CHAPTER XIII.

THE BRITISH ISLANDS AND COLONIES.

We have now gone, first through that great mass of European lands which formed part either of the Eastern or of the Western Empire, and then through those more distant, and mainly peninsular, lands which so largely escaped the Imperial dominion. ♦The British islands.♦ We end by leaving the mainland of Europe, by leaving the world of either Empire, for that great island, or rather group of islands, which for ages was looked on as forming a world of its own.[87] ♦Late Roman conquest and early loss of Britain.♦ In Western Europe Britain was the last land to be won, and the first to be lost, in the days of the elder Empire. And, after all, Britain itself was only partly won, while the conquest of Ireland was never tried at all. ♦Independence of Britain in the later Empire.♦ After the English Conquest, Britain had less to do with the revived Western Empire than any Western land except Norway. The momentary dealings of Charles the Great with Scotland and Northumberland, the doubtful and precarious homage done by Richard the First to Henry the Sixth, are the only exceptions, even in form, to its complete independence on the continental Empire. ♦Britain another world and another Empire.♦ The doctrine was that Britain, the other world, formed an Empire of its own. That Empire, being an island, was secured against the constant fluctuations of its external boundary to which continental states lie open. ♦Changes within Britain.♦ For several centuries the boundaries, both of the Celtic and Teutonic occupants and of the Teutonic kingdoms among themselves, were always changing. But these changes hardly affect European history, which is concerned only with the broad general results—with the establishment of the Teutonic settlers in the island—with the union of those settlers in one kingdom under the West-Saxon house—with the extension of the imperial power of the West-Saxon kings over the whole island of Britain. ♦Slight change in the internal divisions of England.♦ And, from the eleventh century onwards, there has been singularly little change of boundaries within the island. The boundaries of England towards Scotland and Wales changed much less than might have been looked for during ages of such endless warfare. Even the lesser divisions within the English kingdom have been singularly lasting. The land, as a whole, has never been mapped out afresh since the tenth century. While a map of France or Germany in the eleventh century, or even in the eighteenth, is useless for immediate practical objects, a map of England in the days of Domesday practically differs not at all from a map of England now. The only changes of any moment, and they are neither many nor great, are in the shires on the Welsh and Scottish borders.

Thus the historical geography of the isle of Britain comes to little more than a record of these border changes, down to the incorporation of England, Scotland, and Wales into a single kingdom. In the other great island of Ireland there is little to do except to trace how the boundary of English conquest advanced and fell back, a matter after all of no great European concern. The history of the smaller outlying islands, from Scandinavian Shetland to the insular Normandy, has really more to do with the general history of Europe. The dominion of the English kings on the continent is of the highest European moment, but, from its geographical side, it is Gaul and not Britain which it affects. ♦English settlements beyond sea.♦ The really great geographical phænomenon of English history is that which it shares with Spain and Portugal, and in which it surpasses both. This is the vast extent of outlying English dominion and settlement, partly in Europe, but far more largely in the distant lands of Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. But it is not merely that England has become a great power in all quarters of the world; England has been, like Portugal, but on a far greater scale, a planter of nations. ♦English nations.♦ One group of her settlements has grown into one of the great powers of the world, into a third England beyond the Ocean, as far surpassing our insular England in geographical extent as our insular England surpasses the first England of all in the marchland of Germany and Denmark. The mere barbaric dominion of England concerns our present survey but little; but the historical geography of Europe is deeply concerned in the extension of England and of Europe in lands beyond the Western and the Southern Ocean.

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In tracing out the little that we have to say of the geography of Britain itself, it will be well to begin with that northern part of the island where changes have been both more numerous and more important than they have been in England.

§ 1. _The Kingdom of Scotland._

♦Historical position of Scotland.♦

In Northern Britain, as in some other parts of Europe, we see a land which has taken its name from a people to which it does not owe its historic importance. _Scotland_ has won for itself a position in Britain and in Europe altogether out of proportion to its size and population. But it has not done this by virtue of its strictly Scottish element. ♦Greatness of Scotland due to its English element.♦ The Irish settlers who first brought the Scottish name into Britain[88] could never have made Scotland what it really became. What founded the greatness of the Scottish kingdom was the fact that part of England gradually took the name of Scotland and its inhabitants took the name of Scots. The case is as when the Duke of Savoy and Genoa and Prince of Piedmont took his highest title from that Sardinian kingdom which was the least valuable part of his dominions. It is as when the ruler of a mighty German realm calls himself king of the small duchy of Prussia and its extinct people. ♦Two English kingdoms in Britain.♦ The truth is that, for more than five hundred years, there were two English kingdoms in Britain, each of which had a troublesome Celtic background which formed its chief difficulty. One English king reigned at Winchester or London, and had his difficulties in Wales and afterwards in Ireland. Another English king reigned at Dunfermline or Stirling, and had his difficulties in the true Scotland. ♦Extension of the Scottish name.♦ But the southern kingdom, ruled by kings of native English or of foreign descent, but never by kings of British or Irish descent,[89] always kept the English name, while the northern kingdom, ruled by kings of Scottish descent, adopted the Scottish name. The English subjects of the King of Scots gradually took the Scottish name to themselves. ♦Analogy of Switzerland. | Threefold elements in the later Scotland.♦ As the present Swiss nation is made up of parts of the German, Burgundian, and Italian nations which have detached themselves from their several main bodies, so the present Scottish nation is made up of parts of the English, Irish, and British nations which have detached themselves from their several main bodies. But in both cases it is the Teutonic element which forms the life and strength of the nation, the kernel to which the other elements have attached themselves. ♦True position of the Kings of Scots.♦ We cannot read the mediæval history of Britain aright, unless we remember that the King of Scots was in truth the English king of Teutonic Lothian and Teutonized Fife. ♦Enmity of the true Scots.♦ The people from whom he took his title were at most his unwilling subjects; they were often his open enemies, the allies of his southern rival.

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♦Lothian, Strathclyde, and Scotland.♦

The modern kingdom of Scotland was made up of English _Lothian_, British _Strathclyde_, and Irish _Scotland_. The oldest Scotland is Ireland, whence the Scottish name, long since forgotten in Ireland itself, came into Britain and there spread itself. These three elements stand out plainly. ♦The Picts.♦ But the Scottish or Irish element swallowed up another, that of the _Picts_, of whom there can be no doubt that they were Celts, like the Scots and Britons, but about whom it may be doubted whether their kindred was nearer to the Scots or to the Britons. For our purpose the question is of little moment. The Picts, as far as geography is concerned, either vanished or became Scots.

♦Position of the Picts and Scots in the ninth century.♦

Early in the ninth century the land north of the firths of Clyde and Forth was still mainly Pictish. The second Scotland (the first Scotland in Britain) had not spread far beyond the original Irish settlement in the south-west. ♦Union of Picts and Scots, 843. | The Celtic Scotland.♦ The union of Picts and Scots under a Scottish dynasty created the larger Scotland, the true Celtic Scotland, taking in all the land north of the firths, except where Scandinavian settlers occupied the extreme north. ♦Bernicia.♦ South of the firths, English _Bernicia_, sometimes a separate kingdom, sometimes part of _Northumberland_, stretched to the firth of Forth, with _Edinburgh_ as a border fortress. ♦Strathclyde or Cumberland.♦ To the west of Bernicia, south and east of the firth of Clyde, lay the British kingdom of _Cumberland_ or _Strathclyde_, with _Alcluyd_ or _Dumbarton_ as its border fortress. ♦Galloway.♦ To the south-west again lay the outlying Pictish land of _Galloway_, which long kept up a separate being. Parts of Bernicia, parts of Strathclyde, were one day to join with the true Scotland to make up the later Scottish kingdom. As yet the true Scotland was a foreign and hostile land alike to Bernicia and to Strathclyde.

♦Settlements of the Northmen.♦

In the next century we see the Scottish power cut short to the north and west, but advancing towards the south and east. ♦Caithness.♦ The Northmen have settled in the northern and western islands, in those parts of the mainland to which they gave the names of _Caithness_ and _Sutherland_, and even in the first Scottish land in the west. ♦Scotland acknowledges the English supremacy, 924.♦ Scotland itself has also admitted the external supremacy of the English overlord. ♦Taking of Edinburgh, c. 954.♦ On the other hand, the Scots have pressed within the English border, and have occupied Edinburgh, the border fortress of England. ♦Cession of Lothian, 966 or 1018.♦ Later in the same century or early in the next, the Kings of Scots received Northern Bernicia, the land of _Lothian_, as an English earldom. On the other side, _Strathclyde_ or _Cumberland_—its southern boundary is very uncertain—had become in a manner united to England and Scotland at once. ♦Grant of Cumberland, 945.♦ An English conquest, it was granted in fief to the King of Scots, and was commonly held as an appanage by Scottish princes.[90] ♦Different tenures of the dominion of the King of Scots.♦ Thus the King of Scots held three dominions on three different tenures. Scotland was a kingdom under a merely external English supremacy; Cumberland was a territorial fief of England; Lothian was an earldom within the English kingdom. ♦The distinctions forgotten in later controversies.♦ In after times these distinctions were forgotten, and the question now was whether the dominions of the King of Scots, as a whole, were or were not a fief of England. When the question took this shape, the English king claimed more than his ancient rights over Scotland, less than his ancient rights over Lothian.

♦Effects of the grant of Lothian.♦

The acquisition of Lothian made the Scottish kingdom English. Lothian remained English; Cumberland and the eastern side of Scotland itself, the Lowlands north of the firth of Forth, became practically English also. The Scottish kings became English princes, whose strength lay in the English part of their dominions. ♦Fate of southern Cumberland.♦ But late in the eleventh century it would seem that the southern part of Cumberland had become a separate principality ruled by a refugee Northumbrian prince under Scottish supremacy. ♦Carlisle and its district added to England by William Rufus, 1092.♦ This territory, the city of _Carlisle_ and its immediate district, the old diocese of Carlisle, was added to England by William Rufus. ♦Cumberland and Northumberland granted to David, 1136.♦ On the other hand, in the troubles of Stephen’s reign, the king of Scots received as English earldoms, Cumberland—in a somewhat wider sense—and _Northumberland_ in the modern sense, the land from the Tweed to the Tyne. Had these earldoms been kept by the Scottish kings, they would doubtless have become Scottish lands in the same sense in which Lothian did; that is, they would have become parts of the northern English kingdom. ♦Recovered by England, 1157. | The boundary permanent, except as to Berwick.♦ But these lands were won back by Henry the Second; and the boundary has since remained as it was then fixed, save that the town of _Berwick_ fluctuated according to the accidents of war between one kingdom and the other.

♦Relations between England and Scotland.♦

But though the boundaries of the kingdoms were fixed, their relations were not. ♦1292.♦ Scotland in the modern sense—that is, Scotland in the older sense, Lothian, and Strathclyde—was for a moment held strictly as a fief of England. ♦1296.♦ It was then for another moment incorporated with England. ♦1327.♦ It was then acknowledged as an independent kingdom. ♦1333.♦ It again fell under vassalage for a moment, and again won its independence. ♦1603.♦ Then, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, England and Scotland, as distinct, independent, and equal kingdoms, passed under a common king. ♦1649.♦ They were separated again for a moment when Scotland acknowledged a king whom England rejected. ♦1652.♦ For another moment Scotland was incorporated with an English commonwealth. ♦1660. | 1707.♦ Again Scotland and England became independent kingdoms under a common king, till the two kingdoms were, by common consent, joined in the one kingdom of _Great Britain_.

