CHAPTER VIII.

THE IMPERIAL KINGDOMS.

The German Kingdom; its relation to the Western Empire; falling off of Italy and Burgundy 188-190

Loss of territory by the German kingdom; its extension to the north-east 190-191

Geographical contrast of the earlier and the later Empire 191

§ 1. _The Kingdom of Germany._

Changes of boundaries and nomenclature in Germany; Saxony; Bavaria; Austria; Burgundy; Prussia 191-192

Extent of the Kingdom; fluctuations of its western boundary; Lorraine; Elsass; the left bank of the Rhine 192-194

Fluctuations on the Burgundian frontier; union of Burgundy with the Empire 194

Frontier of Germany and Italy; union of the crowns 195

Northern and eastern advance of the Empire; the _marks_ 195

Hungarian frontier; marks of Austria, Carinthia, and Carniola 196

Danish frontier; Danish mark; boundary of the Eider 196

The Slavonic frontier 197

The Saxon mark; Slavonic princes of Mecklenburg, Lübeck; the Hansa 198-199

Marks of Brandenburg, Lausitz, and Meissen 199

Bohemia and Moravia 199

Polish frontier; Pomerania, Silesia 200

Germanization of the Slavonic lands 200-201

Internal geography; growth of the principalities 201

Growth of the marchlands; Brandenburg or Prussia, and Austria; analogies elsewhere 202

Decline of the duchies; end of the _Gauverfassung_ 202

Growth of the House of Austria; separation of Switzerland and the Netherlands 203

The Circles 203

Powers holding lands within and without the Empire; Austria; Sweden; Brandenburg and Prussia; Hannover and Great Britain 203-204

Dissolution of the kingdom; the Confederation 204

Greatness of Prussia and Austria 204

The new Empire 204

Germany under the Saxon and Frankish kings; vanishing of Francia; analogy of Wessex 205-206

Changes in the twelfth century; beginning of Brandenburg and Austria; the duchies and the circles 206-207

Duchy of Saxony; its divisions and growth 207

Break-up of the duchy; Westfalia; the new Saxony 207

Duchy of Brunswick; electorate and kingdom of Hannover 208

The new Saxony; Lauenburg; the Saxon Electorate 208-209

The North Mark of Saxony or Mark of Brandenburg 209

House of Hohenzollern; union of Brandenburg and Prussia 210

Advances in Pomerania, Westfalia, &c. 210

German character of the Prussian state; its contrast with Austria; use of the name _Prussia_ 210-211

Conquest of Silesia; Polish acquisitions of Prussia; East Friesland 211-212

Saxon Possessions of Denmark and Sweden 212-213

Free cities of Saxony; the Hansa; the cities and the bishoprics 213-214

Duchy of _Francia_; held by the bishops of Würzburg; the Franconian circle 214

The Rhenish circles; Hessen; Bamberg; Nürnberg; the ecclesiastical states on the Rhine 214-215

Palatinate of the Rhine; Upper Palatinate 215

Bavaria; its relations towards the Palatinate and towards Austria 215

Archbishopric of Salzburg 215

Lotharingia; falling off from the Empire; the later Lorraine and Elsass 216

Swabia; ecclesiastical powers 216

Swabian lands of the Confederates 216

Baden and Württemberg 216

Circle of Austria; house of Habsburg 217

Extent of its German lands; Tyrol; Elsass; loss of Swabian lands 217

Bohemia and its dependencies 217

Trent and Brixen 217

Circle of Burgundy; not purely German; its origin 218

§ 2. _The Confederation and Empire of Germany._

Germany changes from a kingdom to a confederation 218

The _Bund_; the new Confederation and Empire; the Empire still federal 219

Wars of the French Revolution; loss of the left bank of the Rhine 220

Suppression of free cities and ecclesiastical states; new electorates 220

Peace of Pressburg; new kingdoms; cessions made by Austria 221

Title of ‘Emperor of Austria;’ Confederation of the Rhine; end of the Western Empire 221

German territories of Denmark and Sweden 221-222

Losses of Prussia and Austria; French annexations 222

Kingdoms of Saxony and Westfalia; Grand duchy of Frankfurt 222

Germany wiped out of the map 222

Losses of Prussia; Danzig; duchy of Warsaw 222-223

The German Confederation; princes holding lands within and without the Confederation; kingdom of Hanover 223

Increase of Prussian territory; dismemberment of Saxony 224

Lands recovered by Austria; German possessions of Denmark and the Netherlands; Sweden withdraws from Germany 224-225

Comparison of Prussia and Austria; Hannover 225

Kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg; other German states; the free cities; Lüttich passes to Belgium 226-227

