which have been used.

(1) General histories of England for the period 1760-1801:--LECKY, _History of England in the 18th Century_, 8 vols., 1879-90, from which much help has been obtained. It is a work to which every historian of the period must be deeply indebted, and though faults may be found with its plan, it holds a high place among our histories for learning, moderation, and philosophical treatment. The history of England is carried down to the outbreak of the war in 1793, that of Ireland to the Union. ADOLPHUS, _History of England from the Accession of George III._, 8 vols., 1840-45, a laborious and impartial record of events, viewed from a conservative standpoint. MASSEY, _History of England_, 4 vols., 1855-63, ends 1803, chiefly treating of home affairs; neither animated nor philosophic, written from a liberal point of view, unduly severe to the king, but deriving some value from the author's legal and parliamentary experience. Lord STANHOPE, _History_, 7 vols., edit. 1853, vols. iv.-vii., ends 1783, trustworthy, dull, and whiggish. To these must be added Sir T. E. MAY (Lord Farnborough), _Constitutional History of England from 1760 to 1860_, 3 vols., 5th edit., 1875.

(2) The chief manuscript sources consulted:--The great collection of the _Duke of Newcastle's Papers_ in Add. MSS., British Museum, extremely important down to 1767, specially with reference to ministerial intrigues, the old whig methods of government, the negotiations with France in 1761-62, and the growth of the cabinet system. The _Pitt Papers_, a mass of letters addressed to Pitt (Earl of Chatham) and William Pitt, and some to Lady Chatham, together with various political memoranda. These papers have been sorted into different bundles, to which the numbers given in my footnotes refer, and a manuscript index of them has been made by Mrs. Lomas of the Record Office, where they are at present deposited by their owner. They have been used in the preparation of the _Chatham Correspondence_, and by Lord Stanhope, but the field is large and may be gleaned with profit. _Foreign Office Correspondence_ (despatches of ambassadors, etc.). With respect to these, the kind and efficient help given me by Mr. Hubert Hall, of the Record Office, is gratefully acknowledged.

(3) Akin to these sources are various publications of the Historical Manuscripts Commission. Among these special reference should be made to the Reports on Mr. Fortescue's _Dropmore MSS._, 3 vols., containing the papers of Lord Grenville, of the highest interest and importance, specially from 1793; the Duke of Rutland's _Belvoir MSS._, 3 vols., with _inter alia_ the fourth Duke of Rutland's correspondence while lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1784-87; the _Charlemont MSS._, also essential for Irish history; _Lord Dartmouth's MSS._, vol. 2, American Papers to 1776, and Mrs. _Stopford-Sackville's MSS._, and Sir _E. Strachey's MSS._, both throwing much light on the conduct of the war with America.

(4) Of pre-eminent importance is the _Parliamentary History_, xv.-xxxv., and its complement, Sir HENRY CAVENDISH's _Debates of the House of Commons_ during the parliament of 1768, 2 vols., edit. by Wright, 1841, begins May, 1768, and ends March, 1771. It is much to be wished that the remainder of these valuable reports should be published from the manuscript in the British Museum. Dodsley's _Annual Register_ has historical chapters written by Burke, perhaps to 1778, and chapters in many later volumes probably written under his supervision; they are of course generally excellent. The volumes for the later years of our period contain many useful state papers. Burke's speeches, pamphlets, and letters, of which the edition used here is his _Works and Correspondence_, 8 vols., 1852. For his life see PRIOR, _Life of Burke_, 2 vols., 5th edit. (Bohn's Lib.), 1854, Mr. J. MORLEY, _Burke_, a historical study, 1867, and _Burke_ (Engl. Men of Letters Series), 1879.

[Sidenote: _MEMOIRS AND CORRESPONDENCE._]

(5) Political and other memoirs and printed correspondence:--H. WALPOLE (Lord Orford), _Letters_, edited by Cunningham, 9 vols., 1880, the letters in vols. i. and ii. are of earlier dates than 1760. A more complete edition, in 16 vols., by Mrs. P. TOYNBEE, is in course of publication by the Clarendon Press. WALPOLE'S _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, 1760-72, edited by Mr. Russell Barker, 4 vols., 1894, and his _Journals of the Reign_, 1771-83, edited by Doran, 2 vols., 1859. These works are of considerable historical value, but Walpole was not a politician; he was a whig for personal reasons rather than from conviction, and his sentiments were largely determined by filial prejudice and the interests of his friends; his views are generally superficial, and his judgments of persons biassed, sometimes contradictory, and often unjust. DODINGTON (Lord Melcombe), _Diary_, edited by Wyndham, 1785, ending with 1761. HARRIS, _Life of Lord Hardwicke_, 3 vols., 1847, useful to 1764, and with an account of the circumstances preceding C. Yorke's death in 1770, written by his brother. BISSET, _Memoirs of Sir Andrew Mitchell_, 2 vols., 1850. Mitchell was ambassador at Berlin in 1760 and later. The Memoirs are based on his correspondence (Add. MSS. British Museum and elsewhere), and throw light on the causes of Frederick's angry feelings towards the British government, and the negotiations for peace in 1762. _The Grenville Papers_, edited by W. J. Smith, 4 vols., 1852, consisting principally of the correspondence of Richard, Earl Temple, and his brother George, first lord of the treasury, 1763-65, together with George Grenville's diary of "memorable transactions" during his administration, which gives a full account of the relations between the king and his first minister. The Papers are of primary importance for the first eleven years of the reign. [ALMON,] _History of the Late Minority_, 1765, a clever account of the politics of the parliamentary opposition from 1761, attributed to Lord Temple, and written in his interest. _Correspondence of John, fourth Duke of Bedford_, 3 vols., 1846, well edited by Lord John (Earl) Russell, the last part of vol. ii. and vol. iii. cover from 1760 to 1770. The correspondence and extracts from the duke's diary afford a striking picture of the whig system of government by "connexion"; they have much on the negotiations for the Peace of Paris, the ministerial crises of 1763 and 1765, and the discord between the whigs which was fatal to their chance of effectually resisting the king's policy. The work is a necessary complement to the Grenville papers. _A Narrative of the Changes of Ministry, 1765-1767, told by the Duke of Newcastle_, edited by Miss M. Bateson for the Royal Hist. Soc. (Camden Series), 1898, from the Newcastle Papers (see sec. 2), giving an interesting account of the king's efforts to supply the place of the Grenville ministry, the difficulties both on the king's side and that of Pitt which kept Pitt out of office, the duke's discomfiture when the king put Pitt in power in July, 1766, and his attempt in 1767 to arrange a coalition between Grafton and the Rockingham party.

The lack of any sufficient biography of Chatham renders _The Chatham Correspondence_, 4 vols., 1840 (see sec. 2, _Pitt Papers_), well edited by Taylor and Captain Pringle, of peculiar importance; vols. ii.-iv. contain letters both from and to Chatham, which illustrate the whole of his career during our period. Pitt's political position and conduct, 1761-65, and specially his relations with Bute, are the subject of an interesting study, _William Pitt und Graf Bute_, by Dr. A. VON RUVILLE, Berlin, 1895. _William Pitt, Earl of Chatham_ (Heroes of the Nation Series), by Mr. W. D. GREEN, M.P., 1901, is good from 1760, so far as its limits allow. Earl of ALBEMARLE, _Memoirs of the Marquis of Rockingham_, 2 vols., 1852, an ill-arranged book, has letters of value, exhibits the policy of the Rockingham whigs, their differences with Pitt (Chatham), and their efforts for reform. _Autobiography and Political Correspondence of the Duke of Grafton_, 1898, edited by Sir WILLIAM ANSON, with an excellent introduction and useful footnotes, gives valuable notices of the first Rockingham ministry, the weakness of the administration formed under Chatham, the collapse of all ministerial vigour during his illness and when Grafton was nominally at the head of affairs, and the views of the whigs with regard to the constitution. _The Correspondence of George III. with Lord North_, 1768-83, 2 vols., 1867, edited by W. B. Donne, with copious notes and comments, shows the king's system of personal rule through his ministers in full working, the position held by North under it, and his unavailing attempts to resign office when forced to carry out a policy he disapproved, together with much that concerns the conduct of the war. Lord EDMOND FITZMAURICE, _Life of the Earl of Shelburne_ (Marquis of Lansdowne), 3 vols., 1875-76, based on papers at Lansdowne House and elsewhere, represents Shelburne's political conduct in as favourable a light as possible; the parts relating to the quarrel between Shelburne and H. Fox in vol. i., the negotiations in Paris in 1782 and 1783, and the quarrel with C. J. Fox, are perhaps specially useful, but the whole work down to 1784 is necessary and authoritative.

Lord STANHOPE, _Life of Pitt_, 4 vols., 2nd edit., 1862, founded on unpublished papers (see sec. 2, _Pitt Papers_); a good biography and a standard and indispensable work. With this should be read Lord ROSEBERY, _Pitt_ (Twelve English Statesmen Series), 1891, an admirable appreciation of Pitt's work and character. Lord JOHN (Earl) RUSSELL, _Memorials and Correspondence of C. J. Fox_, 4 vols., 1853, has many letters of importance, but is otiosely edited, and _Life of C. J. Fox_, 3 vols., 1859-67, more concerned with politics, which it treats from a strongly whig standpoint, than with biography. Sir G. O. TREVELYAN, _Early History of C. J. Fox_, 1880, written on the whig side, ends with 1774. _Court and Cabinets of George III._, edited by the Duke of Buckingham, 4 vols., 1853-55 (vol. i. begins at 1782, and 1801 is reached early in vol. iii.), contains the correspondence of the brothers Lord Temple (later Marquis of Buckingham), Thomas, and W. W. Grenville (later Lord Grenville); the letters of the last named are of much value; they are supplemented by the _Dropmore MSS._ (see sec. 2). _Diaries and Correspondence of the First Earl of Malmesbury_, 4 vols., 1844, edited by the third earl, chiefly concerned with the foreign relations of Great Britain; his despatches, letters, and journal while minister at St. Petersburg, 1770-80, at the Hague, 1784-88, at Berlin, 1793, and during his mission to Paris in 1796, and to Lille in 1797, are of first-rate importance. In vol. ii. are reports of two conferences with the Prince of Wales on the subject of his debts in 1785. Malmesbury (Sir James Harris) was one of the Portland whigs, joined in their secession, and was much trusted by Pitt. _Correspondence of Marquis Cornwallis_, 3 vols., 1859, well edited by C. Ross, has several letters relating to the war with America, an account of his interview with Frederick of Prussia in 1785, many despatches and letters written by him as governor-general of India, 1786-92, and a large mass of correspondence during his vice-royalty of Ireland, 1798-1801. _Journal and Correspondence of Lord Auckland_, 4 vols., 1861-62, edited feebly by Lord Auckland, Bishop of Bath and Wells. Auckland (Eden) was a personal friend of Pitt until 1801. His letters while ambassador at Paris, 1785-87; correspondence relating to the regency question, 1788; his letters from the Hague, 1792-93; some on the course of the war, and those referring to the recall of Fitzwilliam and to the catholic question in 1801, are to be noted. He was chief secretary for Ireland in 1780, and was closely allied with Beresford and the protestant ascendency party. _Political Memoranda of the Duke of Leeds_, edited by Mr. O. Browning for the Camden Soc., 1884, specially valuable for its account of the whig scheme for a coalition in 1792. Also edited by Mr. Browning, _Despatches of Earl Gower_, 1885. Gower was ambassador at Paris, 1790-92. Lady MINTO, _Life of Sir Gilbert Elliot, afterwards Lord Minto, to 1806_, 3 vols., 1874; vol. i. contains information as to the illness of the king and the regency question; vol. ii. as to the secession of the Portland whigs; Elliot, whose sister married Lord Auckland, and whose wife was a sister of Lady Malmesbury, was one of the party. His letters, while he was employed on a diplomatic mission at Toulon during the siege, as viceroy of Corsica, at Naples, and as minister at Vienna, 1799-1801, are worthy of attention. Sir N. W. WRAXALL, _Historical and Posthumous Memoirs_, 1772-84, 5 vols., 1884, carefully edited by Mr. H. B. Wheatley, diffuse and amusing. Wraxall's inaccuracies, or worse, have been exaggerated, and his work, which goes to 1789, together with some later "reminiscences," is of value, specially as regards its portraiture of public men of a secondary rank. Wraxall was a follower of North until 1783, and afterwards, until he resigned his seat in 1794, generally supported Pitt. _Diaries and Correspondence of George Rose_, 2 vols., 1860, edited by L. V. Harcourt. Rose was secretary to the treasury during the whole of Pitt's first administration, and was intimate with him. Vol. i. contains, among other matters, an account of Pitt's resignation; vol. ii. has some reminiscences which the king communicated to Rose in 1804. _The Diary and Correspondence of Abbot, Lord Colchester_, edited by his son, 3 vols., 1861, vol. i. and PELLEW, _Life of Lord Sidmouth_ (Addington), 3 vols., 1847, vol. i. should be consulted for the circumstances of Pitt's retirement. Lord HOLLAND, _Memoirs of the Whig Party_, 2 vols., 1852, edited by his son, Lord Holland. As the writer was the nephew of Fox, who was much attached to him, and by 1800 was himself a prominent member of the party, these papers have great authority; many of them refer to events and persons belonging to our period. Along with much else which does not concern political history, the _Life of William Wilberforce_, by his sons, 5 vols., 1838, contains some interesting notices of public affairs before 1801, along with a record of Wilberforce's efforts in and out of parliament for the abolition of the slave trade. See also _Private Papers of W. Wilberforce_, 1897, with a character of Pitt by Wilberforce.

(6) Miscellaneous books, pamphlets, etc. On public finance, see HAMILTON, _Inquiry concerning ... the National Debt_, 1813; NEWMARCH, _On the Loans Raised by Mr. Pitt_, 1793-1801, a highly valuable and interesting treatise; _Parliamentary Report, Accounts_, xxxiii., 1858, on the national debt, and S. DOWELL, _History of Taxation in England_, 4 vols., 1884. On the commercial treaty with France of 1786, see Count DE BUTENVAL, _Precis du Traite de Commerce_, 1786, Paris, 1869, and Auckland Corr. as above. Some of the articles by Sir G. C. LEWIS, _Administrations of Great Britain_, 1783-1830, edited by Sir E. Head, 1864, are founded on Memoirs, etc., noted in sec. 5, and are excellent commentaries on them. The private life of the king is written by JESSE, _Memoirs of the Life and Reign of George III._, 3 vols., 2nd edit., 1867, in itself scarcely to be reckoned as of historical value, but giving copious references to authorities. Life at the court is vividly described in Madame D'ARBLAY'S (Miss Burney's) _Diary_, 7 vols., 1854; a new edition by Mr. Austin Dobson is in course of publication. The Diary should be read with an allowance for the writer's dislike of her work at court, which Macaulay does not perhaps sufficiently consider in his essay. His other essays relating to this period should be read, but the views of history which they present must not be accepted in all cases. Bishop DOUGLAS, _Seasonable Hints from an Honest Man_, 1761; _Case of the Troops Serving in Germany_, 1781; MAUDUIT, _Occasional Thoughts on the Present German War_, 1761, and other pamphlets. Many of the Caricatures of _Gillray_, _Rowlandson_, and others are valuable as historical documents. In default of the originals, see WRIGHT, _England under the House of Hanover_, 2 vols., 3rd edit., 1852, republished in one vol. as _Caricature History of the Georges_ [1867?].