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♦Struggle with the Northerners.♦

Meanwhile the Scottish kings had, like those of England somewhat earlier, to struggle against Scandinavian invaders. ♦Scandinavian advance, 1014-1064.♦ The settlements of the Northmen advanced, and for some years in the eleventh century they took in _Moray_ at one end and _Galloway_ at the other. But it was only in the extreme north and in the northern islands that the land really became Scandinavian. ♦The Sudereys, and Man.♦ In the _Sudereys_ or _Hebrides_—the southern islands as distinguished from Orkney and Shetland—and in _Man_, the Celtic speech has survived. ♦Caithness submits, 1203.♦ _Caithness_ was brought under Scottish supremacy early in the thirteenth century. ♦Galloway incorporated, 1235.♦ _Galloway_ was incorporated. ♦Sudereys and Man submit, 1263-1266.♦ Later again, after the battle of Largs, the Sudereys and Man passed under Scottish supremacy. But the authority of the Scottish crown in the islands was for a long time very precarious. ♦History of Man.♦ Man, the most central of the British isles, lying at a nearly equal distance from England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, remained a separate kingdom, sometimes under Scottish, sometimes under English, superiority. Granted to English subjects, the kingdom sank to a lordship. ♦1764-1826.♦ The lordship was united to the crown of Great Britain, and Man, like the Norman islands, remains a distinct possession, forming no part of the United Kingdom. ♦Orkney. 1469.♦ The earldom of Orkney meanwhile remained a Norwegian dependency till it was pledged to the Scottish crown. Since then it has silently become part, first of the kingdom of Scotland, and then of the kingdom of Great Britain.

§ 2. _The Kingdom of England._

♦Harold’s conquests from Wales, 1063.♦

The changes of boundary between England and _Wales_ begin, as far as we are concerned with them, with the great Welsh campaign of Harold. ♦Enlargement of the border shires.♦ All the border shires, Cheshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire, Gloucestershire, seem now to have been enlarged; the English border stretched to the _Conway_ in the north, and to the _Usk_ in the south. ♦The Marches.♦ But part of this territory seems to have been recovered by the Welsh princes, while part passed into the great _march_ district of England and Wales, ruled by the Lords Marchers. ♦Conquest of South Wales, 1070-1121.♦ The gradual conquest of South Wales began under the Conqueror and went on under his sons; but it was more largely the work of private adventurers than of the kings themselves. The lands of _Morganwg_, _Dyfed_, _Ceredigion_, and _Breheiniog_, answering nearly to the modern South Wales, were gradually subdued. ♦Flemish settlement in Pembrokeshire, 1111.♦ In some districts, especially in the southern part of the present Pembrokeshire, the Britons were actually driven out, and the land was settled by Flemish colonists, the latest of the Teutonic settlements in Britain. ♦Character of the conquest of South Wales.♦ Elsewhere Norman lords, with a Norman, English, and Flemish following, held the towns and the more level country, while the Welsh kept on a half independence in the mountains. ♦Princes of North Wales.♦ Meanwhile in North Wales native princes—_Princes of Aberffraw_ and _Lords of Snowdon_—still ruled, as vassals of the English king, till the conquest by Edward the First. ♦Cessions to England, 1277.♦ In the first stage the vassal prince was compelled again to cede to his overlord the territory east of the Conway. ♦Conquest of North Wales, 1282.♦ Six years later followed the complete conquest. But complete incorporation with England did not at once follow. ♦The Principality of Wales.♦ Wales, North and South, remained a separate dominion, giving the princely title to the eldest son of the English king.[91] Some shires were formed; some new towns were founded; the border districts remained under the anomalous jurisdiction of the Marchers. ♦Full incorporation. 1535.♦ The full incorporation of the principality and its marches dates from Henry the Eighth. Thirteen new counties were formed, and some districts were added or restored to the border shires of England. One of the new counties, _Monmouthshire_, was, under Charles the Second, added to an English circuit, and it has since been reckoned as an English county.

♦The Domesday shires.♦

Setting aside these new creations, all the existing shires of England were in being at the time of the Norman Conquest, save those of _Lancaster_, _Cumberland_, _Westmoreland_, and _Rutland_. The boundaries were not always exactly the same as at present; but the differences are commonly slight and of mere local interest. ♦Two classes of shires.♦ The shires, as they stood at the Conquest, were of two classes. ♦Ancient kingdoms and principalities.♦ Some were old kingdoms or principalities, which still kept their names and boundaries as shires. Such were the kingdoms of _Kent_, _Sussex_, and _Essex_, and the East-Anglian, West-Saxon, and Northumbrian shires. Most of these keep old local or tribal names; a few only are called from a town. ♦Mercian shires mapped out in the tenth century.♦ In Mercia on the other hand, the shires seem to have been mapped out afresh when the land was won back from the Danes. They are called after towns, and the town which gives the name commonly lies central to the district, and remains the chief town of the shire, except when it has been outstripped by some other in modern times.[92] Both classes of shires survived the Conquest, and both have gone on till now with very slight changes.

On the Welsh border, all the shires, for reasons already given, stretch further west in Domesday than they do now. ♦Cumberland and Westmoreland.♦ On the Scottish border _Cumberland_ and _Westmoreland_ were made out of the Cumbrian conquest of William Rufus, enlarged by districts which in Domesday appear as part of Yorkshire. ♦Lancashire.♦ _Lancashire_ was made up of lands taken from Yorkshire and Cheshire, the Ribble forming the older boundary of those shires. The older divisions are marked by the boundaries of the dioceses of _York_, _Carlisle_, and _Lichfield_ or _Chester_, as they stood down to the changes under Henry the Eighth. ♦Rutland.♦ In central England the only change is the formation of the small shire of _Rutland_ out of the Domesday district of Rutland (which, oddly enough, appears as an appendage to _Nottinghamshire_), enlarged by a small part of what was then _Northamptonshire_.

§ 3. _Ireland._

♦Ireland the first Scotland.♦

The second great island of the British group, _Ireland_, the original _Scotia_, has had less to do with the general history of the world than any other part of Western Europe. Its ancient divisions have lived on from the earliest times. ♦The five provinces.♦ The names of its five great provinces, _Ulster_, _Meath_, _Leinster_, _Munster_, and _Connaught_, are all in familiar use, though _Meath_ has sunk from its old rank alongside of the other four. The Celtic inhabitants of the island remained independent of foreign powers till the days of Scandinavian settlement. Just like the English kingdoms in Britain, the great divisions of Ireland were sometimes independent, sometimes united under the supremacy of a head king. ♦Settlement of the Ostmen.♦ Gradually the Northmen, called in Ireland _Ostmen_, settled on the eastern coast, and held the chief ports, as _Dublin_, _Waterford_, _Wexford_, two of which names bear witness to Teutonic occupation. ♦Irish victory at Clontarf. 1012.♦ The great Irish victory at Clontarf weakened, but did not destroy, the Scandinavian power. ♦Increasing connexion with England.♦ And, from the latter half of the tenth century onward, the eastern coast of Ireland shows a growing connexion with England. Any actual English supremacy seems doubtful; but both commercial and ecclesiastical ties became closer during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. ♦The English conquest, 1169-1652.♦ This led to the actual English conquest of Ireland, begun under Henry the Second, but really finished only by Cromwell. ♦1171. | Fluctuations of the Pale.♦ All Ireland admitted for a moment the supremacy of Henry; but, till the sixteenth century, the actual English dominion, called the _Pale_, with Dublin for its centre, was always fluctuating, and for a while it fell back rather than advanced.

♦Kingdom and Lordship of Ireland.♦

In the early days of the conquest Ireland is spoken of as a kingdom; but the title soon went out of use. The original plan seems to have been that Ireland, like Wales afterwards, should form an appanage for a son of the English King. It became instead, so far as it was an English possession at all, a simple dependency of England, from which the King took the title of _Lord of Ireland_. ♦1542. | Relations of Ireland to England.♦ Henry the Eighth took the title of _King of Ireland_; but the kingdom remained a mere dependency, attached to the crown, first of England and then of Great Britain. ♦1652. | 1689.♦ This state of things was diversified by a short time of complete incorporation under the Commonwealth, and a short time of independence under James the Second. ♦1782-1800.♦ But for the last eighteen years of the last century, Ireland was formally acknowledged as an independent kingdom, connected with Great Britain only by the tie of a common king. ♦1801.♦ Since that time it has formed an integral part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

§ 4. _Outlying European Possessions of England._

Ireland, the sister island of Britain, has thus been united with Britain into a single kingdom. Man, lying between the two, remains a distinct dependency. ♦The Norman Islands. 1205.♦ This last is also still the position of that part of the Norman duchy which clave to its own dukes, which never became French, but always remained Norman. It might be a question what was the exact position of _Guernsey_, _Jersey_, _Alderney_, _Sark_, and their smaller neighbours, when the English kings took the titles of the French kingdom and actually held the Norman duchy. Practically the islands have, during all changes, remained attached to the English crown; but they have never been incorporated with the kingdom. ♦Other European dependencies, Aquitaine, &c.♦ Other more distant European lands have been, some still are, in the same position. Such were _Aquitaine_, _Ponthieu_, and _Calais_, as fixed by the Peace of Bretigny. Since the loss of Aquitaine, England has had no considerable continental dominion in Europe, but she has from time to time held several islands and detached points. ♦Outposts and islands.♦ Such are _Calais_, _Boulogne_, _Dunkirk_, _Gibraltar_, _Minorca_, _Malta_, _Heligoland_, all of which have been spoken of in their natural geographical places. To these we may add _Tangier_, which has more in common with the possession of Gibraltar and Minorca than with the English settlements in the further parts of Africa. Of these points, Gibraltar, Heligoland, and Malta, are still held by England. ♦Greek possessions, Ionian Islands, 1814-1864.♦ The virtual English possession of the _Ionian Islands_ made England for a while a sharer in the fragments of the Eastern Roman Empire. ♦Cyprus, 1878.♦ And later still she has again put on the same character by the occupation, on whatever terms, of another Greek and Imperial land, the island of _Cyprus_.

§ 5. _The American Colonies of England._

♦Colonies of England.♦

England, like France and Holland, became a colonizing power by choice. Extension over barbarian lands was not a necessity, as in the case of Russia, nor did it spring naturally out of earlier circumstances, as in the case of Portugal. But the colonizing enterprise of England has done a greater work than the colonizing enterprise of any other European power. The greatest colony of England—for in a worthier use of language the word _colony_ would imply independence rather than dependence[93]—is that great Confederation which is to us what Syracuse was to Corinth, what Milêtos was to Athens, what Gades and Carthage were to the cities of the older Canaan. ♦The United States.♦ The _United States of America_, a vaster England beyond the Ocean, an European power, on a level with the greatest European powers, planted beyond the bounds of Europe, form the great work of English and European enterprise in non-European lands.