Revival of German national life 227

Affairs of Luxemburg 228-229

War of Sleswick and Holstein; the duchies ceded to Austria and Prussia 228

War of 1866; North German Confederation; exclusion of Austria; great advance of Prussia 228-229

War with France; the new German Empire; recovery of Elsass-Lothringen 229-230

Comparison of the old kingdom and the new Empire; name of _Prussia_ 230-231

§ 3. _The Kingdom of Italy._

Small geographical importance of the kingdom; changes on the Alpine frontier 231-232

Case of Trieste 233

Apulia, Sicily, Venice, no part of the kingdom; their relation to the Eastern Empire 233-234

Special history of the house of Savoy 234

Extent of the kingdom; Neustria and Austria; Æmilia, Tuscany; Romagna 234-235

Lombardy proper; the marches 235

Comparison of Germany and Italy; the commonwealths, the tyrants, the Popes; four stages of Italian history 235-236

Northern Italy; the Marquesses of Montferrat; the Lombard cities; the Veronese march 236-238

Central Italy; Romagna and the march of Ancona; the Tuscan commonwealths; Pisa and Genoa; Rome and the Popes 238-239

The tyrannies; Spanish dominion: practical abeyance of the Empire in Italy; Imperial and Papal fiefs 239-240

Palaiologoi at Montferrat; house of Visconti at Milan; the duchy of Milan; its dismemberment; duchy of Parma and Piacenza 240-242

Land power of Venice 242-243

Other principalities; duchy of Mantua, of Ferrara and Modena; difference in their tenure 243-244

Romagna; Bologna; Urbino; advance of the Popes 244

The Tuscan cities; Lucca; rivalry of Pisa and Genoa; Siena; Florence 245

Duchy of Florence; grand duchy of Tuscany 246

§ 4. _The Later Geography of Italy._

The kingdom practically forgotten; position of Charles the Fifth 246

Italy a geographical expression; changes in the Italian states 246-247

Dominion of the two branches of the house of Austria 247

Italy mapped into larger states; exceptions at Monaco and San Marino 247

Venice; Milan Spanish and Austrian; its dismemberment in favour of Savoy; end of Montferrat and Mantua 248-249

Parma and Piacenza; separation of Modena and Ferrara; Genoa and Lucca; Grand Duchy of Tuscany; advance of the Popes 249

The Norman kingdom of Sicily; Benevento 250

The Two Sicilies; their various unions and divisions; their relations to the houses of Austria, Savoy and Bourbon 250-251

Use of the name _Sardinia_ 251

Wars of the French Revolution; the new republics; Treaty of Campo Formio; Piedmont joined to France 251-253

Restoration of the Pope and the King of the Two Sicilies 253

The French kingdoms; Etruria; Italy 253

Various annexations; Rome becomes French; Murat King of Naples 253-254

Italy under French dominion; revival of the Italian name 254-255

Settlement of 1814-1815; the princes restored, but not the commonwealths 255

Austrian kingdom of Lombardy and Venice; Genoa annexed by Piedmont 255-256

The smaller states; the Papal states; Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 256

Union of Italy comes from Piedmont; earlier movements; war of 1859; Kingdom of Italy: Savoy and Nizza ceded to France 257-258

Recovery of Venetia and Rome; parts of the kingdom not recovered 258

Freedom of San Marino 258

§ 5. _The Kingdom of Burgundy._

Union of Burgundy with Germany; dying out of the kingdom; chiefly swallowed up by France, but represented by Switzerland 258-259

Boundaries of the kingdom; fluctuation; Romance tongue prevails in it 259

History of the Burgundian Palatinate; Besançon; Montbeliard 261

The Lesser Burgundy; partly German 261

The Dukes of Zähringen; the ecclesiastical states; the free cities; the free lands; growth of the Old League of High Germany 262

Growth of Savoy; Burgundian possessions of its counts 263

States between the Palatinate and the Mediterranean; Bresse and Bugey; principalities and free cities 263

County of Provence; its connexion with France 263-264

Progress of French annexation: 1310-1791: Lyons; the Dauphiny: Vienne; Valence; Provence; Avignon and Venaissin 264-265

Nizza 265

History of Orange 265-266

States which have split off from the Imperial kingdoms: Switzerland; Savoy; the duchy of Burgundy by Belgium and the Netherlands 266-267

The Austrian power; its position as a marchland; its union with Hungary; its relation to Eastern Europe 267-268

§ 6. _The Swiss Confederation._

German origin of the Confederation; popular errors; sketch of Swiss history 268-270