[Sidenote: _ON THE AMERICAN REBELLION._]

(7) Of books on the American revolutionary war the best general history of a popular kind is by Mr. FISKE, _American Revolution_, 2 vols., 1891; it is written with moderation and a desire for impartiality. GORDON, _History of the Rise of the Independence of the United States_, 4 vols., 1788, with many documents. G. BANCROFT, _History of the United States_, centenary edition, 1879, vols. iii.-vi. containing the history of the revolution, display wonderful industry, but are disfigured by violent partisanship. _Narrative and Critical History of America_, edited by J. Winsor, vol. vi., 1888, has some good papers by various writers. _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. vii., _The United States_, 1903. TYLER, _Literary History of the American Revolution_, 2 vols., 1879, illustrates the course of American sentiment during the period. Sir G. O. TREVELYAN, _The American Revolution_, pts. i. and ii., 3 vols., in progress, written on the whig side: the views taken in the present book as to the causes and character of the dispute, and as to some other points are different from those advanced by this distinguished author. For the loyalists, L. SABINE, _American Loyalists_, Boston, 1847, revised edit., _Biographies, etc._, 2 vols., 1864, and Mr. FLICK, _Loyalism in New York_ (Columbia University Studies, xiv.). The best purely military history of the war is by STEDMAN, _History of the American War_, 2 vols., 4to, 1794; he served under Howe, Clinton, and Cornwallis, and his book is a standard authority. TARLETON, _Campaigns of 1780, 1781 in the Southern Provinces, 1787._ Other books consulted are _Washington's Writings and Life,_ by SPARKS, 12 vols., Boston, 1833-39; FRANKLIN, _Works_, edit. Bigelow, 10 vols., N.Y., 1887-88; TUDOR, _Life of Otis_, Boston, 1823; _Diary and Letters of Thomas Hutchinson_, edited by P. Hutchinson, 2 vols., 1883, 1886; FROTHINGHAM, _Siege of Boston,_ 1849, a careful piece of work, though written in a remarkably vainglorious tone; Mr. CODMAN, _Arnold's Expedition to Quebec_, New York, 1902, an excellent and interesting monograph; KINGSFORD, _History of Canada_, vol. v., 1892, also deals with the expedition. JOHNSTON, _Campaign of_ 1776 (Long Island Hist. Soc.), 1878, a good narrative well furnished with documentary proofs, and by the same, _The Yorktown Campaign_, New York, 1881. Judge JONES, _History of New York during the War_, 2 vols., New York, 1879-80, edited by Mr. De Lancy, a book of special interest, for Jones was a loyalist; it is written with vigour, and censures the misdeeds on both sides alike. For Burgoyne's expedition--Sir J. BURGOYNE, _State of the Expedition from Canada_, 1779, with his defence before the house of commons; FONBLANQUE, _Episodes from the Life of Burgoyne_, 1876, and Lieut. HADDEN, _Journal and Orderly-books_, 1886. For Howe's conduct of the war--_Examination of Joseph Galloway before the House of Commons_, 1779; [Galloway,] _Letters to a Nobleman_, 1779, Galloway, a Philadelphian lawyer of large property, joined the British in 1776; Sir W. HOWE, _Narrative_ before a committee of the house of commons, April 29, 1779, with _Observations on Letters to a Nobleman_, 1780; _Detail and Conduct of the War_, including the celebrated _Fugitive Pieces_, 1780. Mr. M'CRADY in his _History of South Carolina_: i. _Under Royal Government_, New York, 1899, an able book, shows how the desire for independence gained ground in the provinces; vols. ii. and iii. _In the Revolution_, 1902, contain a careful but tedious narrative, which seems to err in exalting the partisan commanders, Marion and Sumter, at the expense of Greene. _The Clinton-Cornwallis Controversy_, 2 vols., 1888, edited with minute care by the late Mr. B. F. STEVENS, and containing all the official letters, orders, and the like of the campaigns in the Carolinas; this elaborate work is essential for forming a judgment on the controversy between the two generals. Other authorities more or less bearing on the quarrel with the colonies and the subsequent war are noted in other sections.

(8) On military matters generally:--Colonel the Hon. Sir EDWARD CUST, _Annals of the Wars of the Eighteenth Century_, iii.-v., 3rd edit., 1862; the Hon. J. W. FORTESCUE, _A History of the British Army_, 3 vols., 1899-1902, in progress, an important work to which this volume is indebted, though the view with regard to Clinton and Cornwallis taken by Mr. Fortescue is widely different from that adopted here; M. CHUQUET, _La jeunesse de Napoleon, Toulon_, 1897, and _Guerres de la Revolution_, 11 vols., in progress, an important work, vol. x. _Valenciennes_, vol. xi. _Hondschoote_; Sir H. BUNBURY, _Narratives of the Great War with France_, 1854, begins with the campaign in Holland of 1799; DRINKWATER, _History of the Siege of Gibraltar_, Dublin, 1793; C. J. FOX, _Napoleon Bonaparte and the Siege of Toulon_, Washington, U.S.A., 1902; Dr. HOLLAND ROSE, _Life of Napoleon I._, 2 vols., 1902, and some other works.

[Sidenote: _ON NAVAL HISTORY._]

(9) For naval history:--Captain MAHAN, _Influence of Sea Power upon History_, 1889, _Influence of Sea Power on the French Revolution_, 2 vols., 4th edit., 1892, and _Life of Nelson_, 2 vols., 1897, books to which all students of the history of the eighteenth century are deeply indebted. JAMES, _Naval History of Great Britain_, 6 vols., edit. 1837; vols. i.-iii. include from 1793 to 1801, a famous work which is still of high authority on naval engagements and tactics, the size and classes of ships, the number and character of their guns, etc., but it neither explains nor criticises strategy. BRENTON, _Naval History of Great Britain, 1783-1822_, 5 vols., 1823, uncritical and inaccurate, though as the work of a naval officer in active service, who had a part in some of the events it describes, it has a certain importance. Sir W. L. CLOWES, _The Royal Navy_, vol. iv., 1899. T. KEPPEL, _Life of Viscount Keppel_, 2 vols., 1842. MUNDY, _Life of Rodney_, 2 vols., 1830. Mr. D. HANNAY, _Rodney_ (English Men of Action Series), 1891, an admirable little book, and his edition of the _Letters of Sir S. (Viscount) Hood_ (Navy Records Soc.), 1895, exhibiting the determining effect of naval failure on the part of England on the last phase of the war with America. BARROW, _Life of Earl Howe_, 1838. Mr. J. K. LAUGHTON, _Nelson_ (English Men of Action Series), 1895, by an acknowledged master of English naval history, and his articles in the _Dict. of National Biography_ on the sea-captains of the period. _Logs of the Great Sea Fights, 1794-1805_ (Navy Records Soc.), vol. i., 1899, in progress, well edited by Rear-Admiral T. Sturges Jackson, a delightful book of first-rate value. References to the latest contributions to the subject of Nelson at Naples are given in the text. CHEVALIER, _Histoire de la Marine Francaise pendant la Guerre de l'Independence Americaine_, 1877, _Histoire, etc., sous la premiere Republique_, 1886, most valuable works; a third vol., _Hist., etc., sous le Consulat_. M. le Capitaine DESBRIERE, _Projets de Debarquement_, 2 vols., 1901, a phase of the great war told with all the care and lucidity which distinguish the best French historical work.

(10) For European politics during the French revolution the best books are by HEINRICH VON SYBEL, used here in the French translation, _Histoire de l'Europe pendant la Revolution Francaise_, 6 vols., 1869-88, and by M. ALBERT SOREL, _L'Europe et la Revolution Francaise_, 6 vols., 1903, in progress; vol. vi. covers 1800-5, a work distinguished alike by learning, insight, and literary quality; the great collection of G. F. VON MARTENS, _Recueil des Traites depuis 1761_, vols. i.-vi., 1817-29; Comte DE GARDEN, _Histoire des Traites_, vols. iv.-vi., 1848-87, and F. DE MARTENS, _Recueil des Traites conclus par la Russie_, vols. ix., x. (_Angleterre_), 1892.

(11) In Irish history LECKY has generally been followed, supplemented by PLOWDEN, _History of Ireland to the Union_, 2 vols., 1809; H. GRATTAN, _Life of Grattan_, 5 vols., 1839; _Correspondence between Pitt and the Duke of Rutland_, 1781-87, edit. 1890. Earl FITZWILLIAM, _First_ and _Second Letters to the Earl of Carlisle_, 1795; TONE, _Life of T. W. Tone_, 2 vols., 1826; MADDEN, _United Irishmen_, 2 vols., 2nd edit., 1858; GORDON, _History of the Rebellion_, 2nd edit., 1803, a trustworthy and graphic narrative by a protestant clergyman of co. Wexford; _Memoirs and Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh_ (Lord Londonderry), 12 vols., 1848-85, vols. ii.-iv.; INGRAM, _History of the Irish Union_, 1887, though failing in its hopeless attempt to prove that the union was not effected by corrupt means, a book well worth reading; _Cornwallis Correspondence_ and some other books already noted.

(12) For Indian matters:--MILL and WILSON, _History of British India_, 10 vols., 1858, vols. iii.-vi., a standard work; Sir J. F. STEPHEN, _Story of Nuncomar_, 2 vols., 1885; Mr. G. FORREST, _Selections from State Papers, India_, 1772-85, 3 vols., 1890, documents of first-rate importance, well edited, with good introduction, which, perhaps, attempts too complete a defence of Hastings; Sir A. LYALL, _Warren Hastings_ (English Men of Action Series), 1902, a thoroughly sound and well-considered biography; Mr. S. J. OWEN, _Selections from the Despatches of Marquess Wellesley_, 1877, with the _Cornwallis Correspondence_ already noted.

[Sidenote: _ON ECONOMIC PROGRESS._]

(13) For the social and economic history in chap, xiii., a general account will be found in LECKY, _History_, vol. v., an admirable and delightful piece of work; _Social England_, vol. v., 1896, edited by TRAILL, papers of various merit by various authors; a new edition with well-chosen illustrations is now (1904) published; and chapters at the end of vols. vii. and ix. of the _Pictorial History of England_, edited by CRAIK and MACFARLANE, 1841, 1843. Manners and customs are described by Mr. SYDNEY, _England and the English in the Eighteenth Century_, 2 vols., 1891, and by Mr. ASHTON, whose _Old Times_, 1885, is almost wholly composed of newspaper cuttings and caricatures, and is, therefore, so far as it goes, a contemporary authority. Notices of the gambling and frivolity of a portion of the upper class, some not before printed, are given in Sir G. TREVELYAN'S _Early Life of C. J. Fox_ (see above). An independent study should include the chronicle in the _Annual Register, Walpole's Letters_, JESSE, _George Selwyn and his Contemporaries_, 4 vols., 1843, and _Selwyn's Letters_, edited by Mr. Roscoe and Miss Clergue, 1899; SMOLLETT, _Humphrey Clinker_, written in 1770; ANSTEY, _New Bath Guide_, "poetical epistles describing life at Bath" in 1766; Miss BURNEY, _Evelina_, in 1778, and many other books. A good introduction to the literary history of the period is given by Mr. G. SAINTSBURY, _Short History of English Literature_, 1898. Though the late Sir LESLIE STEPHEN in his _English Thought in the Eighteenth Century_, 2 vols., 2nd edit., 1881, deals chiefly with the earlier part of the century, he has much of the highest value, specially in chaps. x. and xi., on writers of this period; see also his articles on them in the _Dict. of National Biography_. Church history is carefully treated by ABBEY and OVERTON, _The English Church in the Eighteenth Century_, ed. 1887. For the administration of the criminal law--Major GRIFFITH, _Chronicles of Newgate_, 2 vols., 1884. For prisons--JOHN HOWARD, _The State of the Prisons_, 4th edit., 1792. For the police arrangements of London--COLQUHOUN, _Treatise on the Police_, 1795.

On economic and industrial history the latest and best authority is Dr. CUNNINGHAM, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce, Modern Times_, pts. i. and ii., 2 vols., 1903. Other books used are CRAIK, in _Pictorial History_ as above, republished in his _History of British Commerce_, 1844; MACPHERSON, _Annals of Commerce_, 4 vols., 1805; MCCULLOCH, edition of ADAM SMITH, _Wealth of Nations_, 1863; ROGERS, _Six Centuries of Work and Wages_, 2 vols., 1884, and his _Industrial and Commercial History of England_, lectures, 2 vols., 1898, and WARNER, _Landmarks in English Industrial History_, 1899, a useful and well-arranged little book. For the cotton manufacture--Sir E. BAINES, _History of the Cotton Manufacture_, 1836. With reference to agriculture and the poor--A. YOUNG, _Six Weeks' Tour in the Southern Counties_, 1769, and _Tour through the North_, 4 vols., 1770, present the condition of agriculture at the time, with lists of wages and the expenses of the labouring class; Rev. J. HOWLETT, pamphlets on the _Influence of Enclosures_, 1786, and the _Causes of the Increase of the Poor_, 1786; Mr. R. E. PROTHERO, _Pioneers and Progress of English Farming_, 1888, an excellent account; Sir G. A. NICHOLLS, _History of the English Poor Law_, 2 vols., 1898, and Mr. and Mrs. S. WEBB, _History of Trades Unionism_, 1902.

[Asterism]: Dr. A. von Ruville's important and masterly work, _William Pitt, Graf von Chatham_, 3 vols., Stuttgart and Berlin, 1905, appeared while this book was in the press.

APPENDIX II.

ADMINISTRATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN, 1760-1801.[318]

1. NEWCASTLE, AS IN NOVEMBER, 1760.

_First ld. treasury_ D. of Newcastle. {_s. dept._ Pitt. _Secs. of state_ { E. of Egremont. _succ._ Oct., 1761. {_n. dept._ E. of Holdernesse. { E. of Bute, _succ._ March, 1761. _Ld. president_ Ld. Granville. _Ld. keeper_ } Ld. Henley. _Ld. chan._, 1761 } _Ld. privy seal_ E. Temple. D. of Bedford, _succ._ Nov., 1761. _Ld. chamberlain_ D. of Devonshire, _in cabinet_. _Groom of the stole_ E. of Bute, _in cabinet_. E. of Huntingdon, _succ._ Oct., 1761. _Board of trade_ E. of Halifax, _in cabinet_. Ld. Sandys, _succ._ March, 1761, _not in cabt._ _Ch. exchequer_ H. B. Legge. Ld. Barrington, _succ._ March, 1761. _Admiralty_ Ld. Anson. _Ordnance_ Visct. Ligonier. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ D. of Bedford. E. of Halifax, _succ._ 1761. _Unofficial_ Ld. Hardwicke, _in cabinet_. _Unofficial_ Ld. Mansfield, C. J., _in cabinet_. _Secretary at war_[319] Visct. Barrington. C. Townshend, _succ._ 1761.

2. BUTE, MAY, 1762.

_First ld. treasury_ E. of Bute. {_s. dept._ E. of Egremont. _Secs. of state_ {_n. dept._ G. Grenville. { E. of Halifax, _succ._ Oct., 1762. _Ld. president_ Ld. Granville. _Ld. chancellor_ Ld. Henley. _Ld. privy seal_ D. of Bedford. _Ch. exchequer_ Sir F. Dashwood. _Admiralty_ E. of Halifax. G. Grenville, _succ._ Oct., 1762. _Ordnance_ Visct. Ligonier. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ E. of Halifax. _Secretary at war_ C. Townshend. W. Ellis, _succ._ Dec., 1762.