♦First English settlements in North America, 1497.♦

The settlements which grew into the United States were not the first English possessions in North America, but they were the first which really deserved to be called colonies. The first discoveries of all led only to the establishment of the _Newfoundland_ fisheries. ♦Attempts of Raleigh, 1585-1587.♦ Raleigh’s attempts at real colonization ninety years later only pointed the way to something more lasting. ♦The Thirteen Colonies.♦ In the seventeenth century began the planting of the thirteen settlements which won their independence. Of these the earliest and the latest, the most southern and the most northern, began through English colonization in the strictest sense. ♦Virginia, 1607.♦ First came _Virginia_. ♦The New England States, 1620-1638.♦ Then followed the Puritan colonization much further to the north which founded the _New England_ states. The shiftings among these settlements, from _Plymouth_ to _Maine_, the unions, the divisions, the colonies of colonies—the Epidamnos and the Sinôpê of the New World—the various and varying relations between the different settlements, read like a piece of old Greek or of Swiss history.[94] ♦1629-1692.♦ By the end of the seventeenth century they had arranged themselves into four separate colonies. ♦1820.♦ These were _Massachusetts_, formed by the union of _Massachusetts_ and _Plymouth_, with its northern dependency of _Maine_, which became a separate State long after the Revolution; _New Hampshire_, annexed by Massachusetts and after a while separated from it; _Connecticut_, formed by the union of _Connecticut_ and _Newhaven_; _Rhode Island_, formed by the union of _Rhode Island_ and _Providence_. These New England States form a distinct geographical group, with a marked political and religious character of their own. ♦The Southern Colonies.♦ Meanwhile, at some distance to the south, around Virginia as their centre, grew up another group of colonies, with a history and character in many ways unlike those of New England. ♦Maryland. 1646. | Carolina. 1650-1663. | Divided, 1720.♦ To the north of Virginia arose the proprietary colony of _Maryland_; to the south arose _Carolina_, afterwards divided into _North and South_. South Carolina for a long while marked the end of English settlement to the south, as Maine did to the north.

♦Intermediate space occupied by the United Provinces and Sweden. | English Conquest of New Netherlands, 1664.♦

But between these two groups of English colonies in the strictest sense lay a region in which English settlement had to take the form of conquest from another European power. Earlier than any English settlement except Virginia, the great colony of the United Provinces had arisen on Long Island and the neighbouring mainland. ♦New Netherlands, 1614.♦ It bore the name of _New Netherlands_, with its capital of _New Amsterdam_. ♦New Sweden, 1658.♦ To the south, on the shores of Delaware Bay, the other great power of the seventeenth century founded the colony of _New Sweden_. Three European nations, closely allied in race, speech, and creed, were thus for a while established side by side on the eastern coasts of America. ♦Union of New Sweden with New Netherlands, 1655.♦ But the three settlements were fated to merge together, and that by force of arms. A local war added New Sweden to New Netherlands; a war between England and the United Provinces gave New Netherlands to England. ♦New York.♦ New Amsterdam became _New York_, and gave its name to the colony which was to become the greatest State of the Union. ♦1674.♦ Ten years later, in the next war between the two colonizing powers, the new English possession was lost and won again.

Meanwhile the gap which was still left began to be filled up by other English settlements. ♦The Jerseys. 1665. | 1702.♦ _East_ and _West Jersey_ began as two distinct colonies, which were afterwards united into one. ♦Pennsylvania, 1682. | Delaware, 1703.♦ The great colony of _Pennsylvania_ next arose, from which the small one of _Delaware_ was parted off twenty years later. Pennsylvania was thus the last of the original settlements of the seventeenth century, which in the space of nearly eighty years had been formed fast after one another. ♦Georgia, 1733.♦ Fifty years after the work of the benevolent Penn came the work of the no less benevolent Oglethorpe; _Georgia_, to the south of all, now filled up the tale of the famous Thirteen, the fitting number, it would seem, for a Federal power, whether in the Old World or in the New.

♦Independence of the United States, 1783.♦

By the Peace of Paris the Thirteen Colonies were acknowledged as independent States. The great work of English settlement on foreign soil was brought to perfection. The new and free English land beyond the Ocean took in the whole temperate region of the North American coast, all between the peninsula of _Acadia_ to the north and the other peninsula of _Florida_ to the south. Both of these last lands were English possessions at the time of the War of Independence, but neither of them had any share in the work. ♦Nova Scotia, 1713.♦ Acadia, under the name of _Nova Scotia_, had been ceded by France in the interval between the settlement of Pennsylvania and the settlement of Georgia. ♦Conquest of Canada, 1759-1763.♦ Next came the conquest of _Canada_, in which the men of the colonies played their part. ♦The French barrier at Alleghany.♦ Hitherto the English colonies had been shut in to the West by the French claim to the line of the Alleghany mountains. The Treaty of Paris took away this bugbear, and left the whole land as far as the Mississippi open to the enterprise of the English colonists. Thus, when the Thirteen States started on their independent career, the whole land between the great lakes, the Ocean, and the Mississippi, was open to them. ♦Florida again Spanish, 1781-1821.♦ Florida indeed, first as an English, then again as a Spanish possession, cut them off from the Gulf of Mexico. The city of _New Orleans_ remained, first a Spanish, then a French, outpost east of the Mississippi, and the possessions still held by England kept them from the mouth of the Saint Lawrence. ♦Extension to the West.♦ But within these limits, such of the old States as were allowed by their geographical position might extend themselves to the west, and new States might be formed. Both processes went on, and two of the barriers formed by European powers were removed. ♦Louisiana, 1803. | Florida, 1821.♦ The purchase of _Louisiana_ from France, the acquisition of _Florida_ from Spain, gave the States the sea-board of the Gulf of Mexico, and allowed their extension to the Pacific. The details of that extension, partly by natural growth, partly at the expense of the Spanish element in North America, it is hardly needful to go through here. ♦A new English nation.♦ But, out of the English settlements on the North-American coast, a new English nation has arisen, none the less English, in a true view of history, because it no longer owes allegiance to the crown of Great Britain. But the power thus formed, exactly like earlier confederations in Europe, lacks a name. ♦Lack of a name.♦ The _United States of America_ is hardly a geographical or a national name, any more than the names of the _Confederates_ and the _United Provinces_. In the two European cases common usage gave the name of a single member of the Union to the whole, and in the case of Switzerland the popular name at last became the formal name. In the American case, on the other hand, popular usage speaks of the Confederation by the name of the whole continent of which its territory forms part. ♦Use of the word _America_.♦ For several purposes, the words _America_ and _American_ are always understood as shutting out Canada and Mexico, to say nothing of the southern American continent. For some other purposes, those names still take in the whole American continent, north and south. But it is easier to see the awkwardness of the usual nomenclature than to suggest any improvement on it.

* * * * *

♦Second English nation in North America.♦

While one set of events in the eighteenth century created an independent English nation on North American soil, another set of events in the same century, earlier in date but later in their results, has led to the formation in its immediate neighbourhood of another English nation which still keeps its allegiance to the English crown. ♦Dependent confederacy.♦ A confederation of states, practically independent in their internal affairs, but remaining subjects of a distant sovereign, is a novelty in political science. ♦British North America.♦ Such is the _Confederation of British North America_. But this dependent Confederation did not arise out of colonization in the same sense as the independent Confederation to the south of it. The central land which gives it its character is the conquered land of _Canada_. ♦New Brunswick, &c.♦ Along with Canada came the possession of the smaller districts which received the names of _New Brunswick_ and _Prince Edward’s Island_, districts which were at first joined to Nova Scotia, but which afterwards became distinct colonies. ♦The Dominion, 1867.♦ Now they are joined with the _Dominion of Canada_, which, like the United States, grows by the incorporation of new states and territories. ♦British Columbia, 1871. | Rupertsland.♦ The addition of _British Columbia_ has carried the Confederation to the Pacific; that of _Rupertsland_ carries it indefinitely northward towards the pole. This second English-speaking power in North America, stretches, like the elder one, from Ocean to Ocean. ♦Newfoundland, 1713.♦ _Newfoundland_ alone, a possession secured to England after many debates at the same time as Nova Scotia, remains distinct.

* * * * *

♦The West Indies. Barbadoes, 1605.♦

Of the British possessions in the _West Indies_ a few only, among them _Barbadoes_, the earliest of all, were colonies in the same sense as Virginia and Massachusetts. ♦Jamaica, 1655.♦ The greater number, _Jamaica_ at their head, were won by conquest from other European powers. No new English nation, like the American and the Canadian, has grown up in them. ♦Smaller settlements.♦ Still less is there any need to dwell on the _Bahamas_, the _Falkland Islands_, or the South-American possession of _British Guiana_.

§ 6. _Other Colonies and Possessions of England._

♦Colonies in the southern hemisphere.♦

The story of the North-American colonies may be both compared and contrasted with the story of two great groups of colonies in the southern hemisphere. ♦Australia.♦ In Australia and the other great southern islands, a body of English colonies have arisen, the germs at least of yet another English nation, but which have not as yet reached either independence or confederation. ♦South Africa.♦ In South Africa, another group of possessions and colonies, beginning, like Canada, in conquest from another European power, seems to be feeling its way towards confederation, while one part has in a manner stumbled into independence.

The beginning of English settlement in the greatest of islands began in the years which immediately followed the establishment of American independence. ♦New South Wales, 1787.♦ First came _New South Wales_, on the eastern coast, designed originally as a penal settlement. ♦Western Australia, 1829.♦ It outgrew this stage, and another penal settlement was founded in _Western Australia_. ♦South Australia, 1836. | Victoria, 1837. | Queensland, 1859.♦ Then colonization spread into the intermediate region of _Southern Australia_ (which however stretches right through the island to its northern coast) into the district called _Victoria_, south-west of the original settlement, and lastly, into _Queensland_ to the north-east. ♦Colonies Act, 1850.♦ Since the middle of the present century all these colonies have gradually established constitutions which give them full internal independence. ♦Tasmania, 1804. | 1839.♦ South of the great island lies one smaller, but still vast, that of _Van Diemen’s_ Land, now _Tasmania_, which was settled earlier than any Australian settlement except New South Wales. ♦Six colonies, 1852. | United, 1875.♦ And to the east lie the two great islands of _New Zealand_, where six English colonies founded at different times have been united into one.

♦South Africa.♦

While the Australian settlements were colonies in the strictest sense, the English possessions in South Africa began, like New York, in a settlement first planted by the United Provinces. ♦Conquest of the Cape, 1806. | 1815.♦ The _Cape Colony_, after some shiftings during the French revolutionary wars, was conquered by England, and its possession by England was confirmed at the general peace. ♦Eastern Colony and Natal, 1820-1836.♦ Migration northward, both of the English and Dutch inhabitants, has produced new settlements, as the _Eastern Colony_ and _Natal_. ♦Orange River State, 1847-1856. | Transvaal, 1861-1877.♦ Meanwhile independent Dutch states have arisen, as the _Orange River Republic_, annexed by England, then set free, and lastly dismembered, and the _Transvaal_, more lately annexed after sixteen years of independence. Lastly a scheme of confederation for all these settlements awaits some more peaceful time to be carried into effect.