The Three Lands; the cities: Luzern, Zürich, Bern; the Eight Ancient Cantons 270

Allies and subjects; dominion of Zürich and Bern; conquests from Austria 270-271

Italian conquests; first conquests from Savoy; League of Wallis 271-272

The Thirteen Cantons 272

League of Graubünden; further Italian and Savoyard conquests 272-273

History of Geneva; territory restored to Savoy; division of Gruyères 273-274

The Allied States; Neufchâtel; Constanz 274

The Confederation independent of the Empire; its position as a middle state 274-275

Wars of the French Revolution; Helvetic Republic; freedom of the subject lands; annexations to France 275-276

Act of Mediation; the nineteen cantons 276

The present Swiss Confederation 276

History of Neufchâtel 276

§ 7. _The State of Savoy._

Position and growth of Savoy; three divisions of the Savoyard lands; popular confusions 277-278

The Savoyard power originally Burgundian; Maurienne; Aosta 278

First Italian possessions 279

Burgundian advance; lands north of the lake 280-281

Relations to Geneva, France, and Bern 281-282

Acquisition of Nizza 282

Italian advance of Savoy; principally of Achaia, of Piedmont; Saluzzo 283-284

Savoy a middle state 284

French influence and occupation; decline of Savoy 285

Loss of lands north of the lake; further losses to Bern and her allies; recovery of the lands south of the lake; the Savoyard power becomes mainly Italian 286

Savoy falls back in Burgundy and advances in Italy; history of Saluzzo; finally acquired in exchange for Bresse, &c. 287

Duchy of Savoy annexed to France; restored; annexed again 288

French annexation of Nizza; Aosta the one Burgundian remnant 288

Savoyard advance in Italy 289

§ 8. _The Duchy of Burgundy and the Low Countries._

Position of the Valois dukes as a middle power; result of their twofold vassalage 290

Schemes of a Burgundian kingdom; their final effects; Belgium and the Netherlands 290-291

History of the duchy of Burgundy; its union with Flanders, Artois, and the county of Burgundy; relations to France and the Empire 292-293

The Netherlands; the counts of Flanders; their Imperial fiefs 293

Holland and Friesland 293

Brabant; Hainault; union of Holland and Hainault 294

Common points in all these states; the great cities; Romance and Teutonic dialects 294-295

South-western states; Liége; Luxemburg; Limburg; duchy of Geldern 295

Middle position of these states; French influence; union under the Burgundian dukes 296

Advance under Philip the Good; Namur, Brabant, and Limburg, Holland and Hainault 296-297

The towns on the Somme; Flanders and Artois released from homage 297-298

Philip’s last acquisition of Luxemburg; advance under Charles the Bold and Charles the Fifth; union of the Netherlands 298

The Netherlands pass to Spain; war of independence; its imperfect results 299

The Seven United Provinces; their independence of the Empire; their colonies; lack of a name; use of the word _Dutch_ 299-300

The Spanish Netherlands; English possession of Dunkirk; advance of France; the Spanish Netherlands pass to Austria 301

Annexation by France; kingdom of Holland; all the Burgundian possessions French 302

Kingdom of the Netherlands; Liége incorporated; relation of Luxemburg to Germany 303

Division of the Netherlands and Belgium; separation of Luxemburg from Germany 303

General history and result of the Burgundian power 303-304

§ 9. _The Dominions of Austria._

Origin of the name _Austria_; anomalous position of the Austrian power; the so-called ‘Empire’ of Austria 305-307

The _Eastern Mark_; becomes a duchy; division of Carinthia; union of Austria and Styria 307-308

County of Görz 309

Austria, &c., annexed by Bohemia; great power of Ottokar 309

House of Habsburg; their Swabian and Alsatian lands; their loss 309-311

King Rudolf; break-up of the power of Ottokar; Albert duke of Austria and Styria 310

Relations between Austria and the Empire; division of the Austrian dominions 311-312

Acquisition of Carinthia and Tyrol; commendation of Trieste; loss of Thurgau 312-313

Austrian kings and emperors; possessions beyond the Empire 313-315

Union with Bohemia and Hungary 314-317

Consequences of the union with Hungary; slow recovery of the kingdom 317

Acquisition of Görz; advance towards Italy; Austrian dominion and influence in Italy 318

Connexion of Austria and Burgundy; the Austrian Netherlands 318-319

Loss of Elsass; of Silesia; acquisition of Poland; Dalmatia 320

Position and dominions of Maria Theresa 320-321

New use of the name _Austria_; the Austrian ‘Empire’ in 1811 321-322

Misuse of the Illyrian name 322

Austria in 1814-1815; recovery of Dalmatia; annexation of Ragusa; of Cracow 322-323

Separation from Hungary; reconquest; the ‘Austro-Hungarian Monarchy;’ Bosnia, Herzegovina, Spizza 323-324