3. GRENVILLE, MAY, 1763.

_First ld. treas. and ch._ } G. Grenville. _exchequer_ } {_s. dept._ E. of Egremont. _Secs. of state_ { E. of Halifax, _succ._ Sept., 1763. {_n. dept._ E. of Sandwich, _succ._ Sept., 1763. _Ld. president_ Ld. Granville. D. of Bedford, _succ._ Sept., 1763. _Ld. chancellor_ E. of Northington (_before_ Henley). _Ld. privy seal_ D. of Marlborough. _Admiralty_ Ld. Egmont. _Ordnance_ M. of Granby. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ E. of Northumberland. Visct. Weymouth, _succ._ 1765. _Secretary at war_ W. Ellis.

4. ROCKINGHAM, JULY, 1765.

_First ld. treasury_ M. of Rockingham. {_s. dept._ H. S. Conway. { D. of Richmond, _succ._ May, 1766. _Secs. of state_ {_n. dept._ D. of Grafton. { H. S. Conway, _succ._ May, 1766. _Ld. president_ E. of Winchelsea. _Ld. chancellor_ E. of Northington. _Ld. privy seal_ D. of Newcastle. _Ch. exchequer_ W. Dowdeswell. _Admiralty_ Ld. Egmont. _Ordnance_ M. of Granby. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ M. of Hertford. _Secretary at war_ Visct. Barrington.

5. CHATHAM, AUGUST, 1766.

_First ld. treasury_ D. of Grafton. _Secs. of state_ {_s. dept._ E. of Shelburne. {_n. dept._ H. S. Conway. _Ld. president_ E. of Northington. _Ld. chancellor_ Ld. Camden. _Ld. privy seal_ E. of Chatham. _Ch. exchequer_ C. Townshend. Ld. North, _succ._ Sept., 1767. _Admiralty_ Sir C. Saunders. Sir E. Hawke, _succ._ Dec, 1766. _Ordnance_ M. of Granby. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ E. of Bristol. Visct. Townshend, _succ._ Oct., 1767. _Secretary at war_ Visct. Barrington.

6. GRAFTON, DECEMBER, 1767.

_First ld. treasury_ D. of Grafton. {_s. dept._ E. of Shelburne. { Visct. Weymouth, _succ._ Oct., 1768. _Secs. of state_ {_n. dept._ Visct. Weymouth. { E. of Rochford, _succ._ Oct., 1768. {_colonies_ E. of Hillsborough, _apptd._ Jan., 1768. _Ld. president_ E. Gower. _Ld. chancellor_ Ld. Camden. C. Yorke, _received great seal_, Jan. 17, _d._ 20th, 1770. _Ld. privy seal_ E. of Chatham. E. of Bristol, _succ._ Oct., 1768. _Ch. exchequer_ Ld. North. _Admiralty_ Sir E. Hawke. _Ordnance_ M. of Granby. _Unofficial_ H. S. Conway, _in cabinet_. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ Visct. Townshend. _Secretary at war_ Visct. Barrington.

7. NORTH, JANUARY, 1770.

_First ld. treas. and ch._ } Ld. North. _exchequer_ } {_s. dept._ Visct. Weymouth. { E. of Rochford, _succ._ Dec., 1770. { Visct. Weymouth, _succ._ Nov., 1775. { E. of Hillsborough, _succ._ Nov., 1779. _Secs. of state_ {_n. dept._ E. of Rochford. { E. of Sandwich, _succ._ Dec., 1770. { E. of Halifax, _succ._ Jan., 1771. { E. of Suffolk, _succ._ June, 1771. { Visct. Stormont, _succ._ Oct., 1779. {_colonies_ E. of Hillsborough. { E. of Dartmouth, _succ._ Aug., 1772. { Ld. G. Germain, _succ._ Nov., 1775. { W. Ellis, _succ._ March, 1782. _Ld. president_ E. Gower. E. Bathurst (_bef._ Apsley), _succ._ Nov., 1779. _Ld. chancellor_ Great seal in commission. Ld. Apsley, 1771. Ld. Thurlow, _succ._ June, 1778. _Ld. privy seal_ E. of Halifax. E. of Suffolk, _succ._ Jan., 1771. D. of Grafton, _succ._ June, 1771. E. of Dartmouth, _succ._ Nov., 1775. _Admiralty_ Sir E. Hawke. E. of Sandwich, _succ._ Jan., 1771. _Ordnance_ M. of Granby. Visct. Townshend, _succ._ Oct., 1772. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ Visct. Townshend. E. Harcourt, _succ._ 1772. E. of Buckinghamshire, _succ._ 1777. E. of Carlisle, _succ._ 1780. _Secretary at war_ Visct. Barrington. C. Jenkinson, _succ._ Dec., 1778.

8. ROCKINGHAM, MARCH, 1782.

_First ld. treasury_ M. of Rockingham. _Secs. of state_ {_home_ E. of Shelburne. {_foreign_ C. J. Fox. _Ch. exchequer_ Ld. J. Cavendish. _Ld. president_ Ld. Camden. _Ld. chancellor_ Ld. Thurlow. _Ld. privy seal_ D. of Grafton. _Admiralty_ Visct. Keppel. _Ordnance_ D. of Richmond. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ D. of Portland. _Secretary at war_ T. Townshend.

9. SHELBURNE, JULY, 1782.

_First ld. treasury_ E. of Shelburne. _Secs. of state_ {_home_ T. Townshend. {_foreign_ Ld. Grantham. _Ld. president_ Ld. Camden. _Ld. chancellor_ Ld. Thurlow. _Ld. privy seal_ D. of Grafton. _Ch. exchequer_ W. Pitt. _Admiralty_ Visct. Keppel. _Ordnance_ D. of Richmond. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ E. Temple. _Secretary at war_ Sir G. Yonge.

10. COALITION, NORTH AND FOX, APRIL, 1783.

_First ld. treasury_ D. of Portland. _Secs. of state_ {_home_ Ld. North. {_foreign_ C. J. Fox. _Ld. president_ Visct. Stormont. _Ld. chancellor_ Great seal in commission. _Ld. privy seal_ E. of Carlisle. _Ch. exchequer_ Ld. J. Cavendish. _Admiralty_ Visct. Keppel. _Ordnance_ Visct. Townshend. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ E. of Northington. _Secretary at war_ R. Fitzpatrick.

11. PITT, DECEMBER, 1783.

_First ld. treas. and ch._ } W. Pitt _exchequer_ } {_home_ E. Temple, sole sec. for one day. { Lord Sydney (_before_ T. Townshend). { W. W. Grenville, _succ._ June, 1789. { H. Dundas, _succ._ June, 1791. _Secs. of state_ { D. of Portland, _succ._ July, 1794. {_foreign_ M. of Carmarthen (1789 D. of Leeds). { Ld. Grenville (_before_ W. W. Grenville), { _succ._ June, 1791. {_war_ H. Dundas, _apptd._ July, 1794. _Ld. president_ E. Gower. Ld. Camden, _succ._ Dec, 1784. E. Fitzwilliam, _succ._ July, 1794. E. of Mansfield (_before_ Stormont), _succ._ Dec., 1794. E. of Chatham, _succ._ Dec, 1796. _Ld. chancellor_ Ld. Thurlow. Ld. Loughborough, _succ._ Jan., 1793. _Ld. privy seal_ D. of Rutland. E. Gower (1786 M. of Stafford), _succ._. Nov., 1784. E. Spencer, _succ._ July, 1794. E. of Chatham, _succ._ Dec., 1794. E. of Westmorland, _succ._ Feb., 1798. _Admiralty_ Visct. Howe. E. of Chatham, _succ._ July, 1788. E. Spencer, _succ._ Dec, 1794. _Ordnance_ E. of Richmond. M. Cornwallis, _succ._. Feb., 1795. _Ld.-lieut. Ireland_ D. of Rutland. M. of Buckingham (before E. Temple), _succ._ 1787. E. of Westmorland, _succ._ 1790. E. Fitzwilliam, _succ._ 1794. E. Camden, _succ._ 1795. M. Cornwallis, _succ._ 1798. _Secretary at war_ Sir G. Yonge, _not in cabinet_. W. Windham, _succ._ July, 1794, _in cabinet_.

FOOTNOTES:

[318] In preparing these lists I have derived much help from the _Book of Dignities_, edited by Mr. Ockerby, 1890, though my lists do not always agree with it. The division of the spheres of the secs. of state into n. and s. depts. was merely a matter of convenience, and I am not sure that my attempt to present the changes of depts. is accurate in every case.

[319] Not a cabinet office.

APPENDIX III.

THE GRENVILLES.

Richard Grenville = Hester Temple, of Wotton, Bucks, | _succ._ Visctess. Cobham, _ob._ 1727. | _cr._ Ctess. Temple. ___________________________|_____________________ | | | | Richard Grenville-Temple,[320] George[321] James Hester = William E. Temple, _o.s.v.p._, 1779. _ob._ 1770. _ob._ 1783 _cr._ | Pitt, E. | | Ctess. | of ______________________| | Chatham.| Chatham, | | | | | _ob._ George, E. Temple,[322] | William Wyndham,[324] | | 1778. _cr._ M. of Buckingham, | _cr._ Baron Grenville, | | 1784, _ob._ 1813. | 1790, _o.s.p.,_ 1834. | | | | | | /|\ Thomas,[323] James, _cr._ | _o.s.p._, 1846. Baron Glastonbury, | _o.s.p._, 1825. | | _________________| | | John, E. of William Pitt, Chatham, _ob. cael.,_ 1806. _o.s.p._, 1835.

FOOTNOTES:

[320] In 1760 ld. privy seal; resigned, 1761.

[321] In 1760 treas. of navy; sec. of state, 1762; first ld. of treas. and ch. of exch., 1763-65.

[322] Ld.-lieut. of Ireland, 1782; one day sec. of state, 1783; ld.-lieut. of Ireland, 1787.

[323] Minister plen. at Paris, 1782; ambassador at Vienna, 1793; book-collector.

[324] Chief sec. for Ireland, 1782; paymaster-general, 1783; speaker, 1789; sec. of state, home, 1789; sec. of state, foreign, 1791; first ld. of treas., 1806.

INDEX.

Abercromby, Sir Ralph, 377, 389; commander-in-chief in Ireland, 405, 406, 430, 436, 439.

Abington, Mrs., 258.

Abukir bay, 417, 439. See Nile, battle of the.

Academy, Royal, 262.

A'Court, General, 52.

Acre, siege of, 418, 419.

Acton, Sir John, 427.

Adam, William, advocate, 358.

Adam, Robert, architect, 262.

Adams, John, 132, 134.

Adams, Samuel, 60, 109, 124-126, 132, 142, 147.

Addington, Henry (afterwards Viscount Sidmouth), 187; speaker, 315, 452, 453; first lord of treasury and chancellor of exchequer, 454.

Agricultural revolution, 273-278.

Aiguillon, Duc d', 114, 115.

Aitken, James, "John the Painter," 170.

Albany (U.S.A.), 172, 173, 176, 178-180.

Albemarle, Earl of (Keppel), general, 37.

Alessandria, convention signed at, 437.

Alexandria taken by the French, 416.

Alien act, 341, 403.

Alkmaar, 430.

Allen, Ethan, 144, 151.

Almon, John, 116, 324.

Alvinzi, Austrian general, 382, 390.

Ambleteuse, 401.

Amboy (U.S.A.), 169.

American colonies, proposed taxation of, 54, 57; trade advantages of, 55; contraband trade of, 56; stamp duty imposed upon, 59, 60; troubles in, 61; claim exemption from taxation, 62, 63; the Townshend duties in, 83, 84; penal laws against Massachusetts, 128; quartering bill in, 129; first continental congress, 132; outbreak of war in, 139; second congress, the "United Colonies," 146; declaration of Independence, 158.

American War of Independence, 139-169, 172-188, 191, 193-198, 214-216, 218-226, 238-244.

Amherst, Sir Jeffrey (later baron), 58, 89, 186.

Amsterdam, 209; pensionary of, 210.

Andover, parliamentary election for, 19.

Andre, Major, 215, 216.

Anson, George, Lord Anson, admiral, first lord of the admiralty, 8, 16, 29, 35.

_Anti-jacobin_, the, 399.

Antwerp, conference at, 349.

Arbuthnot, Marriot, admiral, 219.

Architecture, state of, 261.

Arcola, battle of, 390.

Arcot, capture of, 196, 237; nawab of, 232.

Arden, Pepper, master of the rolls, 306.

Arklow (Ireland), battle of, 411.

Arkwright, Richard, 271, 272.

Armagh, Archbishop of (William Stuart), 45.

Armed Neutrality, leagues of, 208-210, 441, 442.

Armistead, Mrs., 309.

Arnold, Benedict, 144, 151, 152, 156, 166, 178; treachery of, 215, 216, 221-223, 225.

Artois, Comte d', 376, 377.

Asaf-ud-Daula, nawab wazir of Oudh, 249.

Atholl, Duke of (Stewart Murray), 63.

Auckland, Earl of. See Eden, William.

Augsburg, proposed congress at, 23.

Austen, Jane, 260.

Austria. See Francis II.; Joseph II.; Leopold II.

Austria, makes war for Silesia, 17, 23, 24, 36; joins the league of armed neutrality, 208; aggressive policy under Joseph II., 297-298; war with Turks, 325-326; agreement with Prussia against revolution in France, 334; war with France, 334, 337; joins the first coalition, 340; aims of, 351, 361; renews hostilities, 374; losses in Italy, 380; peace with France, 390, 397; joins second coalition, 423; deserts it, 440.

Austrian Netherlands, plan of exchange 297, 349, 351; revolt of, 325, 326; French party in, 331; French invasion of, 336, 337; occupation of, 342; French evacuate, 349; French conquest of, 360-363; surrender of proposed, 383; emperor surrenders, 397; Belgium ceded to France, 440.

Bacon, John, sculptor, 263.

Bahama islands, 217, 243.

Bakewell, Robert, grazier, 275.

Ballinamuck, battle of, 414.

Baltimore (U.S.A.), 168, 225.

Bank of England, suspension of cash payments, 387, 388; grants a loan, 435.

Banks, Sir Joseph, 263.

Barbadoes, 199, 227.

Barras, Comte de, 224.

Barre, Isaac, colonel, 52, 59, 107, 117, 130, 139, 238, 240, 253.

Barri, Madame du, 114.

Barrier treaty (1713), 297.

Barrington, Samuel, admiral, 195, 202.

Barrington, Viscount (Barrington), 20, 35; secretary at war, 68, 96, 153.

Basle, treaty between Prussia and France signed at, 374.

Bass, George, 264.

Bastia, captured by British, 363.

Bastille, fall of the, 316.

Bath, Earl of (Pulteney), 16.

Bathurst, Earl (previously Lord Apsley); lord chancellor, 115; lord president of council, 203.

Bavaria, Elector of, subsidiary treaty between Great Britain and, 436. See Austrian Netherlands for plan of exchange.

Baxar, battle of, 78.

Beaufoy, Henry, M.P., 295.

Beaumarchais, dramatist, 182.

Beckford, William, alderman, 32, 76, 100, 107, 110, 111; death of, 116, 260.

Bedford, Duke of (Russell), 8, 26, 31; privy seal, 32-34; ambassador at Paris, 38, 44, 46-48; lord president of the council, 49, 52, 65-67, 89, 100, 274, 359.

Belgium. See Austrian Netherlands.

Belle Ile, capture of, 15, 23, 24, 26, 40.

Bennington, battle at, 177.

Beresford, John, 369, 370.

Bergues, 353.

Bernard, Sir Francis, governor of Massachusetts, 82, 88; recalled, 91.

Bewick, John, 263.

Bewick, Thomas, 263.

Bill of Rights Society, 104.

Birmingham riots. See Riots.

Black, Joseph, 263.

Blackstock, battle at, 221.

Blackstone, Sir William, his _Commentaries on the Laws of England_, 6, 261.