* * * * *

♦Europe extended by colonization.♦

In all these cases of real colonization, of real extension of the English or any other European nation, it is hardly a figure to say that the bounds of Europe have been enlarged. All that makes Europe Europe, all that parts off Europe from Africa and Asia, has been carried into America and Australia and Africa itself. The growth of this new Europe, no less than the changes of the old, is an essential part of European geography. ♦Barbarian dominion.♦ It is otherwise with territories, great or small, which have been occupied by England and other European powers merely for military or commercial purposes. Forts, factories, or empires, on barbarian soil, where no new European nation is likely ever to grow up, are not cases of true colonization; they are no extension of the bounds of Europe. ♦English dominion in India.♦ The climax of this kind of barbarian dominion is found in those vast Indian possessions in which England has supplanted Portugal, France, and the heirs of Timour. ♦Empire of India. 1876.♦ Of that dominion the scientific frontier has yet to be traced; yet it has come to give an Imperial title to the sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, while those two European islands, as perhaps befits their inferiority in physical size, remain content with the lowlier style of the United Kingdom. Whether the loftier pretensions of Asia do, or do not, imply any vassalage on the part of Europe, it is certain that the Asiatic Empire of the sovereign of the British kingdom is no extension of England, no extension of Europe, no creation of a new English or European nation. The Empire of India stands outside the European world, outside the political system which has gathered round the Old and the New Rome. But a place amongst the foremost members of that system belongs to the great European nation on American soil, where the tongue of England is kept, and the constitution of old Achaia is born again, in a confederation stretching from the Western to the Eastern Ocean.

* * * * *

♦Summary.♦

We have thus traced the geography, and in tracing the geography we have in a slighter way traced the history, of the various states and powers of Europe, and of the lands beyond the Ocean which have been planted from Europe. We have throughout kept steadily before our eyes the centre, afterwards the two centres, of European life. We have seen how the older states of Europe gradually lose themselves in the dominion of Rome, how the younger states gradually spring out of the dominion of Rome. We have followed, as our central subjects, the fates of those powers in the East and West which continued the Roman name and Roman traditions. We have traced out the states which were directly formed by splitting off from those powers, and the states which arose beyond the range of Roman power, but not beyond the range of Roman influence. We have seen the Western Empire first pass to a German prince, then gradually shrink into a German kingdom, to be finally dissolved into a German confederation. We have watched the states which split off at various dates from its body, the power of France on one side, the power of Austria on another, the powers of Italy on a third, the free states of Switzerland at one end, the free states of the Netherlands at the other. We have beheld the long tragedy of the Eastern Rome; we have told the tale of the states which split off from it and arose around it. We have seen its territorial position pass to a barbarian invader, and something like its position in men’s minds pass to the mightiest of its spiritual disciples. And we have seen, painted on the map of our own century, the beginning of the great work which is giving back the lands of the Eastern Rome to their own people. We have then traced the shiftings of the powers which lay wholly or partly beyond the bounds of either Empire, the great Slavonic mainland, the Scandinavian and the Iberian peninsulas, ending with that which is geographically the most isolated land of all, the other world of Britain. We have seen too how Europe may be said to have spread herself beyond her geographical limits in the foundation of new European states beyond the Ocean. We have contrasted the different positions and destinies of the colonizing European powers—where, as in the days of Old Rome, a continuous territory has been extended over neighbouring barbarian lands—where growth beyond the sea was the natural outcome of growth at home—where European powers have colonized and conquered simply of their own free will. In thus tracing the historical geography of Europe, we have made the round of the world. But we have never lost sight of Europe; we have never lost sight of Rome. Wherever we have gone, we have carried Europe with us; wherever we have gone, we have never got beyond the power of the two influences which, mingling into one, have made Europe all that it has been. The whole of European history is embodied in the formula which couples together the ‘rule of Christ and Cæsar;’ and that joint rule still goes on, in the shape of moral influence, wherever the tongues and the culture of Europe win new realms for themselves in the continents of the western or in the islands of the southern Ocean.

FOOTNOTES:

[87] See Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 564.

[88] See above, p. 98.

[89] The Tudor kings were doubtless of British descent; but they did not reign by virtue of that descent, and they did not come in till ages after the English kingdom was completely formed.

[90] See Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 580.

[91] It should be remembered that the principality became the appanage of the eldest son only by accident. The first English prince, afterwards Edward the Second, was not his father’s eldest son at the time of his creation. The title moreover is newly created each time.

[92] See Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 48; and Macmillan’s Magazine, April, 1880.

[93] The Latin _colonia_ certainly does not imply independence; but, the word _colony_, in our use of it, rather answers to the Greek ἀποικία which does.

[94] It may be well to give the dates in order:—

Plymouth 1620 Massachusetts 1628 New Hampshire 1629 Connecticut 1635 Newhaven 1638 Providence 1644 Rhode Island 1634 Maine 1638 New Hampshire annexed by Massachusetts 1641 Rhode Island and Providence united 1644 Connecticut and Newhaven united 1664 New Hampshire separated from Massachusetts 1671 Maine purchased by Massachusetts 1677 Plymouth and Massachusetts united 1691

INDEX.

Aachen, crowning-place of the German kings, 189. annexed to France, 220.

Aargau, 271.

Åbo, bishopric of, 184. peace of, 512.

Abruzzi, the, annexed to Sicily, 396.

Abyssinian Church, 169.

Acadia; _see_ NOVA SCOTIA.

Acciauoli, Dukes of Athens, 417.

Achaia, League of, 40. dependent on Rome, 41. province of, 78. principality of, 416, 417. Angevin overlordship of, 418. its dismemberment, _ib._ Savoyard counts of, 283, 418.

Achaians, use of the name in the Homeric catalogue, 26.

Acre, lost and won in the Crusades, 398, 400. fall of, 400.

Ægæan Sea, Greek colonies on its coasts, 21, 22, 32. theme of, 150.

Ælfred, his treaty with Guthrum, 161.

Æmilia, province of, 79.

Æquians, 46. their wars with Rome, 50.

Africa, Greek colonies in, 35. Roman province of, 59. New, province of, _ib._ diocese of, 78, 79. Vandal kingdom, 90. recovered to the Empire, 104. Saracen conquest of, 111. Norman conquests in, 396. Portuguese conquests in, 541. French conquests in, 360. South, English possessions in, 565, 566.

Agram (Zagrab), 439.

Agri Decumates, 84.

Agricola, his conquest of Britain, 69.

Agrigentum (Akragas), 48. conquered by the Saracens, 370.

Aigina, held by Venice, 410.

Aiolian colonies in Asia, 32.

Aire, 349.

Aitolia, geographical position of, 21. League of, 40. its alliance with and dependence on Rome, 40, 41.

Aitolians, their place in the Homeric catalogue, 27.

Aix (Aquæ Sextiæ), Roman colony, 57. ecclesiastical province of, 173.

Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, 249, 349.

Ajaccio, birthplace of Buonaparte, 352.

Akarnania, 21, 30. league of, 40.

Akarnanians, not in the Homeric catalogue, 26 (_note_).

Akerman, Peace of, 453.

Akragas; _see_ AGRIGENTUM.

Aktê, Argolic, 29.

Alans, origin of, 89. their settlements in Spain, 90.

Alarcos, battle of, 533.

Alaric, king of the West-Goths, 89.

Alava, 535.

Albania, Asiatic, 99.

Albania, kings of, 420. Turkish conquest of, 421. revolt of, under Scanderbeg, _ib._

Albanians, their origin, 24. their settlements in Greece, 115, 364, 366.

Albanon (Elbassan), 430.

Albigensian War, 335.

Albi, ecclesiastical province of, 174. under Aragon, 335. annexed to France, _ib._

Alemanni, 85, 91. conquered by the Franks, 117.

Alemannia, Duchy of, 140.

Alessandria, 237. ceded to Savoy, 249.

Alessio, taken by Venice, 410.

Alexander the Great, his conquests, 37.

Alexandria, greatness of, 38, 61, 77. Patriarchate of, 168, 169.

Alexios Komnênos, his conquests in Asia Minor, 381.

Alexios Komnênos, founds the Empire of Trebizond, 386.

Alfonso VI. of Castile, Emperor, 531. his conquests, 532.

Algarve, 533, 535.

Algarve-beyond-the-Sea, kingdom of, 541.

Algeria, character of the French conquest of, 360.

Algiers, 447.

Almohades, invade Spain, 533. decline of, _ib._

Almoravides, invade Spain, 530.

Alps, the, 43.

Alsace; _see_ ELSASS.

Amadeus VI., Count of Savoy, his Eastern expedition, 390.

Amadeus VIII., first Duke of Savoy, 281. his title of Prince of Piedmont, 284.

Amalfi, 369.

Amastris, held by Genoa, 414.

Ambrakia, Corinthian colony, 31. capital of Pyrrhos, 37; _see_ ARTA.

America, Spanish dominion in, 543. use of the word, 563.

America, North, French settlements in, 352. English and French rivalry in, 353. Russian settlements in, 523. first English settlements in, 559. formation of the thirteen colonies in, 560-562. colonies of the United Provinces and Sweden in, 561. confederation of British North America, 564; _see also_ UNITED STATES.

Amiens, county of, added to France, 331. to Burgundy, 340.

Amisos, held by Genoa, 414.

Amurath I., Sultan, takes Hadrianople, 445.

Anatolikon, theme of, 151.

Anchialos, 376.

Ancona (Ankôn), 47. march of, 238. occupied by Manuel Komnênos, 381.

Andalusia, origin of the name, 90.

Andorra, French protectorate of, 343, 537.

Andraszovo, Peace of, 506.

Angles, their settlements in Britain, 97.

Angora, battle of, 445.

Anhalt, principality of, 226.

Ani, annexed to the Eastern Empire, 379. taken by the Turks, _ib._

Anjou, county of, 142. united to Touraine, 330. to Maine and England, 332. annexed by Philip Augustus, 333.

Anjou, House of, its growth, 332, 333. its overlordship in Peloponnêsos, 418.

Ankôn; _see_ ANCONA.

Anne of Britanny, effects of her marriages, 341.

Antilles, French colonies in, 353.

Antioch, greatness of, 61, 77. taken by Chosroes, 109. patriarchate of, 168, 169. restored to the Eastern Empire, 379. taken by the Turks, 380. recovered by the Empire, 381. its later captures, 399.

Antiochos the Great, his war with Rome, 38, 41, 64.

Antivari, Servian, 406. part of Montenegro, 428. recovered by Montenegro, 429.

Aosta, bishopric of, 173. part of the kingdom of Burgundy, 278. its relations to Savoy, 288.

Apennines, the, 44.

Apollônia, its alliance with Rome, 40.

Appenzell, joins the Confederates, 272.

Apulia, Norman conquest of, 394.

Aquæ Sextiæ; _see_ AIX.

Aquileia, foundation of, 55. destroyed by Attila, 94. Patriarchate of, 170, 171, 237, 308. fluctuates between Germany and Italy, 195. under Austria, 255, 318.

Aquitaine, south-western division of Transalpine Gaul, 58. its inhabitants, _ib._ Frankish conquest of, 118, 120. kingdom of, 128. united with Neustria, 135, 339. duchy of, 142. extent of, 332. united with Gascony, _ib._ its union with and separation from France, _ib._ united with England and Normandy, 333. kept by England, 334. French designs on, 337. released from homage, 338. its final union with France, 338, 558.

Arabia, attempted Roman conquest of, 68. Portuguese conquests in, 541.

Arabia Petræa, Roman conquest of, 70.

Aragon, county of, 154, 155. its position in the Mediterranean, 463. its later history, 527. its relations towards Navarre, 528. formation of the kingdom, 530. Sobrarbe joined to, 531. united with Barcelona, _ib._ advances beyond the Pyrenees and Rhone, 334, 531. conquers the Balearic isles and Valencia, 533. extent of in the thirteenth century, 534, 536. united with Castile, 537. its second advance beyond the peninsula, 538. united with Sicily, _ib._ its conquests in Sardinia, _ib._ its outlying possessions compared with those of Castile, 539.

Arcadius, Emperor of the East, 81.

Archipelago, Duchy of, 413.

Argos, its place in the Homeric catalogue, 27. its early greatness, 29. joins the Achaian League, 40. won from Epeiros by the Latins, 417. held by Venice, 410, 418. taken by the Turks, 411.

Ariminum; _see_ RIMINI.

Arkadia, its place in the Homeric catalogue, 30.

Arles, later Roman capital of Gaul, 92. Saracen conquest of, 112. kingdom of, 145. ecclesiastical province of, 173. crowning-place of the kings of Burgundy, 189. annexed to France, 265.

Armagh, ecclesiastical province of, 183.

Armenia, conquered by Trajan, 99. given up by Hadrian, _ib._ division of, 100. conquered by Basil II., 153, 379. Russian advance in, 521.

Armenia, Lesser, 379, 399. acknowledges the Western Emperor, 401. its connexion with Cyprus, _ib._ end of the kingdom, _ib._

Arminius, his victory over Varus, 67.

Armorica; _see_ BRITANNY.

Arnulf, king of the East Franks and Emperor, 139.

Arras, Treaty of, 297. ceded to France, 301.

Arta (Ambrakia), won by the Eastern Empire, 388, 420.

Arthur of Britanny, possible effects of the success of his claims, 333.

Artois, added to France, 331. to the Duchy of Burgundy, 339. its momentary annexation by Lewis XI., 340. relieved from homage, _ib._ within the Burgundian circle, 218. French acquisitions in, 348, 349.

Aryan nations of Europe, order of their settlements, 13-15.

Asia, its geographical character, 6. Macedonian kingdoms in, 37, 38. Roman province of, 64.

Asia Minor, historically connected with Europe, 6. Greek colonies in, 22, 34. kingdoms in, 38. Roman conquest of, 64. Saracen ravages in, 117, 378. Turkish conquests of, 380, 389.

Aspledôn, its place in the Homeric catalogue, 27.

Astrakhan, khanat of, 501. conquered by Russia, 511.

Asturia, united to Cantabria, 154, 529. grows into the kingdom of Leon, _ib._

Asturias, principality of, 534.

Athamania, kingdom of, 37.

Athaulf, king of the West Goths, 89.

Athens, its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. nominally independent of Rome, 41. lordship and duchy of, 416. Ottoman and Venetian conquests of, 417.

Atropatênê, 99.

Attabegs, their wars with the Crusaders, 400.

Attica, 21, 27.

Attila, effects of his inroads, 94.

Auch, ecclesiastical province of, 173.

Augsburg, bishopric of, 216. free city, 220. annexed by Bavaria, 221.

Aurelian, Emperor, gives up Dacia, 70.

Australia, English settlement in, 565.

Austria, Lombard, 234.

Austria, origin and use of the name, 121, 192, 305, 321. beginning of, 140. mark of, 196-202, 203, 305, 307. its position as a marchland, 267. duchy of, 308. annexed by Bohemia, 309. under the Habsburgs, 310. archduchy of, 313. its connexion with the Western Empire, 311. circle of, 217. its acquisitions and divisions, 312, 315. its union with Bohemia and Hungary, 314, 317. its foreign possessions, 318, 319. its rivalry with Prussia, 204. Venice surrendered to, 252, 255. so-called Empire of, 221, 267, 306. changes of, during the revolutionary wars, 221-224. its position compared with that of Prussia, 225. loses and recovers Hungary, 323. modern extent of, 321-324. cedes its rights in Sleswick and Holstein, 228. Bosnia and Herzegovina administered by, 441.

Austro-Hungary, dual system in, 323.

Autun, 93.

Auvergne, counts of, 332.

Avars, a Turanian people, 17, 365. allied with the Lombards against the Gepidæ, 107, 113. kingdom of, 113. overthrown by Charles the Great, 122, 127.

Aversa, county of, 394.

Avignon, archbishopric of, 174. taken by France, 264. sold to the Pope, 265. annexed to France, 265, 355.

Azof, won and lost by Russia, 449, 516.

Azores, conquered by Portugal, 541.

Babylonia, 99.

Badajoz, 533.

Baden, mark, electorate, and duchy of, 216, 220, 226.

Bahamas, the, 565.

Bajazet the Thunderbolt, Sultan, defeated by Timour, 390, 445. his conquest of Bulgaria, 431. extent of his dominion, 445.

Balearic Isles, conquered by Aragon, 533.

Balsa, house of, its dominion in Albania, 428.

Baltic Sea, Scandinavian and German influence on, compared, 486.

Baltic lands, general view of, 464-468.

Bamberg, bishopric of, 176, 215, 226.

Bangor, bishopric of, 182.

Bar, duchy of, united to Lorraine, 193. annexed by France, 348. restored to Lorraine, _ib._

Barbadoes, 565.

Barcelona, county of, 320. joined to Aragon, 531. released from homage to France, 335, 531.

Bardulia, the original Castile, 529.

Bari, archbishopric of, 172. won from the Saracens, 370.

Barnim, under Poland, 479. passes to Brandenburg, 492.

Barrier Treaty, 349.

Basel, joins the Confederates, 262, 272.

Basel, bishopric of, annexed by France, 355. restored by France, 359.

Basil II., Eastern Emperor, his conquests, 153, 379. incorporates Serbia, 424.

Basques, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 12, 13. their independence, 90.

Batoum, annexed to Russia, 522.

Bavaria, duchy of, 140. conquered by the Franks, 117, 118, 120. modern use of the name, 191, 192. electorate of, 215. united with the Palatinate, _ib._ kingdom of, 220. extent of, 226.

Bayonne, diocese of, 179.

Belgium, kingdom of, 303.

Belgrade, taken by the Magyars, 379. by the Turk, 438. Peace of, 440.

Belisarius, ends the Vandal kingdom in Africa, 105.

Benevento, Lombard duchy of, 108, 147, 254. papal possession of, 250.

Berengar, king of Italy, submits to Otto the Great, 147.

Berlin, its position, 230.

Berlin, Treaty of, 429, 450, 452.

Bern, joins the Confederates, 262, 270. its Savoyard conquests, 272, 273. annexes Lausanne, 273. restores lands north of the lake, _ib._

Bernhard, duke of Saxony, 208.

Bernicia, kingdom of, 97, 161, 550.

Berwick, 552.

Besançon, 93. ecclesiastical province of, 175. an Imperial city, 261. united to France, 261, 349.

Bessarabia, annexed by Russia, 449.

Beziers, annexed by France, 335.

Bialystok, 519.

Bienne, 274.

Billungs, their mark, 198, 476.

Biscay, 535.

Bithynia, kingdom of, 38, 61. Roman conquest of, 64.

Bleking, 470.

Blois, united to Champagne, 330. purchased by Saint Lewis, 336.

Bodonitza, principality of, 417.

Bohemia, whether the seat of Samo’s kingdom, 473 (_note_). kingdom of, 159, 199, 217, 477. annexes Austria, 309, 315. its union with Brandenburg, 209, 493. its permanent union with Austria, 317, 323, 493. sketch of its history, 477, 492, 493.

Bohuslän, ceded to Sweden, 508.

Boiôtia, 21. legendary Thessalian settlement of, 30. league of, 40. dissolved, 41.

Bokhara, 522.

Boleslaf I., of Poland, his conquests, 479. whether the first king, 479 (_note_).

Bologna, archbishopric of, 171.

Bona, 396.

Boniface, king of Thessalonikê, extent of his kingdom, 385, 417.

Bormio, won by Graubünden, 273.

Bornholm, 508.

Bosnia, Hungarian conquest of, 424. won back by Stephen Dushan, 425. origin of the kingdom, 426. its greatest extent, 427. Turkish conquest of, _ib._ administered by Austro-Hungary, 324, 441.

Bosporos, kingdom of, 39, 64.

Boukellariôn, theme of, 151.

Boulogne, lost and won by France, 342, 347, 558.

Bourbon, Isle of, occupied by the French, 354. taken by England but restored, 360.

Bourdeaux, ecclesiastical province of, 173.

Bourges, ecclesiastical province of, 173. viscounty of, added to France, 331.

Brabant, duchy of, 294. united to Burgundy, 297.

Braga, 179.

Brandenburg, mark of, 199, 209, 476. grows into modern Prussia, 202, 203, 210. New Mark of, pledged to the Teutonic knights, 496. its union with Bohemia, 209, 493. united to Prussia, 204, 209, 504, 513.

Branibor, takings of, 475.

Brazil, discovery of, 542. Empire of, _ib._

Breisach, annexed by France, 347. restored, 350.

Bremen, archbishopric of, 176, 214. held and lost by Sweden, 509, 513. annexed to Hannover, 208.

Bremen, city, one of the Hanse towns, 214, 220. its independence of the Bishop, 214.

Brescia, 237.

Breslau, bishopric of, 185.

Bresse, annexed to Savoy, 263. ceded to France, 287, 347.

Bretigny, Peace of, 337.

Brindisi, lost by Venice, 248.

Britain, use of the name, 3, 4. early position of, 10. Celtic settlements in, 14. Roman conquest of, 69, 545. diocese of, 80. Roman troops withdrawn from, 95. Teutonic settlements in, 15, 96. English kingdoms in, 129. Celtic states in, 130. Empire of, 462, 545. its independence of the Western Empire, 545. two English kingdoms in, 548.

Britanny, origin of the name, 93. duchy of, 142. its relations to Normandy, 328, 333. incorporated with France, 341.

Brixen, bishopric of, 217, 308. united to Bavaria, 221. recovered by Austria, 224.

Brunswick, duchy of, 208, 227.

Brusa, Turkish conquest of, 389, 444.

Bucharest, Treaty of, 450.

Bugey, annexed to Savoy, 263. to France, 287, 347.

Bukovina, annexed by Austria, 441.

Bulgaria, White and Black, 374, 481. extent of, in the eighth century, 375. under Simeon, 376. conquered by Sviatoslaf, 377. by John Tzimiskês, _ib._ extent of, under Samuel, _ib._ recovered by Basil II., 153, 378. third kingdom of, 382, 429. advance of, under John Asan, 430. its decline, _ib._ Cuman dynasty in, 431. break up of, _ib._ Turkish conquest of, _ib._ triple partition of, by the Treaty of Berlin, 454.

Bulgarians, a Turanian people, 17, 365. their settlements, 116, 156, 365. compared with the Magyars and Ottomans, 365.

Buonaparte, Napoleon, his kingdom of Italy, 253, 254. his feeling towards Switzerland, 355. character of his conquests, 356. his treatment of Germany and Italy, 357. his scheme for the division of Europe, _ib._ extent of France under, 358.

Buonaparte, Louis Napoleon, his annexations, 359.

Buondelmonte, house of, in Northern Epeiros, 420.

Burgos, ecclesiastical province of, 179.