Blake, William, artist poet, 260.

Blanca, Florida (_corr._ Florida Blanca), 210, 319, 320.

Bligh, Captain, 263.

Bloomsbury gang, 87.

Bloomsbury Square. See London.

Bolingbroke, Viscount (St. John), his _Idea of a Patriot King_, 6.

Bompard, Admiral, 415.

Bonaparte, Joseph, 439.

Bonaparte, Napoleon, 375; first Italian expedition, 380-383, 390, 397, 401, 402, 414; his Egyptian campaign, 415-417; his Syrian campaign, 418-420, 424, 431; first consul, 432; negotiates with England for peace, 433, 436; second Italian expedition, 437; offers peace to the emperor, 437, 438; proposes naval armistice with Great Britain, 440; makes a treaty with the United States, 442; schemes against England, 443, 445.

_Bonhomme Richard_, the, 197.

Boscawen, Admiral, 15.

Boston, opposition to stamp act, 60, 61; massacre, 109, 124, 125; riot, 126-128; port bill, 129; harbour closed, 132, 138; siege of, 139, 142; evacuation of, 155, 157, 161, 179, 194, 198.

Bouille, Marquis de, 227.

Bounties, 273, 274; corn, 404; on importation of wheat, 435, 444, 445.

Bouquet, Colonel, 58.

Boydell, John, 263.

Braddock, General, 146.

Brandywine, battle of the, 174.

Brant, Joseph, Mohawk chief, 178.

Braxfield, Robert, Lord Braxfield (Macqueen), 357.

Breeds hill (U.S.A.), 148.

Bremen, 362.

Brest, 193, 197, 217, 226, 386, 390, 432.

Briand, Bishop, 152.

Bridgewater, Duke of (Egerton), 271.

Bridport, Viscount (Alexander Hood), admiral, 376, 387, 390.

Brindley, James, 271.

Bristol, Burke returned as member for, 136; rejected, 212; corporation of, 186; petition from, 138.

Bristol, Earl of (George William Hervey), ambassador at Madrid, 27-29, 32.

Bristol, Earl of (Frederick Augustus Hervey), Bishop of Derry, 289.

Broglie, Marshal de, 14.

Brooklyn (Long Island), battle of, 164, 169.

Bruce, James, 264.

Brueys, Admiral, 416, 417.

Bruckenmuhle, battle of, 36.

Brune, French general, 430, 440.

Brunswick (Canada), 167, 169.

Brunswick, Charles, Duke of, 154.

Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, Prince and Duke of, 300, 336, 351, 354, 360.

Brunswick, Ferdinand, Prince of, 14, 36.

Brussels, 360; French occupation of, 361.

Buccarelli, governor of Buenos Ayres, 113, 114.

Buckingham House. See London.

Buckingham, Marquis of. See Temple, Earl.

Buckinghamshire, Earl of (Hobart), Viceroy of Ireland, 202.

Buckinghamshire, Lady, 257.

Buenos Ayres, expedition against, 38.

Bunbury, Sir Charles, 257, 260.

Bunker hill, battle of, 148-150, 152, 155, 185.

Burgoyne, Sir John, general, 37, 122, 145, 147, 155, 156, 166, 172-181, 183, 186, 191.

Burke, Edmund, speech on American colonies, 70, 89, 99; opposed to parliamentary reform, 105; _Thoughts on the Causes of the Present Discontents_, by, 106, 107, 110, 116-121, 127-130, 136, 137, 139, 145, 160, 169, 170, 188, 192, 200-202; economical reform, 203, 204, 212, 213, 217, 226; paymaster of forces, 229, 240, 246, 247, 249, 250, 253, 255, 261, 265, 266, 268; opposes Pitt's India bill, 286, 288, 302-304, 314, 322, 327; _Reflections on the French Revolution_, by, 329; quarrel with Fox, 330; _Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs_, by, 330, 333, 339-342; on war with France, 347; retires from parliament, 366; urges relief of catholic disabilities, 367; _Letter on a Regicide Peace_, by, 382, 385; death of, 396.

Burkersdorf, battle of, 36.

Burney, Fanny (Madame d'Arblay), 260.

Burns, Robert, 260.

Bushy Run, Indians defeated at, 58.

Bussy, Comte de, 24-27.

Bute, Earl of (Stuart), 5; enters cabinet, 8, 11, 12; acts with Pitt, 15; his insincerity, 17; his peace policy, 17; his power secured, 19-20; secretary of state, 20-23, 26, 28, 29, 31-34; first lord of the treasury, 35, 42, 43; retires from office, 44, 45; king's private adviser, 45-49, 51-52, 65, 66; ceases to be, 67, 112, 187.

Butler, John, colonel, 178, 194.

Byron, Commodore, 263.

Cabinet, changes in the character of the, 7-9; system, 7-9, 33, 229; George III.'s first, how composed, 8; councils, reports and notices of, 8, 12, 28-30, 35, 60, 70, 76, 90, 206, 229, 238, 246, 310, 312, 369, 383, 452; sovereign ceases to preside over council, 12.

Cadiz, 199, 211, 388, 390, 395, 439.

Caesar's camp, capture of, 350, 351.

Caldiero, 390.

Calonne, French minister, 331.

Cambrai, 360.

Cambridge (U.S.A.), 143, 148, 151.

Camden, 219; battle of, 220, 223.

Camden, Charles, first Earl (Pratt), chief justice of the common pleas, 47; created Baron Camden, 68, 71; chancellor, 74, 76, 90, 100, 101; dismissed from office, 102, 116; lord president of the council, 229, 287, 324.

Camden, John Jeffries, second Earl, 370, 385, 412.

Campbell, Colonel, 195.

Camperdown, battle of, 398.

Campo Formio, treaty of, 397, 436, 437.

Canada, conquest of, 1, 2, 23, 26, 40, 57; Quebec act, 129-131, 133, 146; congress orders an invasion of, 151, 152, 155, 166, 172, 176; France renounces all claim on, 183; Franklin proposes the cession of, to the Americans, 239-240; Pitt's Canada bill, 329-330.

Canals, 271.

Canning, George, 372, 396; under secretary for foreign affairs, 399, 433, 452, 454.

Canterbury, Archbishops of, John Moore, 451; Thomas Seeker, 60.

Cape Breton, 23, 24, 26, 40, 129.

Cape de Verde islands, 237.

Cape Fear, 157.

Cape St. Vincent, battle of, 388, 389.

Caracciolo, Francesco, 429.

Carhampton, Earl of. See Luttrell, Henry Lawes.

Carleton, Sir Guy, 130, 151, 152, 155, 156, 166-168; resigns office, 173; at New York, 228, 242.

Carlisle, Earl of (Howard), 202; viceroy of Ireland, 232, 233, 243, 245, 340.

Carlton house. See London.

Carmarthen, Earl of (Osborne), afterwards Duke of Leeds, foreign secretary, 251, 297, 298, 300, 321, 325; resigns office, 328, 333.

Carnot, organiser of victories, 353, 354, 396.

Caroline of Brunswick. See Wales, Princess of.

Caroline of Denmark, queen, sister of George III., 119.

Carronades, 233.

Carron ironworks, 270.

Cassano, battle of, 425.

Cassel, 14; surrender of, 36.

Carteret, Philip, R.N., 263.

Cartwright, Edmund, 273.

Castlebar, the race of, 413.

Castlereagh, Viscount (Stewart), secretary of state for Ireland, 447, 449, 450, 452.

Catherine II., Empress of Russia, 36; alliance with Frederick of Prussia, 74, 75, 114, 208, 209, 296, 297, 299, 324-328, 331, 338, 349, 351, 374; death of, 384, 390, 441.

Cavendish, Lord John, chancellor of the exchequer, 229, 240, 246, 263.

Cawdor, Lord (Campbell), 387.

Ceylon, Dutch settlements in, taken by the English, 378.

Chait Singh (raja of Benares), 248, 249.

Chambers, Sir William, 262.

Chamblee (Canada), 151.

Charlemont, Earl of (Caulfield), 94, 202, 232, 289.

Charles, Archduke, 382, 425, 426, 439.

Charles Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, 349, 354, 425.

Charles VII., King of Denmark, 441.

Charles III., King of Spain, 24-25, 114.

Charleston (U.S.A.), 148, 149, 157, 198, 219, 221, 223.

Charlotte, Princess, 373.

Charlotte Sophia, queen of George III., 22, 313.

Charlotte (U.S.A.), 220.

Chatham, first Earl of. See Pitt, William, the elder.

Chatham, second Earl of. See Pitt, John.

Chatterton, Thomas, 259.

Chauvelin, French ambassador to England, 324, 336, 337, 339, 340-343.

Chesterfield, Earl of (Stanhope, Philip Dormer), 94, 261.

Choiseul, Duc de, 23-29, 74, 112, 114, 192.

Chouans, the, 376.

Christian, Admiral, 377.

Churchill, Charles, satirist, 43.

Cider tax, 43; repealed, 72.

Civil list settled, 13; arrears of, 80, 99, 108, 171, 231, 284; Burke's proposed reform of, 204, 213; curtailment of the expenditure of, 238.

Clairfait, Austrian general, 361, 375.

Clare, Earl of. See Fitzgibbon, John.

Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist, 295.

Clerk of Eldin, naval tactician, 235.

Clinton, Sir Henry, 145, 149, 157, 164, 168, 174, 175, 178-181, 193-195, 197-198, 215, 216, 218-226, 228.

Clive, Robert, Baron Clive, 1; returns to England, 76; succeeded in India by Vansittart, 77; made governor of Bengal, 78; returns to England, 79; parliamentary inquiry held into the conduct of, 122; death of, 123, 248.

Clubs. See London.

Coalition ministry, the, 244-246, 249-250; dismissed, 251.

Coalitions against France, the first, 349, 351, 363; the second, 420, 421, 423.

Cobenzl, imperial ambassador, 439, 440.

Coblentz, 331.

Coburg, Duke of, 350, 351, 353, 354, 360, 361.

Colberg, surrender of, 14.

Coleridge, Samuel T., 260.

Collier, Sir George, admiral, 197, 198.

Collingwood, Captain, R.N., 388, 389.

Colman, George (the younger), 258.

Colonial policy of Great Britain, 54-63, 69, 70-72, 84, 88-91, 109-110, 121-128.

Colooney, Vereker defeated by French at, 414.

Commutation tax, 284.

Conciliation bills, 138, 139, 145, 146.

Concord (U.S.A.), 140, 144, 145.

Conde, Prince of, 316, 350, 354.

Connecticut (U.S.A.), 61, 134, 143, 144, 167, 197, 225.

Constantinople, 327, 328, 418.

Constitutional Information, Society for, 335, 338.

Conway, Henry Seymour, 52, 59; secretary of state, 68, 69, 73, 75, 80, 82; resigns office, 87, 102, 103, 112, 225; commander-in-chief, 229.

Cook, Captain, 263.

Cooke, Edward, Irish under-secretary, 446.

Coote, Sir Eyre, 237, 238.

Copenhagen Fields, meeting in. See London.

Cordova, Don Luis de, Spanish admiral, 211, 388.

Cornwall, Charles Wolfran, speaker, 213; death of, 313.

Cornwallis, Lord, general, 157, 167, 168, 174, 175, 198, 219-226, 249; his mission to Frederick II., 299; governor-general of India, 305; created marquis, 305, 328; master-general of ordnance, 366; lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 412-414, 419, 446, 447, 449, 452.

Corsica, 74; French annexation of, 98, 112; English conquest of, 363, 375; loss of, 382.

Cort of Gosport, 270.

Cowpens, battle at the, 221.

Cowper, William, 259, 265.

Crabbe, George, 259.

Crewe, Mrs., 283.

Crillon, Duc de, 236.

Crimea, conquest of, 327.

Criminal law, administration of the. See England.

Crompton, Samuel, inventor, 271.

Crosby, Brass, lord-mayor of London, 118.

Crown Point (Canada), fort, 144, 146, 166, 176.

Cuddalore, battle of, 237, 238.

Cumberland, William, Duke of (uncle of George III.), 4; head of section of whigs, 34, 40; helps the king to form a ministry, 65, 67; sudden death of, 69, 257.

Cumberland, Henry Frederick, Duke of (brother of George III.), 119.

Cumberland, Richard, dramatist, 258.

Curacao, under British protection, 439.

Curtis, Captain, R.N., 236.

Customs duties, Pitt's bill for consolidation of the, 294, 295. For Colonial see American Colonies.

Cuxhaven occupied by Prussians, 442.

D'Ache, French commodore, 2.

Darby, Admiral, 211, 217.

Dashwood, Sir Francis (afterwards Lord Despencer), chancellor of the exchequer, 35, 43; retires from office, 45, 50.

Darlington, Countess of, 145.

Dartmouth, Earl of (William Legge), secretary for colonies, 124, 128, 136-138, 145, 153, 156, 157; privy seal, 159, 265.

Daulat Rao Sindhia (Maratha lord), 419.

Dauphin, the. See Louis XVII.

Dawson, Nancy (afterwards Lady Maynard), 86.

Deane, Silas, 170, 181.

Debates, publication of. See Parliament.

Debating societies, bill for restricting, 434.

Declaratory act, American, 71, 72, 160.

Declaration of independence, American, 158, 182.

Denmark, proposed defensive alliance with, 75; joins the league of armed neutrality, 208; quarrel with England, 441; joins the maritime confederacy, 442.

Derby race, the first, 257.

Devonshire, Duke of (Cavendish), 8, 20, 29, 31, 34, 35, 40, 48.

Devonshire, Duchess of, Georgiana, 283.

Diamond (Ireland), battle at, 385.

Dickinson, John, _The Farmer's Letters_ by, 85.

Dixon, Wexford rebel, 412.

Djezzar, pasha of Syria, 418.

Dogger Bank, battle off the, 212.

Dolben, Sir Samuel, 296.

Dominica, 14, 24, 40, 195; battle off (Battle of the Saints), 235, 243, 377.

Donegal, Lord (Chichester), 92.

Dorchester heights (near Boston), 148, 154.

Douglas, Dr. John, Bishop of Salisbury, his _Seasonable Hints_, 16.

Douglas, Sir Charles, captain of fleet, 234, 235.

Dowdeswell, William, chancellor of the exchequer, 68, 99, 107, 108, 116, 117, 128.

Draper, Sir William, general, 38.

Dublin, 370, 407, 409, 447.

Duddingston, lieutenant, 125.

Duels and Duelling. See England.

Dugommier, 355.

Dumouriez, 334, 337, 349.

Duncan, Admiral, 390, 393, 394, 398; created Viscount Duncan of Camperdown, 398, 399, 400.

Dundas, Henry (first Viscount Melville), 247; India Bill introduced by, 249-250; treasurer of navy, 251, 284, 286, 303-306, 309; secretary of state, 366, 367, 377, 438, 451, 452, 454.

Dundas, Sir David, general, 362.

Dunkirk, 74, 243, 351; siege of, 353, 401.

Dunmore, Earl of (Murray), 156.

Dunning, John (afterwards Baron Ashburton), 102, 139, 169, 170, 204, 229, 238.

Dutch. See Holland and United Provinces.

Dutens, Louis, 251.

East India Company. See India.

Economical reform, 203, 231; petitions for, from towns, 204.

Economic progress. See England.

Eden, William (afterwards Earl of Auckland), 233, 293; created Lord Auckland, 350; postmaster-general, 451.

Edgcumbe, Lord (Edgcumbe), treasurer of the household, 75.

Edgeworth, Maria, 260.

Effingham, Earl of (Howard), 159.

Egmont, Lord (Perceval), first lord of the admiralty, 54, 68.