Burgundians, 87. their settlement in Gaul, 93.

Burgundy, Frankish conquest of, 118. use of the name, 93, 192.

Burgundy, Kingdom of, 137, 144. Trans- and Cis-jurane, 145. chiefly annexed by France, 146, 264. represented by Switzerland, 146, 259. its language, 259. importance of its acquisition by France, 343, 344.

Burgundy, County of, 218. revolutions of, 260. joined with the duchy, 339. momentary annexation of, by Lewis XI., 340. an appendage to Castile under Charles V., 539. finally annexed by France, 261, 344, 349, 539.

Burgundy, Duchy of, 142, 144. escheat of, 339. union of Flanders with, 292. its growth, 339. annexed by Lewis XI., 340.

Burgundy, Lesser, Duchy of, 260, 261.

Burgundy, circle of, 216, 218.

Butrinto, under the Angevins, 397. commends itself to Venice, 410. ceded to the Turk, 411. won back by Venice, 412.

Byzantium, annexed by Vespasian, 41, 63, 68. capital of the Eastern Empire, 33, 77. _see_ CONSTANTINOPLE.

Cæsar, Augustus, his conquests, 56, 66. his division of Italy, 74.

Cæsar, Caius Julius, his conquests in Gaul, 57, 58. forms the province of New Africa and restores Carthage, 59.

Cadiz, joined to Castile, 534; _see_ GADES.

Caithness, 550.

Calabria, change of the name, 369.

Calais, English conquest of, 338, 558. won back by France, 342, 347.

Calatrava, 533.

California, Upper, ceded by Spain to the United States, 544.

Caliphate, Eastern, extent of, 112. division of, 113, 122, 125.

Caliphate, Western, beginning of, 113, 122, 125. broken up, 156.

Calmar, Union of, 487.

Cambray, bishopric of, 175. becomes an archbishopric, 177. League of, 242. annexed to France, 301, 349.

Camerino, march of, 238.

Campo Formio, treaty of, 252.

Canada, colonized by France, 352. conquered by England, 353, 562. part of the confederation of British North America, 564.

Canali, district of, originally Servian, 405.

Canaries, conquered by Spain, 543.

Candia, war of, 404. use of the name, 409 (_note_).

Cantabria, conquered by Augustus, 56. united with Asturia, 154, 529.

Canterbury, archbishopric of, 181.

Cape Breton, French settlement at, 352.

Cape Colony, conquered by England, 566.

Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, 541.

Cape Verde Islands, conquered by Portugal, 541.

Capua, Archbishopric of, 172. Principality of, 394. annexed to Sicily by King Roger, 396.

Carcassonne, 335.

Carelia, conquered by Sweden, 488. part of, ceded to Russia, 512.

Carinthia (Kärnthen), mark of, 114, 127, 140, 196. Duchy of, 217, 308. whether the seat of Samo’s kingdom, 473 (_note_).

Carlisle, bishopric of, 183. added to England by William Rufus, 551.

Carlowitz, Peace of, 412, 439, 448.

Carniola, (Krain), Duchy of, 217. mark of, 196.

Carolina, 561. its division, _ib._

Carthage, Phœnician colony, 35. greatness of, 79. its possessions in Sicily, 48. holds Sardinia and Corsica, 54. its power in Spain, 56. destroyed, 59. restored, _ib._ capital of the Vandal kingdom, 90.

Carthagena (New Carthage), 56.

Cashel, ecclesiastical province of, 183.

Casimir the Great, king of Poland, his conquests, 498.

Caspian, Russian advance on, 521.

Cassubia, 492.

Castile, county of, 154. origin of the name, _ib._ kingdom of, 155, 530, 535. its Emperor, 463. later history of, 527. its relations towards Navarre, 528. shiftings of, 531. its final union with Leon, _ib._ advance of, 533. conquests of, under Saint Ferdinand, 534. conquers Granada, 534, 537. loses and recovers Gibraltar, 534. its union with Aragon, 537. its outlying possessions compared with those of Aragon, 539.

Catalans, conquests of, in Greece, 387, 416.

Catalonia, county of, 536.

Cattaro, won and lost by Montenegro, 322, 428.

Caucasus, Russian advance in, 521.

Cayenne, 353.

Celts, earliest Aryan settlers in western Europe, 13, 14, 56. effects of their settlements, 14.

Cerdagne, released from homage to France, 531. recovered by Aragon, 537. loss of, 539.

Ceuta, under the Empire, 526. under Spain, 541, 543.

Ceylon, Dutch colony, 300.

Chablais, 273.

Chaldia, theme of, 150.

Chalkidikê, 20. Greek colonies in, 33. united to Macedonia, 37. kept by the Empire, 390.

Châlons, battle of, 94.

Chambéry, Savoyard capital, 282, 288.

Champagne, county of, 142. character of its vassalage, 329. joined to France, 336.

Chandernagore, a French settlement, 354.

Channel Islands, kept by the English kings, 334, 558.

Charles the Great, his conquests, 121, 122. conquers Lombardy, 123. his title of Patrician, _ib._ conquers Saxony, 126. overthrows the Avars, 127. crowned Emperor, 124. extent of his Empire, 126, 127. his divisions of the Empire, 128. his death, _ib._ archbishoprics founded by, 176.

Charles the Fat, Emperor, union of the Frankish kingdoms under, 137.

Charles V., Emperor, dominions of, 249, 298, 539. his conquest of Tunis, 447, 543. extension of Castilian dominion under, 539.

Charles VI., Emperor, his Pragmatic Sanction, 320.

Charles XII., of Sweden, his wars with Peter the Great, 512.

Charles of Anjou, his kingdom of Sicily, 250. his Italian dominion, 283. his dominion in Epeiros, 397. occupies Acre, 398.

Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, his schemes for a Burgundian kingdom, 290, 304. effects of his death, 340.

Charles, Duke of Leukadia, his conquests and title, 421.

Charles the Good, Duke of Savoy, 286.

Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, 287.

Charolois, under the Dukes of Burgundy, 339. an appendage to Castile under Charles V., 539. conquered by Lewis XIV., _ib._

Chartres, county of, united to Champagne, 330. purchased by Saint Lewis, 336.

Chazars, their settlements, 17, 113, 365. Russian advance against, 481.

Chersôn (Chersonêsos), city of, 36. theme of, 152. annexed to the Eastern Empire, 378. taken by Vladimir, 153, 378, 482. not the site of modern Cherson, 516 (_note_).

Chiavenna, 195, 273.

Chichester, bishopric of, 182.

Chios, early greatness of, 32. under the Zaccaria and the Maona, 414. under the Turks, _ib._

Chlodwig, King of the Franks, 92, 117.

Chosroes II., his conquests, 109.

Christian I., King of Denmark, unites Denmark, Sleswick, and Holstein, 490, 491.

Chrobatia, Northern and Southern, 433. _See also_ CROATIA.

Chrobatia, Northern, becomes Little Poland, 479. passes to Austria, 515.

Chur, bishopric of, 216.

Church, Eastern, its relations to Russia, 468.

Cibin, gives its name to Siebenbürgen, 435 (_note_).

Circassia, Russian advance in, 521.

Cispadane Republic, the, 251.

Clermont, county of, 330.

Cleve, 210.

Clissa, 410.

Clontarf, Irish victory at, 557.

Cnut, his conquest of England, 162. his northern Empire, 162, 462.

Colony, meaning and use of the word, 559.

Columbia, British, 564.

Como, 237.

Compostella, ecclesiastical province of, 179.

Confederation of the Rhine, 221, 222, 358.

Connaught, 183, 556.

Connecticut, 560.

Conrad of Mazovia, grants Culm to the Teutonic knights, 496.

Constantine, French conquest of, 360.

Constantine the Great, divisions of the Empire under, 74. his new capital, 33, 77.

Constantine Porphyrogennêtos, his description of the themes of the Empire, 149.

Constantine Palaiologos, his conquests in Peloponnêsos, 418.

Constantinople, foundation of, 33, 77. its moral influence, 116. Patriarchate of, 168. early Russian attempts on, 482. Latin conquest of, 383. won back under Michael Palaiologos, 387. taken by the Turks, 391.

Constanz, bishopric of, 216. passes to Austria, 274.

Cordova, bishopric, of, 178. conquered by Ferdinand, 534, 535. Caliphate of; _see_ CALIPHATE, Western.

Corfu, Norman conquests of, 380, 395, 396. held by Margarito, 397. won from Venice by Epeiros, 385. granted to Manfred, _ib._ under Charles of Anjou, _ib._ under Venice, _ib._ summary of its history, 408. _see also_ KORKYRA.

Corinth, in the Homeric catalogue, 27. a Dorian city, 29. joins the Achaian League, 40. under Macedonia, _ib._ won from Epeiros by the Latins, 417.

Cornwall, 130.

Coron (Kôrônê), held by Venice, 409. lost by her, 411.

Corsica, 44. early inhabitants of, 53. Roman conquest of, 54. province of, 79. held by Genoa, 238, 245. ceded to France, 249. effects of its incorporation with France, 351, 356.

Cosmo de’ Medici, Duke of Florence and Grand Duke of Tuscany, 246.

Cottbus, 211, 224.

Courtray, 349.

Cracow, capital of Poland, 479. annexed by Austria, 514. joined to the duchy of Warsaw, 82, 520. republic of, _ib._ second Austrian annexation of, 323, 520.

Crema, 237.

Cremona, 237.

Crete, its geographical position, 22. in the Homeric catalogue, 28. keeps its independence, 37. conquered by Rome, 63. province of, 78. lost and recovered by the Eastern Empire, 152, 153, 371, 372. conquered by Venice, 404. by the Turks, 404, 448. re-enslaved by the Treaty of Berlin, 452.

Crim, khanat of, 501. dependent on the Sultans, _ib._ annexed to Russia, 449, 516.

Croatia, Slavonic settlement in, 114. its relations to the Eastern and Western Empires, 378, 406, 407. its relations to Hungary, 323, 407, 434. part of the Illyrian Provinces, 322.

Croja, won and lost by Venice, 411.

Crotona; _see_ KROTÔN.

Crusade, first, its geographical result, 399.

Crusaders, take Constantinople, 383. their conquests compared with those of the Normans in Sicily, 398.

Cuba, 544.

Cujavia, 478, 499.

Culm, granted to the Teutonic knights, 496. restored to Poland, 497.

Cumæ, 47, 48.

Cumania, king of, a Hungarian title, 436.

Cumans, settlements of, 365, 436, 483. dynasty of in Bulgaria, 431, 436. crushed by the Mongols, 436, 483.

Cumberland, (Strathclyde), Scandinavian settlements in, 161. grant of, to Scotland, 162, 551. southern part united to England, 551, 552. formation of the shire, 556.

Curland, Swedish conquest of, 472. tribes of, 484. dominion of the Sword-brothers in, 496. duchy of, 504.

Curzola; _see_ KORKYRA, BLACK.

Custrin, under Poland, 479. passes to Brandenburg, 492.

Cyprus, Greek colonies in, 22. Phœnician colonies in, 35. Roman conquest of, 63. theme of, 151. lost and won by the Eastern Empire, 372. conquered by Richard, _ib._ kingdom of, 401. its connexion with Jerusalem and with Armenia, _ib._ conquered by Venice, 404. by the Turks, 404, 447. under English rule, 449, 559.

Czar; _see_ TZAR.

Czechs, 477.

Czepusz; _see_ ZIPS.

Dacia, wars of, with Rome, 70. made a province by Trajan, _ib._ given up by Aurelian, _ib._ its later history, 71. diocese of, 78.

Daghestan, 516, 521.

Dago, under the Sword-brothers, 496. under Denmark, 491, 504. under Sweden, 508.

Dalmatia, Greek colonies in, 34. its wars with Rome, 62. Roman colonies in, _ib._ province of, 79. Slavonic settlement in, 115. kingdom of, 407, 409. its relations to the Eastern Empire, 376, 406. history of the coast cities, 406. Venetian conquest in, 406, 407. joined to Croatia, _ib._ recovered by Manuel, 381, 407. fluctuates between Hungary and Venice, 407, 409-412. annexed by Lewis the Great, 409, 437. taken, lost, and recovered by Austria, 320, 322, 441.

Danaoi, 26.

Danes, the, 127, 130. their settlements, 131, 471. their invasions of England, 160.

Danish Mark, 196, 469.

Danube, Roman conquests on, 68, 70. boundary of the Empire, 71. Gothic settlement on, 88. crossed by the Goths, 89.

Danzig, mark of, 492. lost and recovered by Poland, 492, 497. commonwealth of, 223, 519. restored to Prussia, 520.

Dardanians, 28.

Dauphiny; _see_ VIENNOIS.

Deira, kingdom of, 97, 161.

Delaware, 562.

Delmenhorst, 509, 513.

Denmark, extent of, 131. its relations to the Western Empire, 127, 196, 467. formation of the kingdom, 469. conquests and colonies of, 471. united with England under Cnut, 163. bishoprics of, 184. conquers Sclavinia, 489. advance of, in Germany, _ib._ titles of its kings, _ib._ keeps Rügen, 490. effect of its advance on the Slavonic lands, 491. its settlement in Esthland, 488. united with Sweden and Norway, 487. with Norway only, 488. its wars with Sweden, 508. gives up the sovereignty of the Gottorp lands, 509. gets Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, _ib._ recovers the Gottorp lands, 513. gives up Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, _ib._ incorporation of Holstein with, 518.

Desnica, Zupania of, 424.

δεσπότης, a Byzantine title, 384 (_note_).

Dijon, capital of the duchy of Burgundy, 142, 144.

Diocletian, Emperor, division of the Empire under, 75. his conquests, 100.

Dioklea, Zupania of, the germ of the Servian kingdom, 424.

Ditmarsh, 489. joined to Holstein, 490. freedom of, 491. Danish conquest of, _ib._

Dobroditius, his dominion, 431.

Dobrutcha, origin of the name, 431. joined to Wallachia, 431, 436. restored to Roumania, 454.

Dôdekannêsos; _see_ NAXOS.

Dole, capital of Franche Comté, 261.

Domfront, acquired by William of Normandy, 332.

Dorchester, bishoprics of, 182.

Dorian settlement in Peloponnêsos, 29. in Asia, 32.

Douay, becomes French, 349.

Dreux, county of, 330.

Drusus, his campaigns in Germany, 67.

Dublin, ecclesiastical province of, 183.

Dulcigno, originally Servian, 406. won and lost by Montenegro, 429.

Dunkirk, held by England, 301, 558. bought back by France, 301, 342.

Durazzo (Epidamnos), taken by the Normans, 380, 395, 396. held by Margarito, 397. conquered by Venice, 408. won from Venice by Epeiros, 385. recovered by the Eastern Empire, 387, 397. under Charles of Anjou, 397. won by Servia, 425. duchy of, 397. second Venetian conquest of, 410. won by the Albanians, 420. by the Turks, 411.

Durham, bishopric of, 183.

Dutch, use of the name, 300.

Dyrrhachion, theme of, 152. _see_ DURAZZO.

Eadmund, his conquest and grant of Cumberland to Scotland, 162.

Eadward the Elder, extent of England under, 162.

East, the, prefecture of, 75, 77. dioceses of, 76.

East Angles, kingdom of, 130. diocese of, 182.

East India Company, French, 354.

Eastern Mark; _see_ AUSTRIA.

Ecgberht, king of the West-Saxons, his supremacy, 130, 160.

Edessa, restored to the Eastern Empire, 153, 379. taken by the Turks, 400.

Edinburgh, bishopric of, 183. taken by the Scots, 550.

Egypt under the Ptolemies, 38, 61. Roman conquest of, 66. diocese of, 76. conquered by Selim I., 447.

Eider, boundary of Charles the Great’s empire, 127, 196, 469.

Eleanor of Aquitaine, effects of her marriages, 332, 337.

Elba, annexed to the kingdom of Naples, 44, 246.

Êlis, district of, 29. city of, 30. joins the Achaian league, 40.

Elmham, bishopric of, 182.

Elsass, 193. annexed by France, 194, 347. recovered by Germany, 229, 359.

Ely, bishoprick of, 182.

Embrun, ecclesiastical province of, 173.

Emmanuel Filibert, Duke of Savoy, 286.

Emperors, Eastern, position of, 362.

Emperors, Western, position of, 362.

Empire, Roman, greatest extent of, 9. conquests under, 66. its river boundaries, 71. division of under Diocletian, 75. united under Constantine, _ib._ division of, 75, 81. reunited under Zeno, 94, 103. continuity of, 95, 103. loses its eastern provinces, 111. final division of, 124. its political tradition unbroken in the East, 363.

Empire, Western, beginning of, 81. Teutonic invasions and settlements in, 82, 86, 87. united with the Eastern Empire, 94, 103. contrasted with the Eastern, 98, 362. divisions of, 135, 137, 326. its relations to Germany, 124-126, 128, 189, 190. restored by Otto the Great, 147. position of its Emperors, 362. its relations to Scandinavia, 467. to the Northern Slaves, 475.

Empire, Eastern, wars of, with Persia, 82. contrasted with the Western, 98, 362. extent of, in the eighth century, 116. its Greek character, 149, 366, 382. its themes, 149-152. its dominion in Italy, 152, 371, 393. position of its Emperors, 362. falls mainly through foreign invasion, 363, 367. its partial tendencies to separation, 363. keeps the political tradition of the Roman Empire, _ib._ distinction of races in, 364. its power of revival, 369, 377. its loss and gain in the great islands, 372. its relations towards the Slavonic powers, 373, 375. Bulgarian settlement in, 374, 376. recovers Greece from the Slaves, 375. its conquests of Bulgaria, 377-378. its relations to Venice, 378. its fluctuations in Asia, _ib._ Turkish invasions in, 379. Norman invasions in, 380, 394. its geographical aspect in 1085, 380. under the Komnênoi, 366, 381, 386. act of partition, 383, 402, 403. losses and gains, 387-391. under the Palaiologoi, 387. effect of Timour’s invasion, 391. its final fall, _ib._ states formed out of, 391-393. general survey of its history, 455-460. compared with the Ottoman dominion, 443.

Empire, Latin, 383. its end, 387.

Empire of Nikaia, 387.

Empire of Trebizond, 36, 386, 422.

Empire of Thessalonikê, 385.

Empire, Serbian, 420, 425.

Empire of Britain, 162, 462, 545.

Empire of Spain, 463, 531.

Empire of Russia, 512.

Empire, French, 356.

Empire of Austria, 221, 267, 306.

Empire of Hayti, 359.

Empires of Mexico, 544.

Empire of Brazil, 542.

Empire, German, 229, 230.

Empire of India, 567.

England, use of the name, 2, 3. origin of the name, 97. formation of the kingdom, 160. West-Saxon supremacy in, 160, 161. Danish invasions, _ib._ advance of, 162. united with Scandinavia under Cnut, _ib._ Norman conquest of, 163. its ecclesiastical geography, 166. its wars with France, 337, 338. its rivalry with France in America and India, 353. slight change in its internal divisions, 546. its relations with Scotland, 552. changes of its boundary towards Wales, 553. its relations with Ireland, 557. its settlements beyond sea, 547. its outlying European possessions, 558. its American colonies, 559-565. West Indian possessions, 565. other colonies and possessions of, 565, 566. its dominion in India, 567.

English, character of their settlement, 96. origin of the name, 97.

Epeiros, its ethnical relations to Greece, 24. use of the name, 26. kingdom of Pyrrhos, 37. league of, 40, 41. Roman province of, 78. Norman conquests in, 395, 396. granted in fief to Margarito, 397. despotat of, 384, 385. its conquest of and separation from Thessalonikê, 385. under Manfred and Charles of Anjou, 397. its first dismemberment, 419. recovered by the Eastern Empire, 388. under Servian, Albanian, and Italian rule, 419, 420. Venetian and Turkish occupation of, 421.

Ephesos, its early greatness, 32.

Epidamnos, 34. its alliance with Rome, 40. _see_ DURAZZO.

Epidauros (Dalmatian), Greek colony, 34. destroyed, 115.

Eric, Saint, king of Sweden, his conquests in Finland, 486.

Erivan, 521.

Ermeland, bishopric of, added to Poland, 497.

Essex, kingdom of, 160, 555.

Este, house of, 237, 243, 249.

Esthland (Esthonia), Fins in, 484. Danish settlement in, 488. dominion of the Swordbearers in, 496. under Sweden, 504. under Russia, 512.

Etruria, kingdom of, 253.

Etruscans, their doubtful origin and language, 45. confederation of their cities, _ib._

Euboia, 22. its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. under Macedonian influence, 37, 40. conquered by Venice, 409. by the Turks, _ib._

Euphrates, Asiatic boundary of the Roman Empire, 71, 99.

Europa, Roman province of, 77.

Europe, its geographical character, 5, 6, 8. its three great peninsulas, 6. its colonizing powers, 10. Aryan settlements in, 12-15. non-Aryan races in, 12, 13, 16, 17. beginning of the modern history of, 85. Buonaparte’s scheme for the division of, 357. extended by colonization, 566.

Euxine, Greek colonies on, 35.

Evora, 179.

Exeter, diocese of, 182.

Ezerites, 375.

Falkland Islands, 565.

Famagosta, under Genoa, 401.

Faroe Islands, 471.

Faucigny, annexed to Savoy, 280. held by the Dauphins of Viennois, 281.

Ferdinand, Saint, king of Castile, his conquests, 534.

Fermo, march of, 238.

Ferrara, duchy of, 243, 244, 249.

Finland, Swedish conquests in, 486, 488. Russian conquests in, 512, 518.

Fins, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 12, 466. in Livland and Esthland, 484.

Flaminia, province of, 79.

Flanders, county of, 141, 142. united to Burgundy, 292, 339. within the Burgundian circle, 218. released from homage to France, 218, 298, 340. French acquisitions in, 348.

Flemings, their settlement in Pembrokeshire, 554.