Egremont, Earl of (Wyndham), secretary of state, 32, 46; death of, 47, 257.

El Arish, captured, 418; convention of, 432.

Eldon, Lord. See Scott, John.

Elections, general. See Parliament.

Elections, Grenville's act. See Parliament.

Eliott, George Augustus, general, 196, 211; created Baron Heathfield, 236, 341.

Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, 33.

Elliot, Sir Gilbert (afterwards Lord Minto), 341, 437.

Ellis, Welbore (afterwards Baron Mendip), treasurer of navy, 192; secretary of state, 228.

Emmet, Thomas, 368.

Emperor, the. See Francis II., Joseph II. and Leopold II.

Enclosures and enclosure acts. See England.

England:-- Criminal law, administration of the, 265-266. Duels and duelling, 50, 204, 257, 403-404. Economic progress, 269-279, 281. Enclosures and enclosure acts, 274-276. Machinery and steam and water power, 270-273. Manufactures, 200, 207; glass, 202; woollen, 202; iron, 269; cotton, 269, 272, 273; silk, 276. Mercantile system, 269. Social progress, 255-268. Trade of, 268, 269, 270, 443.

Erskine, Thomas (afterwards Lord Erskine), 306, 324, 335, 358.

_Essay on Woman_, 50.

Estaing, Count d', 193, 195, 198, 199.

Eutaw springs, battle at, 223.

Ewart, Joseph, British ambassador at Berlin, 298, 299.

Factories, employment of children in, 278.

Falkland islands, Spain and the, 112-114.

Falmouth, Earl (Boscawen), 135.

Falmouth (Portland, Me.), 135, 154.

Family compact (Bourbon), 25, 28, 33, 74, 112, 320, 321.

Farren, Elizabeth (afterwards Countess of Derby), 288.

Feathers petition, the, 118, 119.

Ferdinand IV., King of Naples, 380, 382, 422, 423, 426-429, 431.

Ferguson, Major, 220.

Ferrol attacked, 439.

Fitzgerald, Lady Edward (Pamela), 386.

Fitzgerald, Lord Edward, 386, 406, 407.

Fitzgibbon, John (afterwards Earl of Clare), 369-371, 406, 446.

Fitzherbert, Mrs., 308.

Fitzwilliam, Earl (Wentworth-Fitzwilliam), 340; president of council, 366; lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 368, 369; recalled, 370, 372, 385.

Flaxman, John, 263.

Fleurus, battle of, 361.

Flinders, Matthew, discoverer, 264.

Flood, Henry, 94, 289, 232.

Floridas, 41, 195, 196; reduced, 197, 211; ceded to Spain, 243.

Foley, Sir Thomas, captain, R.N., 417.

Fontainebleau, treaty of, 299, 338.

Foote, Samuel, dramatist, 258, 427.

Fort Edward, surrender of, 176-178.

Fort George, 177, 178.

Fort Lee, surrender of, 167.

Fort Pitt, 58.

Fort Royal (Martinique), 218, 226, 234.

Fort St. James (Africa), 243.

Fort Stanwix, 176, 178.

Fort Washington, surrender of, 167.

Fort Western (Augusta, Me.), 151.

Fox, Charles James (son of Henry Fox, Baron Holland), 95, 118, 120; resigns office and re-enters the ministry, 121; dismissed from office, 127, 160, 162, 169, 170, 186, 190, 191, 202, 204, 212-214, 226, 228; foreign secretary, 229, 230, 232, 233, 238, 239; resigns seals, 240, 243; forms a coalition with North, 244, 245; secretary of state, 246; India bills, 249, 254, 256-258, 280-284; opposes Pitt's India bill, 286, 288, 290, 291, 293-296, 302, 303, 306-314; views on the French revolution, 317, 318, 322, 323; libel bill, 324, 327-330, 332, 333, 335-337, 340, 341, 343, 344, 347, 356; desires peace, 357, 358-359, 373, 374, 378-380, 384, 388, 392, 399; opposes Pitt's budget, 400; removed from privy council, 402, 403, 404, 433, 434.

Fox, Henry (afterwards Lord Holland), 21, 35, 39-40, 43; created Baron Holland, 44, 49, 67, 95.

"Fox's Martyrs," 254.

Fox, Stephen, 256.

France, loss of her colonies and maritime power, 1-2; anxious for peace, 23; negotiations with, 23-27; alliance with Spain, 25-33; peace with, signed, 40, 41; Bourbon schemes of aggrandisement, 74; annexes Corsica, 98; navy of, 112; refuses to help Spain against England, 114; alliance with Americans, 181-183, 187, 191; philosophic movement in, 182; war between England and, 193, 195, 211, 217-220, 227-236; accepts the propositions of Russia with regard to neutrals, 208; schemes of conquests, 211, 236; peace between England and, 242, 243; commercial and navigation treaties with, 257, 293, 294; attempts upon Holland by, 295-301; war declared with Francis II., 324; treaty of commerce with, 1786, 341; war declared with England and Holland, 342; first coalition against, 349; treaty between the United Provinces and, 363; treaty with Grand Duke of Tuscany, 363; treaty with Spain, 363; second coalition against, 420. See French Revolution.

France, revolutionary army of, 350, 353.

Francis, Philip, 99, 100, 247, 286, 302.

Francis II. of Austria, 334, 336, 337, 349, 390, 397.

Frankfort, capture of, 337.

Franklin, Benjamin, 59, 125-127, 136, 138, 145, 155, 156, 182, 228, 239, 240, 242, 243.

Frederick the Great, of Prussia, his alliance with England, 2; his Silesian war, 13-14; subsidy to, 2, 17, 23, 26, 27, 33; British subsidy refused, 34; offended, 40-42; declines Chatham's proposal for a defensive alliance, 75, 154, 160; America seeks help from, 182, 208; joins the league of armed neutrality, 208-209, 298; death of, 299.

Frederick William II. of Prussia, 299, 300, 325-328, 331, 334, 338-339, 351, 354, 360, 361, 363, 374.

Frederick William III. of Prussia, 421, 423, 436, 437, 440, 442.

Freeman's Farm, battle of, 178.

French Revolution, 315; meeting of states-general at Versailles, 316; national assembly, 316; bread riots in Paris, 317; views of Burke on the, 318, 329; flight of Louis XVI., 330; the new constitution accepted, 331; insurrection in Paris, 336; king and queen imprisoned, 336; allied armies enter France, 337; revolutionary societies, 338, 339; execution of Louis XVI., 342; war declared against England, 342, 343; fighting in the Netherlands, 349-351; surrender of Toulon, 352; second committee of public safety, 353; the Vendeans appeal to England for help, 354; siege and evacuation of Toulon, 355; siege of Landrecies, 360; capitulation, 361; fall of Robespierre, 372; new constitution adopted, 375; expedition to Quiberon, 376; war in the West Indies, 377; campaign in Italy, 380; German campaign, 382; campaign in Spain, 388-390; preliminaries for peace, 396-398; projected invasion of England, 401; army of England, 402; Egyptian campaign, 415-417; Syrian campaign, 418, 419; occupation of Naples, 422; war of the second coalition, 425; conquest of Italy by Suvorov, 425; invasion of Holland, 429, 430; overthrow of the directory, 432; consulate, 432; Italian campaign, 436, 437; proposed armistice with Great Britain, 438, 439; treaty of Luneville, 440.

_Freya_, Danish ship, case of the, 441.

Freytag, Marshal, 353.

Friends of the People, Society of the, 324, 335, 357.

Frost, John, 357.

Fuentes, Comte de, 25, 28.

Furstenbund, the, 298-300.

Gage, Thomas, general, 61, 88, 127; appointed governor of Massachusetts, 129, 131, 132, 137, 140, 143, 145, 147, 148, 150-154, 184.

Gainsborough, Thomas, 262.

Galitzin, Prince, Russian ambassador in London, 34.

Gambia ceded to England, 243.

Gambling, 256, 257.

Garrick, David, 258.

_Gaspee_, ship, case of the, 125.

Gates, Horatio, general, 177-179, 219-221.

Geisberg, Austrians defeated at, 354.

Genlis, Madame de, 386.

Genoa, siege of, 436; capitulation of, 437.

George I., 6, 145.

George II., 1, 6.

George III., his accession, 1; his education and character, 3-5; his political system, 6, 7, 9, 10; his scheme of attack on the whigs, 11; first speech to parliament, 12; civil list, 13; love affair, 21; marriage and coronation of, 22; anger against Pitt, 29; his success against the whigs, 35; dissatisfied with Bute, 45; attack of mental disorder, 64; desires to make provision for a regency, 65; opposes his ministers, 71; disappointed by Chatham's illness, 85; growth of personal power, 87; his policy triumphant, 103; contest with the city of London, 110, 111; signs of mental excitement, 112; family troubles, 119; political predominance, 123; his American policy, 131-135; hires foreign troops, 154; refuses to call Chatham to office, 188-189; takes measures to suppress the Gordon riots, 206-207; end of personal government, 229; refuses to call Portland to office, 240; hostile to the coalition ministry, 245-246; unconstitutional move in the case of Fox's India bills, 250-251; creates new peers, 253; attempt on his life, 307; insane, 309, 310, 453; recovers, 314, 454; his feelings towards the emancipation of the Irish catholics, 451-452, 453.

Georgetown, 221.

Georgia, 132, 134, 150, 195, 198, 215.

Germain, Lord George. See Sackville, Lord George.

German troops employed in America, 154, 159, 176, 177, 186.

Germantown, battle of, 174.

Germany, Emperor of. See Francis II., Joseph II. and Leopold II.

Gibbon, Edward, 261.

Gibraltar, 154, 160, 196, 198, 199, 210, 217, 236, 241, 243.

Gilbert's act, 277, 278.

Gillray, James, 257, 399.

Girondists, 334, 350.

Girtin, Thomas, painter, 262.

Glasgow, petition from, 138.

Gloucester (U.S.A.), 224; surrender at, 225.

Gloucester, William Henry, Duke of (brother of the king), 119.

Glynn, Serjeant, 97, 104, 135.

Goddard, Colonel, 237.

Godoy, Emmanuel, "Prince of the Peace," 363.

Goldsmith, Oliver, 258-260, 262.

Gordon, Lord George, 205, 207.

Gordon riots. See Riots.

Goree (Africa), 2, 23, 24, 26, 41; ceded to France, 243; surrendered to the English, 439.

Gorey (Ireland), captured, 410.

Gower, second Earl (Leveson-Gower), afterwards Marquis of Stafford, president of the council, 87; resigns, 202, 229, 245, 251; privy seal, 287, 366.

Gower, Lord, 336, 337.

Gozo, surrender of, 422.

Grafton, Duke of (Fitzroy), 42, 47; secretary of state, 68, 69; resigns office, 73; first lord of the treasury, 74, 80, 85, 86, 89, 90, 95; resigns office, 102; privy seal, 115; resigns, 159, 160, 203; again lord privy seal, 229, 244, 257, 274.

Granard (Ireland), rebellion in, 414.

Granby, Marquis of (Manners), 14, 36, 53; commander-in-chief, 74, 90; resigns, 102, 116.

Grantham, Lord (Robinson), secretary of state, 240.

Granville, Lord (Carteret), 8, 29, 30, 49.

Grasse, Count de, 217, 218, 223, 224, 226, 227, 234, 235.

Grattan, Henry, 201, 202, 232, 233, 290, 291, 315, 368, 369, 449, 450.

Graves, Samuel, admiral, 151, 153.

Graves, Thomas, admiral (afterwards Lord Graves), 218, 224, 226.

Gray, Thomas, 259.

Greene, Nathaniel, American general, 221-223.

Grenada, conquest of, 37, 195, 197, 243, 377.

Grenville, George, 9, 20, 21, 32, 34; secretary of state, 35, 38; the "gentle shepherd," 43, 44; prime minister, 45, 46, 48-50, 53, 54; proposes to tax the American colonies, 54, 57-59; stamp act, 59, 60, 63-65; dismissed from office, 67, 83, 96, 99, 100, 107; elections act, 108, 109; death of, 115, 116.

Grenville, Thomas, 239, 423.

Grenville, William Wyndham (afterwards Lord Grenville), 250, 252, 313; home secretary, 315; created Baron Grenville, secretary of state, 322, 327, 328, 334, 336, 338-340, 342, 343, 349, 352, 356, 359, 366, 373, 374, 379, 394, 396-398, 421, 423, 433, 438, 444, 452.

Greville, Charles, 422.

Grey, Sir Charles, general (afterwards first earl), 363, 364.

Grey, Charles (afterwards second Earl Grey), 294, 308, 341, 357, 372-374; motion for parliamentary reform, 399, 447.

Grimaldi, Marquis, 25, 28, 29, 74, 112-114.

Guadaloupe, 2, 23, 24, 26, 40; surrendered to the English, 363; reconquered by the French, 364; reconquered by the English, 377.

Guichen, Comte de, 199, 200.

Guilford (U.S.A.), battle at, 222.

Gustavus III., King of Sweden, 115; war with Russia and Denmark, 325, 326; allied with _emigres_, 330.

Haarlem Heights (U.S.A.), 165, 167.

_Habeas corpus_, suspension of, 169, 358, 385, 403; motion for repeal of, 372.

Hadfield, king's assailant, 435.

Haidar Ali, ruler of Mysore, 80, 196, 236, 237; death of, 238, 241.

Halifax, Earl of (Dunk), 8; first lord of admiralty, 35; secretary of state, 40, 46, 47, 65, 98, 115; death of, 115.

Halifax (Nova Scotia), 155, 164.

Hamilton, Lady, 422.

Hamilton, Sir William, 422.

Hancock, John, president of congress, 88, 147.

Hanover, 14, 18, 245, 298, 442.

Harcourt, Simon, Earl of, Viceroy of Ireland, 200.

Hardwicke, Earl of (Yorke), 8, 12, 20, 29, 34, 39, 48, 102, 264.

Hardy, French general, 414, 415.

Hardy, shoemaker, 358.

Hardy, Sir Charles, admiral, 196.

Hargreaves, James, 271, 272.

Harris, George, general (afterwards Lord Harris), 420.

Harris, Sir James (afterwards Earl of Malmesbury), 113, 298, 300, 301, 307, 360, 373, 383, 396, 397.

Hartley, David, M.P., 160.

Harvey, Bagenal, 409, 410-412.

Harvey, Sir H., admiral, 389.

Hastings, Warren, governor-general of British India, 122, 236, 237; recalled, 247, 248, 249; resigns governor-generalship, 302; charges against, 303; trial of, 304, 305, 322, 323.

Havana, British capture of, 36, 37, 40-41.

Hawke, Sir Edward, admiral (afterwards Lord Hawke), 15, 75, 113, 115.

Hawkesbury, Lord. See Jenkinson, Charles.

Heliopolis, defeat of Turks at, 432.

Henley, Lord (afterwards Earl of Northington), lord keeper, 8; lord chancellor, 35, 46, 68; resigns office, 73; president of the council, 74, 76, 87.

Henry, Patrick, American, 61, 133, 142, 146.

Henry, Prince (brother of Frederick of Prussia), 14.

_Hermione_, Spanish ship captured, 38; frigate, mutiny on board the, 391.

Herschel, Sir William, astronomer royal, 263.

Hertford, Earl of (Seymour), 52.

Hervilly, Comte d', 376.

Hesse Cassel, landgrave of, 154, 300.

Hexham riots. See Riots.

Hillsborough, Earl of (Hill), president of board of trade, 49; secretary of state, 87, 88-91, 124, 203.

Hillsborough (U.S.A.), 222.

Hobskirk hill, battle of, 223.

Hoche, French general, 354, 376, 377, 386, 398.

Hohenlinden, battle of, 439, 440.

Holdernesse, Lord (D'Arcy), secretary of state, 8, 20.

Holland, Baron. See Fox, Henry.

Holland, province of, treaties with, 209; French party in, 297-299; invaded by Prussians, 300; invaded by French, 362; English and Russian expedition to, 429-431. See United Provinces.

Home, John, dramatist, 258.

Hondschoote, battle of, 353.

Honduras, 41; English expelled from, 196; English settle in, 318.

Hood, Alexander. See Bridport, Viscount.

Hood, Sir Samuel (afterwards Viscount Hood), 218, 224, 226, 227, 235, 238, 283-284, 306, 352, 355, 356, 363, 375.

Hood, Samuel, 417.

Hoppner, John, 262.

Horne, John. See Tooke, Horne.

Horton, Mrs. (becomes Duchess of Cumberland), 119.

Hotham, Sir William, admiral, 375, 376, 381.

Houchard, French general, 353.

Howard, John, philanthropist, 267.

Howe, Richard, Earl, admiral, 138, 145, 163, 164; "Black Dick," 194, 236; first lord of the admiralty, 251; retires, 306, 352, 364-366, 392, 400.

Howe, Sir William, general (afterwards Viscount Howe), 145, 149, 150, 153-155, 163-169, 172-176, 179, 181, 184-185.

Hubertsburg, peace of, 42.

Hughes, Sir Edward, admiral, 237, 238.

Humbert, French general, 413-415.

Hume, David, historian, 261.

Hunt, captain, R.N., 113.

Hunter, John, 263.

Huntingdon, Selina, Countess of, 264, 265.

Hutchinson, general, 413.

Hutchinson, Thomas (governor of Massachusetts), 91, 109, 124; letters by, 125-126; recalled, 129.

Hutton, James, 263.

Impey, Sir Elijah, 304.

Income tax, first imposed by W. Pitt, 434, 435.

India and East India Company, 2, 14; position of the East India Company, 76; Nawab of Bengal deposed by the council, 77; revolt and reconquest of Bengal, 77; Mir Kasim made Nawab of Bengal, 77; battle of Baxar, 78; heavy debts of the East India Company, 78-79, 81; revolt in Mysore, 80; famine in Bengal, 81; North's regulating act, 121, 122; Warren Hastings appointed governor-general, 122; Clive virtually acquitted, 122; act authorising the East India Company to export its surplus stock of tea to America, 126; Pondicherry taken, 196; Haidar makes war on the English, 196; Maratha war, 236-238; Tipu Sahib succeeds Haidar Ali, 238; peace made, 238; charter of the East India Company renewed, 247; Hastings recalled, 247; work of Hastings, 248, 249; Dundas's India bill, 249; Fox's India bills, 249-251; Pitt's India bill, 252, 286; Warren Hastings resigns office, 302; Cornwallis appointed governor-general, 305; Tipu attacks the Raja of Travancore, 305; Pitt's declaratory act, 306; revival of French influence, 419; fall of Seringapatam and death of Tipu, 420; Lord Wellesley in, 443.

Indians, North American, invade colonies, 57-58; employment of, in war, 140, 144, 176-178, 186; border warfare with, 194.

Industrial revolution, 269-273, 277-279.

Ireland, condition of, in 1760, 91-94; absentee tax proposed, 200; linen manufacture, 201; restrictions on trade, 201; volunteers, 202; trade opened, 202; legislative independence conceded, 232, 233; agitation for parliamentary reform, 288, 289; Pitt's trade propositions, 289, 291; question of the regency, 315; political condition in 1795, 367; United Irishmen Society founded, 367; catholics enfranchised, 368; Fitzwilliam, lord-lieutenant, 369; recalled, 370; Camden, lord-lieutenant, 370; complete relief rejected, 370; Maynooth college founded, 385; religious riots, 385; Orange Society founded, 385; attempted French invasion, 386; intended invasion by Dutch fleet, 397-398; condition of, in 1798, 404, 405; conspiracy in Ulster, 405-407; methods of enforcing disarmament, 407-408; rebellions in Kildare and Carlow, 408; in Wexford, 409; defeat of rebels at Arklow, 411; surrender of Wexford, 412; Humbert's invasion, 413; other attempts on, 414; union proposed, 445, 446; catholic support, 446, 447; extent of corruption, 448, 449; act of union, 450; catholic emancipation refused, 451, 452.

Irnham, Lord (Luttrell) afterwards Earl Carhampton, 119.

Ismail captured, 327.

Jaffa captured, 418, 419.

Jamaica, 181, 227, 234, 235.

Jassy, peace made between Russia and Turkey at, 328.

Jay, John, American minister, 378.

Jemappes, Austrians defeated at, 337.

Jenkinson, Charles (afterwards Lord Hawkesbury and Earl of Liverpool), president of board of trade, secretary at war, 202, 281, 323, 328, 396, 452.

Jenner, Dr. Edward, 263.

Jersey, attacked by French, 196, 211.

Jervis, Sir John, admiral (afterwards Earl of St. Vincent), 363, 364, 381, 382, 388-390, 395, 400, 416, 426, 429.

John, Archduke of Austria, 439.

Johnson, Dr., 38, 255, 261, 262.

Johnson, Sir John, 178, 194.

Johnston, general, 410.

Jones, Paul, 197, 209.

Jordan, Mrs., actress, 258.

Joseph II. of Austria, 296-298; declares war against the Turks, 325; death of, 325.

Joubert, French general, 390, 425.

Jourdan, French general, 353, 361, 375, 382, 423, 425.

June, battle of "the glorious first" of, 364, 366.

Junius, letters of, 99-101, 112, 116, 247.

Kalb, Baron de, 182.

Keith, Lord, admiral (George Keith Elphinstone), 429, 432, 439.

Kemble, John, 258.

Kempenfeldt, admiral, 227.

Kenyon, Lloyd, Lord Kenyon, chief justice, 257, 371, 444.

Keppel, Augustus, admiral (afterwards Viscount Keppel), 192, 193, 212, 213; first lord of the admiralty, 229, 240; resigns, 245.

Killala, French at, 413-415.

"King's friends," 10, 68, 107, 110, 172, 281.

Kirkwall, 284.

Kleber, French general, 432.

Korsakov, Russian general, 426.

Kosciusko, Thaddeus, 182.

Kray, Austrian general, 436.

Kutchuk Kainardji, treaty of, 296.

Lafayette, Marquis de, 182, 223, 225, 316.

Lake, General, 406, 411, 414.

Land tax, 83, 113, 162; commutation of, 403.

Landrecies, capitulation of, 360.

Langara, Don Juan de, Spanish admiral, 199, 352.

Langrishe, Sir Hercules, Burke's letter to, 367.

Lansdowne, Marquis of. See Shelburne, Lord.

Lauderdale, Earl of (Maitland), 359.

Laurence, French, 447.

Laurens, Henry, American envoy, 210.

La Vendee, 351, 354, 432.

Lawrence, Thomas, painter, 262.

Lee, Charles, American general, 167, 168.

Lee, Henry, American general, 221, 223.

Lee, William, American envoy, 210.

Leeds, Duke of. See Carmarthen, Earl of.

Legge, Henry Bilson, chancellor of exchequer, 8, 20.

Leinster, Duke of (Fitzgerald), 202, 386.

Lennox, Lady Sarah, 21, 121.

Leoben, preliminaries of peace signed at, 390, 397.

Leopold II. of Austria, 325, 326, 330, 331; death of, 334, 343.

Le Quesnoy, 351, 353, 354.

Leslie, General, 220, 221.

L'Estrange, Colonel, 409, 410.

Lewis, "Monk," 260.

Lexington, skirmish at, 140, 141, 143-146.

Libel, law of, 115; Fox's bill, 324.

Liberty of the press. See Press, liberty of the.

Ligonier, Viscount (afterwards Earl), 8, 30.

Lille, negotiations at, 396, 397, 400.

Lincoln, American general, 195, 198.

Linen manufacture in Ireland. See Ireland.

Lippe-Buckeburg, Count of, general, 37, 145.

Liverpool, Earl of. See Jenkinson, Charles.

Liverpool, petition from, 138.

Loano, battle of, 376.

London:-- Bloomsbury Square, 66. Buckingham House, 54. Carlton House, 11, 307, 309. Clubs: at Wildman's, 43; at Cocoa-Tree Tavern, 110; White's, 253; Brooks's, 253, 256. Copenhagen Fields, meeting in, 378. Correspondence Society, 335. Petitions from citizens of, 138, 158, 159, 186, 193, 435. St. George's Fields: riots, 96; meeting in, 378. Spitalfields riots, 66. Westminster election, 283, 284, 322; representation of, 286.

Long Island (N.Y.), 164, 165, 185, 187.

Long Island (S.C.), 157.

Longwy, captured, 337.

Loughborough, Earl. See Wedderburn, Alexander.

Louis XIV., 433.

Louis XV., 114.

Louis XVI., 181, 316, 320, 321, 324.

Louis XVII., 352, 363.

Louis XVIII. See Provence, Count of.

L'Ouverture, Toussaint, 424.

Lowther, M.P., 160.

Lowther, Sir James (afterwards Earl of Lonsdale), 87, 213, 256.

Loyalists (American), 134, 135, 329; treatment of, 242.

Lucas, Charles, Irish politician, 94.

Lucknow, 249.

Ludgershall, borough of, 94.

Luneville, congress at, 438, 439; treaty of, 440.

Luttrell, Henry Lawes (second Earl Carhampton), colonel, 97, 100, 112, 119, 405.

Luttrell, M.P., 160.

Luxemburg, 351.

Lyons, siege of, 355, 356.

Lyttelton, Lord, 67.

Macartney, George, Lord, 395.

Macaulay, Zachary, 324.

Macdonald, French general, 425, 427, 440.

Machinery and steam and water power. See England.

Mack (Austrian general), 360, 422.

Mackenzie, James Stuart (brother of the Earl of Bute), 67.

Mackintosh, Sir James, his _Vindiciae Gallicae_, 329.

Macklin, Charles, actor, 258.

Maclean, Colonel, 152.

Madras, 196, 237, 238; council of, 247.

Mahe (India), 196.

Mainz, Elector of, 436.

Mainz, surrender of, 337, 349, 350, 354; siege of, 375.

Malmesbury, Earl of (Harris). See Harris, Sir James.

Malta, 415; surrendered by the Knights of St. John, 416, 421, 423, 431, 438; becomes a British possession, 439, 441.

Malvalli, battle of, 420.

Mamelukes, defeat of, 416.

Manhattan island. See New York.

Manila, 38, 40, 41, 74, 112.

Mansfield, first Earl of (Murray), 8, 29; lord chief justice, 96, 100-101; speaker of the house of lords, 103, 116, 131, 205-207, 306, 324.

Mansfield, second Earl of. See Stormont, Lord.

Mantua, siege of, 381, 382; surrender of, 390.

Manufactures, 200, 207; silk, 66, 95, 276; glass, 202; woollen, 202; iron, 269; cotton, 269, 272, 273; linen (in Ireland), 290.

Maratha wars, 236, 237, 247-248, 305.

March, Earl of (Douglas), afterwards Duke of Queensberry, 256.

Marengo, battle of, 437.

Maria Caroline, Queen of Naples, 422, 428.

Maria Theresa, empress-queen, 24, 296.

Marie Antoinette, queen of Louis XVI., 330, 334.

Maroons, insurrection of, in Jamaica, 377.

Marseilles, 352.

Martin, Joseph, governor of N. Carolina, 157.

Martin, Samuel, secretary to the treasury, 50.

Martinique, 36; captured by the British, 37; restored, 40-41, 195, 218, 227, 363.

Massachusetts, 84, 88-91; bill for regulating the government of, 128, 129, 132, 133, 137, 138; provincial congress, meeting of, 140-142; in arms, 143, 144, 198.

Massena, French general, 390, 425, 426, 436, 437.

Masham, Lord (Masham), 256.

Mauduit, Israel, his Considerations on the German War, 18.

Maxwell, Colonel, at Vellinghausen, 14.

Maynooth College, foundation of. See Ireland.

McCrae, Jane, murder of, 177.

McDonald, merchant skipper, 320, 321.

Medows, General, 305.

Melas, Austrian general, 436, 437.

Menin, Dutch defeated at, 353.

Mercantile system. See England.

Methuen treaty, 257.

Micheroux, il cavaliere, 427, 428.

Middlebrook (U.S.A.), 173.

Middlesex elections, 95-99, 100, 101, 103, 107, 110, 135.

Militia, English, 2, 161, 162; Irish, 368.

Miller, printer, 117, 118.

Milner, Isaac (Dean of Carlisle), 265.

Ministries, Newcastle's, 8-35; Bute's, 35-45; Grenville's, 45-67; accession of the Bedford party to office, 49-67; Rockingham's, 67-73; Chatham's, 73-89; Grafton's, 89-102; North's, 102-229; Rockingham's, 229-240; Shelburne's, 240-244; Coalition, 245-251; Pitt's, 251-455.

Minorca, 23, 24, 26, 154, 160, 181, 196, 198, 211, 227, 243; British capture of, 422; British troops recalled from, 436.

Minto, Earl of. See Elliot, Sir Gilbert.

Miquelon island, 40; ceded to France, 243; British capture of, 356.

Mir Jafar, 78.

Mir Kasim, 77.

Mitchell, Sir Andrew, admiral, 430.

Mitford, John Freeman (afterwards Lord Redesdale), 323; speaker, 453.

Modena, Duke of, 380.

Mohawk valley, 176.

Moira, Earl of. See Rawdon, Lord.

Mollendorf, Prussian general, 360-362.

Monmouth (U.S.A.), battle at, 193.

Monongahela, battle of, 146.

Monro, Major Hector, 78.

Montagu, John, admiral, 364, 366.

Montenotte, Austrians defeated at, 380.

Montgomery, Richard, American general, 151, 152.

Montreal, 2; surrender of, 151.

Montserrat (W.I.), 243.

Moore, Sir John, 430.

Moreau, 325, 382, 436, 437, 439.

More, Hannah, 265.

Morgan, Daniel, American general, 221.

Morland, George, 262.

Mornington, Lord (Wellesley, R. C.), governor-general of India, 420; created Marquis Wellesley, 420; in India, 443.

Morristown (U.S.A.), 169.

Mosquito coast, 318.

Moultrie, William, American general, 157.

Mountjoy, Lord (Gardiner), 410.

Mount Tabor, defeat of Turks at, 419.

Mouscron, battle at, 361.

Moutray, captain, R.N., 211.

Mowat, lieutenant, 154.

Muir, Thomas, 358.

Mulgrave, Lord (Phipps), general, 355.

Murphy, Father John, 409.

Murray, Lindley, 165.

Musgrave, Colonel, 174.

Mutiny act, 253, 254; extended to America, 60.

Mutiny. See Navy, mutinies in the.

Mysore, conquest of, 420.

Nanda-Kumar (Nuncomar), execution of, 248, 304.

Naples, King of. See Ferdinand IV.

Naples, 349, 381, 421-423; revolution in, 422; jacobins of, and Nelson, 427-429.

Nassau. See Bahama islands.

National debt, the, in 1755, 18; in 1760, 18; in 1764, 53, 58, 136; in 1796, 384; in 1778, 200; in 1780, 203; in 1784, 280; in 1785, 284; sinking fund, 291-293; in 1793, 347; in 1794, 347.

Navigation acts, 55, 269.

Navy, British, state of in 1760, 2; in 1761, 18, 29; in 1764, 53; in 1770, 113; in 1771, 114; in 1172, 115; in 1774, 137; in 1775, 161; in 1776, 162, 163; in 1777, 170, 171; in 1778, 192, 193, 195; in 1782, 233, 235; in 1792, 332; in 1793, 351, 352; changes in material and tactics, 199, 233-235; manning of, 113, 114, 163, 170, 171, 192, 234, 332; mutinies in the, 193, 390, 391-395.

Necker, 316.

Needham, Francis Jack (Earl of Kilmorey), general, 411.

Neerwinden, battle of, 349.

Negapatam, 237, 243.

Nelson, Horatio (Viscount), 355, 363, 375, 381, 388, 389, 395; battle of the Nile, 416, 417; created Baron Nelson, 417, 418-422; at Naples, 422, 423, 426-429, 438, 443.

Nevis (W. I.), taken by French, 227; restored to England, 243.

Newcastle, Duke of (Pelham), first lord of treasury, 8, 10, 11; jealous of Pitt, 15; his fear of him, 17; his power diminished, 16, 19; becomes Bute's tool, 20, 21, 26, 29, 31, 32; driven from office, 34, 35, 39, 42, 47, 48; privy seal, 68, 69, 264.

New England, colonies, 132, 134, 136, 137, 139, 141, 143, 146, 147, 172, 193.

Newfoundland (St. John), taken by French and retaken, 37, 129, 130, 144.

Newfoundland, fishery, 24-27, 40, 41, 139, 241, 243.

Newport (U.S.A.), 168, 194, 219, 224.

New Ross (Ireland), battle of, 410, 411.

New South Wales, colony of, 267.

Newtownbarry, 409, 410.

New York, meeting of congress of colonies at, 61, 131, 134, 136, 138, 150, 153, 155, 158; occupation of by Howe, 165, 167, 169; Clinton in command, 174, 175, 179, 181, 193, 197, 198, 200, 215, 218, 219, 223-225, 228, 242.

Nice annexed to France, 337.

Nicholson, Margaret, 307.

Nile, battle of the (Abukir bay), 416, 417.

Nimeguen, 362.

Nizam of Oudh, 419, 420.

Nollekens, Joseph, 263.

Nootka sound (Vancouver), affair of, 319.

Nore, mutiny at the, 393, 394.

Norfolk, Duke of (Howard), 402.

Norfolk (U.S.A.), 156.

_North Briton_, No. 45 of the, 46, 47, 50, 52.

Northesk, Earl of (Carnegie), captain, R.N., 394.

North, Frederick, Lord (afterwards Earl of Guilford), 83; chancellor of exchequer, 86, 90, 100; first lord of treasury and chancellor of exchequer, 102, 103, 106-113, 115, 118, 119; policy towards India, 121, 122, 127; towards America, 128, 135, 136, 138, 139, 145; conciliation bill, 146, 153, 159, 160; prohibitory bill, 162, 163, 169, 170; desires to resign, 188-191; Irish policy, 200-202, 210, 212, 226, 227; resigns office, 228, 243; forms a coalition with Fox, 244; secretary of state, 245-247; leaves office, 251, 252, 254, 280, 288, 289, 291, 295.

Northington, Earl of. See Henley, Lord.

Norton, Sir Fletcher, speaker, 172, 213.

Nova Scotia, 129, 198.

Novi, battle of, 425.

Oakboys, 92.

Ochakov, 325-328.

O'Coighly, priest, 406.

O'Connor, Arthur, 386, 406.

O'Hara, general, 222, 355.

Oliver, Richard, alderman, 117, 118, 160.

Oliver, Thomas, 125, 126.

Omichand (Hindu merchant), 122.

Onslow, George, colonel, 117.

Orange, Prince of. See William V., Prince of Orange.

Orange, Princess of, 298-300.

Orange Society. See Ireland.

Orleans, Duke of, 386.

Orvilliers, Comte d', 193.

Ostend, 401, 402.

Oswald, Richard, British envoy, 239.

Oswego, 172, 177.

Otis, James, 56.

Otto, French agent, 438.

Paine, Thomas, his _Common Sense_, 156; his _Rights of Man_, 329, 335.

Paley, William, 261.

Palliser, Sir Hugh, 193.

Palmer, Samuel, dissenting preacher, 358.

Pampeluna, siege of, 363.

Panin, Count, Russian minister, 208, 423.

Paoli, Corsican general, 98, 363.

Parker, Richard, mutineer, 393, 394.

Parker, Sir Hyde, admiral, 212, 443.

Parker, Sir Peter, admiral, 157, 168.

Parma, Duke of, 380.

Paris, peace of, 42, 46, 74, 130; in 1789, 316-317; Malmesbury's mission to, 383; articles of peace signed by the Austrian envoy at, 437; Russian ambassador sent to arrange treaty of alliance at, 442.

Parliament, general elections of 1761, 16, 19, 20; of 1768, 94; of 1774, 135, 136; of 1781, 212, 213; of 1784, 280; of 1790, 322; Grenville's election act, 108, 109, 135; house of lords, changes in the character of the, 281, 282; privileges of members of, 47, 50, 51, 53, 72, 117, 118; publication of debates, 117, 118.

Parliamentary reform, demands for, 104; Chatham's plan of, 105; agreement concerning, 244; Pitt's motions for, 231-232, 246, 287, 288; Flood's motion for, 318; Grey's motion for, 399.

Patna, seized by the English, 77.

Paul, Tsar of Russia, 384, 421, 423, 425, 426, 429; anger against England, 431, 440; forms an armed neutrality, 441-443.

Pearson, Captain, R.N., 197.

Penn, Richard, 158.

Pennsylvania, mutiny of troops in, 214.

Percy, Lord (afterwards Duke of Northumberland), 141.

Percy, Thomas, Bishop of Dromore, 259.

Peter III., Tsar of Russia, 33, 36.

Phelypeaux, Colonel, 418.

Philadelphia, continental congress at, 132-134, 138, 146, 147, 156, 157, 167; congress removes from, 168, 174, 179, 188; taken by Howe, 173, 174, 175, 179, 180; evacuated, 193, 225.

Philippine Islands, British conquest of, 38; restored to Spain, 40.

Phillip, Captain, R.N., 267.

Pichegru, 375.

Pierson, Major, 211.

Pigot, George, Lord, governor of Madras, 247.

Pigot, Hugh, admiral, 149, 238.

Pigot, Hugh, captain, R.N., 139.

Pilnitz, declaration of, 331.

Pitcairn, Major, 140.

Pitt, John (second Earl Chatham), 159; first lord of the admiralty, 306; privy seal, 366.

Pitt, Thomas (nephew of first Earl of Chatham), 245.

Pitt, William, the elder, afterwards Earl of Chatham, his influence before 1760, 1; secretary of state, 8; his political character, 10; his war policy, 11; acts with Bute, 15-16; against government by connexion, 16, 31; cabal against, 20-21; his part in negotiations of 1761, 23-27; demands war with Spain, 28; resignation, 30-32; pension and wife's peerage, 32; his schemes of conquest, 36; on the Peace of Paris, 42-44; king's negotiations with, 48, 53, 56, 59, 65, 66; refuses to take office, 67-69; speaks against enforcing stamp act, 69, 70; part in repeal of stamp act, 71; prime minister, 73; created Earl of Chatham, 73; quarrels with Temple, 74; foreign policy, 74; proposes defensive alliance between Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, 75; his long illness, 76, 85; policy as regards India, 79, 80, 82, 83, 85; resigns office, 89; allied with the opposition, 100-102, 104; scheme for parliamentary reform, 105, 106-111, 128; opposes the quartering bill, 129-131, 136; conciliation bill, 138, 160, 170, 184-187; king refuses to send for, 188-189; death of, 190.

Pitt, William, the younger, 9; member for Appleby, 213; joins the opposition, 214, 228, 229; on parliamentary reform, 231; chancellor of exchequer, 240, 241, 243-246; first lord of treasury and chancellor of exchequer, 251, 252; India Bills, 252-254, 261, 265, 268, 269, 277, 280-283, 286, 287; his finance, 284, 285; his bill for parliamentary reform, 287, 288; his Irish trade proposals, 290, 291; sinking fund, 292, 293; commercial treaty with France, 293, 294; bill for consolidation of customs and excise, 294-295; his attitude towards the slave trade, 295, 296, 299, 300, 302-315; his views on the French Revolution, 317, 318, 321-325, 327, 328; Canada Bill, 329-336, 338, 339; warden of the Cinque Ports, 340; as war minister, 345-352; his loans, 348, 354, 357-359, 362, 366-367, 369, 370-372; disagreement with Grenville, 373-374, 376, 378, 379; budgets, 380, 384, 385, 400, 403, 434, 435; desires peace, 382, 383, 387, 388, 392, 395-397, 399, 401, 403, 433; duel with Tierney, 404; preparations for a union with Ireland, 412, 413, 420, 421, 436-438, 444; desires Irish union, 445-447, 449; and favours catholic emancipation, 369, 452; will resign, 452; budget of 1801, 453, 454; resignation, 455.

Pius VI., Pope, 420.

Plunket, William Conyngham, Lord, 447.

Plymouth, 196.

Pocock, Admiral, 37.

Point Judith (U.S.A.), 194.

Point Levi (Canada), 152.

Poland, partition of, 115, 296, 338, 349, 351, 363; invaded by Russia, 338; insurrection in, 361.

Police system, 267.

Political trials, 357, 358, 434.

Pondicherry, 1, 14; taken by English, 196, 356; French fleet at, 237.

Ponsonby, John, 368, 447.

Penthievre, 377.

Pontiac, 58.

Poor law, 273, 277, 278.

Popham, Major, 237.

Port Egmont, 113, 114.

Portland, Duke of (Cavendish-Bentinck), 75, 87, 232, 233, 240; first lord of treasury, 245, 333, 334, 340; home secretary, 366, 368-371, 452.

Porto Novo, battle of, 237.

Porto Praya, naval action at, 237.

Portsmouth, 170, 192.

Portugal: ally of England, 33, 40, 257, 349, 381, 397, 442.

Pownall, Thomas, 89.

Pratt. See Camden, Lord.

Press, liberty of the, 116-118, 324.

Preston, Captain, 109.

Pretender, the Old, 1.

Pretender, the Young, 1.

Prevost, Augustine, general, 195, 198.

Price, Richard, 291, 292.

Priestley, Joseph, 263, 331, 332.

Prime Minister, title and functions of, 9, 64, 85-86, 90, 103, 189, 229, 230, 244, 281, 332.

Printers, the House of Commons and the, 117, 118.

Prisons, 267.

Provence, Count of (Louis XVIII.), 352, 432.

Providence. See Bahama Islands.

Prussia, 75, 115, 300; declares war against France, 336; peace with France, 374.

_Public Advertiser_, newspaper, 99.

Puerto-rico, 389.

Puisaye, Comte de, 376, 377.

Pulaski, Count, 182.

Pulteney, Sir James, general, 439.

Putnam, Israel, American general, 164.

Pyramids, battle of the, 416.

Quebec act, 129, 145, 146, 151, 166; siege of, 152, 155, 205, 329.

Quiberon bay, 376.

Queensberry, Duke of. See March, Earl of.

Radcliffe, Ann, 260.

Raeburn, Henry, 262.

Raikes, Robert, 265.

Rawdon, Lord (Hastings), later Earl of Moira and Marquis of Hastings, 219, 220, 223, 354, 361, 376, 406.

Reeve, Clara, 260.

Regency bill, 64, 65; later question of the, 309-314, 453.

Regulating act, North's, 121, 122, 273.

Regulators' war, 124.

Reichenbach, congress at, 326.

Religion and Church of England, 264.

Revolutionary society, 335; bill for suppressing, 434.

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 262, 407.

Rhode Island, 61, 125, 139, 143, 153, 168, 194, 198, 219, 224.

Richmond, Duke of (Lennox), secretary of state, 73, 145, 160, 190, 203, 204, 229, 240; resigns office, 243; master-general of ordnance, 251, 257, 291, 359; resigns ordnance, 366.

Ridgway, bookseller, 357.

Rigby, Richard, 27, 107.

Riots:-- American, 61, 89, 126. Birmingham, 331-332. Bread, 75, 378, 444. Carlisle and other towns, 339. Coal-heavers and others, 95. Dublin, 447, 450. Gordon, 205-207. Hexham, 18. St. George's Fields, 96. Silk-weavers, 66, 95. Wilkes, 96, 97. Duty of soldiers in, 207.

Robertson, William, historian, 261.

Robespierre, fall of, 372.

Rochambeau, Comte de, 218, 219, 224.

Roche, Philip, 411, 412.

Rochford, Earl of (Nassau), secretary of state, 89, 90, 115; resigns, 159.

Rockingham, Marquis of (Watson-Wentworth), 40, 42, 48; first ministry, 67-72; resigns office, 73, 74, 85, 86, 102, 106, 107, 110, 118, 128, 158, 160, 169, 187, 191, 212; second ministry, 228, 229, 232, 233; death of, 240, 257, 274.

Rodney, afterwards Sir George and Lord Rodney, admiral, 37, 198, 200, 212, 216, 219, 226, 227, 234, 235; created baron, 238, 239, 365.

Rohillas (Afghan tribe), 248.

Rolle, John, M.P., 308.

Rollo, Lord (Rollo), takes Dominica, 14.

Roman Catholics: relief from disabilities of, 205, 323; grant of franchise to Irish, 367, 368; question of emancipation of in Ireland, 369-371, 385, 446, 447, 451, 453-455.

Romney, George, 262.

Rousseau, 315.

Roussillon invaded, 350.

Rowan, Archibald Hamilton, 368.

Roxbury (U.S.A.), 143.

Royal marriage act, 119, 120, 308.

Ruffo, Cardinal, 426-429.

Rusby (corn dealer), 444.

Russia, Empress of. See Catherine II.

Russia in seven years' war, 33; commercial treaty with, 72; Chatham's policy towards, 75, 326; Russian policy, 115; Pitt's policy towards, 326; treaty of alliance with Great Britain, 423; withdrawal of, from the second coalition, 431.

Russia, Tsar of. See Paul and Peter III.

Russian armament, the, 327-328.

Rutland, Duke of (Manners), viceroy of Ireland, 287, 289, 290; lord steward, 244; privy seal, 251.

Ryder, Dudley, afterwards Lord Harrowby, 404.

Sackville, Lord George, 15, 22, 83, 87; takes name Germain, 159; secretary of state, 159, 166, 173, 176, 179, 180, 184, 185, 191, 202, 210, 225-227; created Viscount Sackville, 228.

St. Eustatius, island of, 216; surrender, 217-218; retaken by French, 227.

St. George's Fields. See London.

St. Kitts, island of, captured by French, 227; ceded to Great Britain, 243.

St. Leger, Colonel, 176, 177.

St. Lucia, island of, 24; conquest of, 37, 40, 195, 218; restored to France, 242; surrender of, 363, 377.

St. Marcouf, islands of, 402.

St. Philips. See Minorca.

St. Pierre, island of, 27, 40; ceded to France, 243; taken by English, 356.

St. Valentine's Day, battle of. See Cape St. Vincent, battle of.

St. Vincent, Earl of. See Jervis, Sir John.

St. Vincent, island of, conquest of, 37, 40; captured by French, 195, 197, 198; ceded to Great Britain, 243; insurrection in, 377.

Salbai, treaty of, 237, 238.

Salem, seat of government transferred from Boston to, 128, 140.

San Domingo, island of, 200, 234; massacre at, 323, 364, 424.

Sandwich, Earl of (Montagu), secretary of state, 49, 50, 65, 100, 115; first lord of the admiralty, 131, 161, 191-193, 212.

Sandy Hook (N.Y.), 174, 193, 224.

Santa Cruz, attack on, 395.

Saratoga, convention of, 178, 179.

Sardinia, King of. See Charles Emmanuel.

Saumarez, Captain, 388.

Saumur, 351.

Saunders, Sir Charles, first lord of the admiralty, 74, 75, 98.

Savannah, capture of, 195, 198.

Savary, French captain, 413, 415.

Savile, Sir George, 203, 205, 206.

Savoy, annexed by the French, 337.

Sawbridge, John, 107, 160.

Scheldt, opening of the, 297, 342-344.

Schuyler, Philip, American general, 176, 177, 180.

Schweidnitz, capture of, 14.

Scott, John (afterwards Earl of Eldon), solicitor-general, 206, 371; chief justice of common pleas, 434; created baron, 434.

Scott, John (afterwards Scott-Waring), major, 303.

Secker, Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury, 60.

Secretaries of state, division of departments of, 10, 87, 229, 336.

Seditious meetings bill, 379, 380.

Selim III. (Turkish sultan), 418.

Selwyn, George, 94, 256.

Senegal, 23, 24, 26; seized by the French, 197; ceded to France, 243.

Seringapatam, siege of, 305; taken, 420.

Seymour, Lord Hugh, admiral, 431.

Shah Alam, Mughal emperor, 78.

Sharp, Granville, philanthropist, 295.

Sheares, Henry, 408.

Sheares, John, 408.

Sheerness, 393, 394.

Shelburne, Earl of (Fitzmaurice), afterwards Marquis of Lansdowne, 49, 52; secretary of state, 73, 80, 82; resigns, 89, 128, 160, 188, 203, 204, 213, 228; home secretary, 229, 230, 231, 238, 239; first lord of the treasury, 240-245, 251, 287, 293, 336, 341, 359.

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 246, 258, 286, 291, 294, 304, 308-311, 318, 335, 336, 359, 406, 447.

Shore, Sir John (afterwards Lord Teignmouth), 419.

Shuja-ud-Daula, 77, 248.

Siddons, Mrs., 258.

Sinking fund, 291-293, 332, 347.

Sistova, peace of, 326.

Skenesborough (U.S.A.), 177.

Slave trade, 295, 296, 323, 324, 404.

Smith, Adam, his _Wealth of Nations_, 137, 261, 269, 276, 277.

Smith, Colonel, 140.

Smith, Sir Sidney, 355, 402, 418, 419, 431, 432.

Smuggling, 267-268, 284; hovering act against, 285.

Social progress. See England.

Societies, revolutionary, 335, 338, 358.

Somers, Lord, 352.

Soubise, Prince, 14, 36.

Spain, King of. See Charles III.

Spain, grievances of, against Great Britain, 24; alliance with France, 24-30; Great Britain declares war against, 33; war with, 37-38; navy of, 112; dispute with Great Britain concerning the Falkland islands, 113, 114; alliance of, with America, 181-183; alliance with France against Great Britain, 196; declares war against Great Britain, 196-200, 203, 208; peace between Great Britain and, 242-243; convention of 1786 with, 318; discontent in Spanish America with, 319, 320; treaty with Great Britain, 321; joins the first coalition, 349; abandons coalition, 363; alliance of, with France, 381.

Spanish America. See Spain.

Speenhamland, 278.

Spencer, Earl, 340; privy seal, 366; first lord of the admiralty, 366, 393, 452.

Speyer, surrender of, 337.

Spitalfields riots. See London.

Spithead, 209; mutiny at, 392, 393.

Stafford, Marquis of. See Gower, Earl.

Stamp act, 59-63, 69-71, 134.

Stanhope, Earl, 317, 359.

Stanley, Hans, diplomatist, 24-29, 32.

Staten island, 164.

Stephen, James, 324.

Sterne, Laurence, 260.

Steuben, Baron, 182.

Steyer, armistice signed at, 439.

Stirling, Lord (so-called), William Alexander, American general, 165.

Stockdale, John, publisher, 324.

Stormont, Lord (afterwards Earl of Mansfield), 115, 183; secretary of state, 203, 210; president of the council, 245, 369.

Strange, Lord, 71.

Stuart, James, general, 238.

Stuart, Sir Charles, general, 363.

Suchet, French general, 436.

Sudbury, the borough of, 19.

Suffolk, Earl of (Howard), privy seal, later secretary of state, 115; death of, 203.

Suffren, Bailli de, French admiral, 238.

Sullivan, John, American general, 155, 165, 194.

Sumter, American partisan leader, 219-221, 223.

Surinam, surrender of, 431.

Suvorov (Suwarrow), Russian general, 327, 425, 426.

Sweden, King of. See Gustavus III.

Sweden, proposed defensive alliance with, 75; revolution in, 115; joins the league of armed neutrality, 208; invaded by Denmark, 325; makes a treaty with Russia, 326; joins the maritime confederacy, 442.

Sydney, Lord. See Townshend, Thomas.

Syria, Bonaparte's campaign in, 418.

Talbot, Earl (Talbot), lord steward, 97.

Talleyrand, French statesman, 333, 334, 336, 337, 433, 437.

Tandy, Napper, 414.

Tarleton, Sir Banastre, colonel, 220, 221.

Taxation, right of colonial, 62-63, 69.

Tea-duty, 90, 109, 110, 129, 162; Chatham urges repeal of, 188, 284.

Tchernitchev, Russian general, 33, 35, 36.

Temple, Earl, first (Richard Grenville-Temple), 20, 28, 30, 39, 43, 44, 46, 49, 50, 66, 67, 73, 74, 99, 100.

Temple, Earl, second (George Grenville), afterwards Marquis of Buckingham, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 240; secretary of state, 250, 251; created Marquis of Buckingham, 287, 315, 367.

Thelwall, John, lecturer, 359.

Thompson, printer, 117.

Three Rivers (Canada), 156.

Thugut, Baron, Austrian minister, 351, 360, 421-423, 425, 431, 436.

Thurlow, Edward, Lord (Baron), solicitor-general, 103, 115, 116, 118; attacks Clive, 123, 125; lord chancellor, 191, 203, 228, 231, 245, 250-251; the great seal stolen, 254, 286, 302, 306, 309, 310, 312, 323, 324; dismissed, 332.

Ticonderoga, 144, 146, 151, 166, 168, 170, 173; surrender of, 176, 177.

Tierney, George, 399; duel with Pitt, 403-404, 435.

Tipu, Sultan, 237; succeeds Haidar Ali, 238, 305, 397, 418-420.

Tobago, 24, 40, 218, 243, 333, 334; taken by English, 356.

Tolerance, religious, subscription to thirty-nine articles, 118, 119, 205, 323; bill for relief of dissenters, 295.

Tone, Wolfe, 367, 368, 386; death of, 415.

Tooke, Horne (previously Horne), 104, 127, 145, 322, 358.

Torgau, battle of, 14.

Toulon, surrenders to Hood, 352; evacuation of, 355, 356, 375, 381, 415, 418, 427, 428.

Tourcoing, battle of, 361.

Tournai, 361.

Townshend, Charles, 20; paymaster of forces, 67; chancellor of the exchequer, 74, 80, 82, 83; death of, 86.

Townshend, Marquis, 274; viceroy of Ireland, 94.

Townshend (Thomas), afterwards Lord Sydney, home secretary, 240, 251, 267; resigns, 315.

Traitorous correspondence bill, 357.

Transportation of criminals, 267.

Travancore, raja of, 305.

Treasonable practices bill, 379, 380.

Trebbia, battle of the, 425.

Trecothick, lord mayor, 113.

Trenton, 168, 173.

Trincomali, 237.

Trinidad, captured by the English, 389.

Triple alliance of 1786, 301, 320, 324-326; comes to an end, 328, 374.

Troubridge, Sir Thomas, admiral, 388, 389, 427.

Tryon, William, governor of New York, 124, 130.

Tucker, Joseph (Dean of Gloucester), 137.

Turks, wars between Russia and, 114; Austria declares war against, 325; capture of Ochakov, 325; treaty with Prussia, 326; peace with Austria, 326; war continued with Russia, 327; war with France, 418-419, 421, 427, 432.

Turner, Joseph, 262.

Tuscany, Grand Duke of, 363, 380.

Ulm, capitulation of, 436.

Ulster, conspiracy in, 405.

Union of Great Britain and Ireland, 450.

United Irishmen, 367, 368, 385, 386, 398, 405, 406, 409, 414.

United Provinces, 297, 299-301, 324-325; threatened by French, 336-340, 343; invaded, 349; subject to France, 363; form Batavian republic, 440. See also Holland.

United States, commercial treaty between England and the, 378.

Ushant, naval fight off, 193.

Valenciennes, 350, 354.

Valetta, siege of, 426, 431; surrender of, 438, 439; the Tsar's designs on, thwarted, 441.

Valley Forge, 175.

Valmy, battle of, 337.

Vansittart, Henry, his government of Bengal, 77.

Vellinghausen, battle of, 14.

Venice, 349, 390, 397.

Verdun, 337.

Vereker, Colonel, 414.

Vergennes, Comte de, 181-183, 215, 239, 241.

Versailles, treaty of, 236, 241, 244, 292, 296.

Villaret-Joyeuse, rear-admiral, 364-366.

Vinegar Hill, battle of, 409-411.

Viri, Comte de, Sardinian minister, 17, 20, 38.

Vorontsov (Woronzow), Count, Russian ambassador, 394, 440.

Voltaire, 315.

Volunteers, Irish, 202, 232, 289.

Wages, agricultural labourers, 273, 276, 435; bill for the regulation of, 378; combinations to raise, 277; fixed by statute, 276; law against combinations of workmen, 434; sailors, 392; weavers, 272, 273.

Wakefield, Gilbert, 434.

Waldeck, Prince of, 154.

Waldegrave, John, third Earl, 4, 119.

Waldegrave, Maria, Countess of (afterwards Duchess of Gloucester), 119.

Wales, George, Prince of (afterwards George IV.), 38, 246, 283, 307, 308-312, 313-315, 372, 373, 406, 453.

Wales, Prince of (George II.'s son), 3.

Wales, Princess of, Caroline of Brunswick, wife of George, Prince of Wales, 373.

Wales, Princess Dowager of (George III.'s mother), her character and influence on George III., 3, 4, 21, 42, 51, 65, 112; death of, 119.

Wallis, Samuel, discoverer, 263.

Wall, Richard, General (Spanish minister), 27-30, 32, 74.

Walmoden, General, 362.

Walpole, George, colonel, 404.

Walpole, Horace, 52, 75, 260-262, 267.

Walpole, Sir Robert, 6, 43, 57, 191, 292.

Warburton, William, Bishop of Gloucester, 50.

Warrants, general, 46; declared illegal, 47, 52, 66, 72.

Warren, Richard, Dr., 313.

Warren, Sir John, admiral, 376, 415.

Washington, George, 133; American commander-in-chief, 146, 147, 150, 154, 155, 164-169, 173-176, 180, 186, 193, 194, 197, 198, 214-216, 218, 219, 223-226, 402.

Waterloo, 361.

Wattignies, 354.

Watt, James, 270, 358.

Wedderburn, Alexander (afterwards Lord Loughborough and Earl of Rosslyn), 107; solicitor-general, 115, 123, 126, 170; attorney-general, 191; created Lord Loughborough, 207, 309, 333; lord chancellor, 341, 371; his treachery, 451, 452, 455.

Wedgwood, Josiah, 270, 290.

Wellesley, Sir Arthur (afterwards Duke of Wellington), 420.

Werela, peace made between Russia and Sweden at, 326.

Wesley, John, 264.

Westminster election of 1785. See London.

Westmorland, Earl of (Fane), lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 366-369, 371, 452.

West Point, 197, 215.

Wexford, rebellion in, 409, 412.

Weymouth, Viscount (Thynne), secretary of state, 87, 89, 90, 95, 96, 102; resigns office, 115; again in office, 159, 203.

Whately, Thomas, 125-127.

Wheble, printer, 117.

Whitbread, Samuel, 378, 435.

Whiteboys, 92.

White Plains, battle of, 167, 224.

Whitworth, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord), British ambassador at St. Petersburg, 421, 440; sent to Copenhagen, 441.

Wickham, William, British ambassador at Berne, 383.

Wilberforce, William, philanthropist, 254, 265, 287, 295, 296, 323, 324, 372, 384, 404.

Wilhelmsthal, battle of, 36.

Wilkes, John, 39, 43; case of, 46, 47, 50-52; returned for Middlesex, 95-98, 104, 108, 117, 118, 135, 142, 170, 206, 231, 312.

William V., Prince of Orange, stadholder of Holland, 298, 299, 300, 362, 430, 431.

Willis, Francis, Dr., 310, 312, 313, 453.

Wilmington (U.S.A.), 222.

Wilson, Richard, 262.

Windham, William, 258, 318, 335, 340, 341, 382, 396, 452.

Windsor, borough of, 212.

Winnsborough (U.S.A.), 221.

Wood, John, architect, 262.

Wood, Robert, under-secretary of state, sued by Wilkes, 47.

Wordsworth, William, 260.

Worms, surrender of, 337.

Wray, Sir Christopher, 283.

Wright, cruel treatment of, 408.

Wurmser, Austrian general, 354, 381, 390.

Wurtemberg, Duke of, subsidiary treaty between England and the, 436.

Wyatt, James, architect, 262.

York (Edward), Duke of (brother of George III.), 4.

York (Frederick), Duke of (son of George III.), 309, 311, 314, 346, 350, 351, 353, 361, 362; appointed field-marshal, 366, 390, 391, 430.

York, petition from, 203.

Yorke, Charles, 8, 102, 130.

Yorke, Sir Joseph, 209.

Yorktown, 224; surrender at, 225, 226.

Young, Arthur, agriculturist, 259, 274-276.

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TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES

General : Errata listed have been applied to the text

Unique page headers interpreted as sidenotes

Changes to punctuation have not been individually documented

No attempt made to standardise chief justice/chief-justice as both forms used approximately equally.

Pages 41, 295, 323, 345 : slave-trade standardised to slave trade.

Page 45 : hardworking standardised to hard-working

Page 77 : "A little army under Major Adams," as in original.

Page 96 : ring-leader standardised to ringleader

Page 101 : wide-spread standardised to widespread

Page 114 : counter-balanced standardised to counterbalanced

Page 127 : unpremediated changed to unpremeditated

Page 140 : war-like standardised to warlike

Page 154 : smallpox standardised to small-pox

Page 157, 364, 365 : Flag-ship standardised to flagship

Page 166 : gun-boats standardised to gunboats

Page 194 : outmanoeuvred standardised to out-manoeuvred

Page 243 : log-wood standardised to logwood

Page 248 : Afghan standardised to Afghan

Page 377, 491 : Ponthievre standardised to Penthievre

Page 376: Sombrueil replaced by Sombreuil

Page 384 : Befal corrected to befall

Page 417 : Sentence "Her assailants poured so fierce a storm of shot upon her that her crew could not get the fire under." as in original. Probably missing final word control.

Page 471 : Application of errata here has meant that the office of secretary of state for the northern department was not listed May-Oct 1763. This may or may not be correct.

Page 473 : Lt.-lieut. corrected to Ld.-lieut.

Page 477 : Asuf-ud-Daula standardised to Asaf-ud-Daula

Page 481 : Drapier corrected to Draper

Page 484 : Index entry for Admiral Thomas Graves corrected from 216 to 226.

Page 487 : Kempenfeldt moved to correct place in index.

Page 490 : Patna standardised to Patna

Page 492 : Salbai standardised to Salbai

Page 494 : Sultan standardised to Sultan

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