Florence, archbishopric of, 171. its greatness, 238. Pisa submits to, 245. rule of the Medici in, _ib._

Florida, held by England and Spain, 563. acquired by the States, _ib._

France, effect of its geographical position, 9. origin and use of the name, 4, 5, 91, 121, 325-327. beginning of, 135, 136. its ecclesiastical divisions, 166. its annexations, 222, 252, 264, 265, 341-352. compared with Austria, 325. a nation in the fullest sense, 327. great fiefs of, 328. twelve peers of, _ib._ its incorporation of vassal states, 329-341. effects of the wars with England, 337-339. beginning of the modern kingdom, 339. thorough incorporation of its conquests, 351. its colonial dominions, 352-354. its rivalry with England in America and India, 353, 354. its barrier towns against the Netherlands, 349. effects of the Peace of 1763 on, 354. its annexations under the Republic and Empire, 355, 356. extent of under Buonaparte, 358. restorations made by, after his fall, _ib._ later annexations and losses, 359, 360. character of its African conquests, 360. its war with Prussia, 229.

France, duchy of, 142. united with the kingdom of the West Franks, 143.

Franche Comté; _see_ BURGUNDY, County of.

Francia, meanings of the name, 91, 121, 128. extent of, 134.

Francia, Eastern, 92, 121, 205.

Francia, Western, 92.

Francis I., Emperor, exchanges Lorraine for Tuscany, 321.

Francis II., Emperor, his title of ‘Emperor of Austria,’ 221.

Franconia, origin of the name, 91, 121. extent of the circle, 214. _see_ FRANCIA, Eastern.

Frankfurt, election and coronation of the German kings at, 189. a free city, 220, 227. Grand Duchy of, 222. annexed by Prussia, 228.

Franks, the, 85. their settlements, 87, 88. extent of their kingdom under Chlodwig, 92. their conquest of the Alemanni, 117. of Thuringia and Bavaria, _ib._ of Aquitaine and Burgundy, 118. their position, 119. their German and Gaulish dependencies, 120. division of their kingdom, _ib._ kingdom of united under the Karlings, 121. their relations with the Empire, 123. their conquest of Lombardy, _ib._

Franks, East, their kingdom grows into Germany, 138.

Franks, West, kingdom of, its extent, 141. its union with the duchy of France, 143. grows into modern France, _ib._

Frederick II., Emperor, recovers Jerusalem, 400.

Frederick William I., the Great Elector of Brandenburg, 210.

Frederick I., King of Prussia, 210.

Freiburg, joins the Confederates, 262, 272.

Freiburg-im-Breisgau, conquered by France, 350. restored, _ib._

French language, becomes the dominant speech of Gaul, 345.

Friderikshamn, Peace of, 518.

Friesland, East, annexed by Prussia, 212. annexed by France, 222. part of the kingdom of Hannover, 223.

Friesland, West, county of, 293. annexed to Burgundy, 298.

Frisians, 91.

Friuli, duchy of, 235.

Fulda, 214.

Furnes, Barrier Town, 349.

Gades, Phœnician colony, 35, 56. admitted to the Roman franchise, 56. _see_ CADIZ.

Gaeta, 369.

Galata, colony of Genoa, 414.

Galicia (Halicz), kingdom of, 483. twice annexed to Hungary, 437, 498. recovered by Poland, 498. Austrian possession of, 319, 323, 440, 514.

Galicia, New, 515, 520.

Gallicia, 529.

Galloway, incorporated with Scotland, 553.

Gascony, Duchy of, 142. its union with Aquitaine, 332. ceded by the Peace of Bretigny, 337.

Gatinois, county of, 330, 331.

Gattilusio, family of, receives Lesbos in fief, 414.

Gaul, use of the name, 3, 4. its geographical position, 7. non-Aryan people in, 13. Greek colonies in, 35. prefecture of, 75, 79. its gradual separation from the Empire, 88. Teutonic invasions of, 89. West Gothic kingdom in, 90. position of the Franks in, 91, 119. extent of Frankish kingdom in, 93. Burgundian settlement in, _ib._ Hunnish invasion of, 94. ecclesiastical divisions of, 172-174.

Gaul, Cisalpine, 46. Roman conquest of, 54.

Gaul, Transalpine, first Roman province in, 57. its boundaries, _ib._ its divisions and inhabitants, 58. Romanization of, _ib._ nomenclature of its northern and southern part, _ib._

Gauls, their settlements, 14, 46, 47.

Gauthiod, 131, 470.

Gauts, Geátas, of Sweden, name confounded with Goths, 470.

Gauverfassung, 202.

Gdansk; _see_ DANZIG.

Gedymin, king of Lithuania, 497.

Geldern, Gelderland, duchy of, 295. annexed to Burgundy, 298. division of, 299. United Province of, 300.

Geneva, annexed by Savoy, 281. allied to Bern and Freiburg, 273. annexed by France, 276. restored by France, 359. joins the Swiss Confederation, 276.

Genoa, archbishopric of, 171. holds Smyrna, 389. holds Corsica, 238, 245. cedes Corsica to France, 249. annexed to Piedmont, 256. compared with Venice, 402. her settlements, 413.

George Akropolitês, 430 (_note_).

George Kastriota; _see_ SCANDERBEG.

Georgia, kingdom of, 516, 521.

Georgia, state of, 562.

Gepidæ, their kingdom, 107. conquered by the Lombards, _ib._

Germans, early confederacies of, 84. serve within the Empire, 86.

Germany, effect of its geographical character, 9. Roman campaigns in, 67. Frankish dominion in, 119. its relations to the Western Empire, 126, 188-190. beginning of the kingdom, 136, 138. its extent, 139, 192-195. ecclesiastical divisions of, 175-177. its losses, 190, 203. its changes in geography and nomenclature, 191, 201. its eastern extension, 200. the great duchies, 202. circles of, 203, 206. later history of, 204. late beginnings of French annexation from, 343, 346. Buonaparte’s treatment of, 357. state of in 1811, 221, 222. the Confederation, 218, 223-226. last geographical changes in, 229. its war with France, _ib._ Empire of, 219, 229, 230. its influence on the Baltic, 486.

Gex, under Savoy, 273, 281. annexed by France, 287, 347.

Ghilan, 516.

Gibraltar, lost and won by Castile, 534. occupied by England, 537, 558.

Glarus, joins the Swiss Confederation, 270.

Glasgow, ecclesiastical province of, 183.

Gnezna (Gniezno, Gnesen), ecclesiastical province of, 184. beginning of the Polish kingdom at, 479. passes to Prussia, 514, 520.

Görz (Gorizia), county of, 217, 308. annexed by Austria, 318.

Gothia; _see_ PERATEIA or SEPTIMANIA.

Gothland, 470.

Goths, their settlements in the Western Empire, 87, 89. defeated by Claudius, 88. driven on by the Huns, _ib._ their conquests in Spain, 90, 108, 526. make no lasting settlement in the Eastern Empire, 364.

Goths, East, their dominion in Italy, 95.

Goths, West, extent of their dominions, 526.

Goths, Tetraxite, their settlement, 98.

Gotland, power of the Hansa in, 494. held by the military orders, 496. conquered by Sweden, 508.

Gottorp lands, sovereignty of, resigned by Denmark, 509. annexed to Denmark, 513.

Gozo, granted to the knights of Saint John, 538.

Granada, ecclesiastical province of, 179. kingdom of, 534. final conquest of, 537.

Graubünden, League of, 272, 273. loses its subject districts, 275.

Gravelines, taken by France, 301.

Greece, one of the three great European peninsulas, 6. its geographical character, 8, 11, 18. its history earlier than that of Rome, 8, 42. use of the name, 19. its chief divisions, 19-21. insular and Asiatic, 19-23. its Homeric geography, 25, 26. its cities, 27. leagues in, 40. Roman conquests in, 41. Slavonic occupation of, 116, 375, 461. recovered by the Eastern Empire, 375. war of independence, 452. kingdom of formed, _ib._ Ionian Islands ceded to, _ib._ promised extension of, _ib._

Greeks, order of their coming into Europe, 13. their kindred with Italians and other nations, 23-25. their rivalry with the Phœnicians, 28. their colonies, 28, 32-35. their revival of the name Hellênes, 364.

Greenland, Norwegian and Danish settlements in, 131. united to Norway, 488.

Greifswald, 494.

Guiana, British, French, Dutch, 300, 353, 565.

Guinea, Dutch settlements in, 300.

Guines, made over to England, 338.

Guipuzcoa, 535.

Guthrum, his treaty with Ælfred, 161.

Habsburg, House of, 270, 309, 310. scattered territories of, 310. its connexion with the Western Empire, 311, 315.

Hadrian, surrenders Trajan’s conquests, 99.

Hadrianople, taken by the Bulgarians, 377. by Michael of Epeiros, 385. by the Turks, 390, 445. treaty of, 450, 453.

Hadriatic Sea, Greek colonies in, 34.

Hainault (Hennegau), county of, 294. united with Holland, _ib._ French acquisitions in, 348.

Halberstadt, 224.

Halicz; _see_ GALICIA.

Halikarnassos, held by the knights of Saint John, 415. Turkish conquest of, 447.

Halland, 469.

Hamburg, archbishopric of, 176. one of the Hanse Towns, 214, 220.

Hannover, Electorate, 208. its union with Great Britain, 204. kingdom of, 223. annexed by Prussia, 228.

Hansa, the, 197, 487. extent and nature of its power, 494.

Hanse Towns, the, 213, 214, 220. surviving ones annexed by France, 222. join the German Confederation, 227.

Harold, his Welsh conquests, 553.

Hayti; _see_ SAINT DOMINGO.

Hebrides, Scandinavian settlement in, 553. submit to Scotland, _ib._

Heligoland, passes to England, 518, 558.

Helladikoi, use of the name, 376.

Hellas, use of the name, 18. ‘continuous,’ 21. theme of, 151. later use of the name, 151, 461.

Hellênes, use of the name in the Homeric catalogue, 26. later history of the name, 375, 376, 461. its modern revival, 364.

Helsingland, 470.

Helvetic Republic, 275.

Hennegau; _see_ HAINAULT.

Henry II., of England, his dominions, 332.

Henry V., of England, his conquests, 338. crowned in Paris, _ib._

Henry IV., of France, unites France and Navarre, 342.

Heraclius, Emperor, his Persian campaigns, 109. Slavonic settlements under, 114.

Hêrakleia, commonwealth of, 37, 39, 64.

Hereford, bishopric of, 182.

Hertjedalen, conquered by Sweden, 508.

Herzegovina, origin of the name, 427. Turkish conquest of, _ib._ administered by Austro-Hungary, 324, 427.

Hessen-Cassel, Electorate of, 220, 226. annexed by Prussia, 228.

Hessen-Darmstadt, Grand Duchy of, 226.

Hierôn, king of Syracuse, his alliance with Rome, 52.

Hispaniola; _see_ SAINT DOMINGO.

Hohenzollern, House of, 209.

Holland, county of, 293. united to Hainault, 294. to Burgundy, 297. kingdom of, 302. annexed by France, _ib._ _see_ UNITED PROVINCES.

Holstein, 198, 488. first Danish conquest of, 489. fluctuations of, 490. made a duchy, _ib._ under Christian I., 491. effect of the peace of Roskild on, 509. incorporated with Denmark, 518. joins the German Confederation, 225, 519. final cession of to Prussia, 228, 519.

Homeric Catalogue, the, 26-29.

Honorius, Emperor of the West, 81.

Huascar, 534.

Hugh Capet, Duke of the French, chosen king, 143.

Hundred Years’ Peace between Rome and Persia, 100.

Hundred Years’ War, 337.

Hungarians; _see_ MAGYARS.

Hungary, kingdom of, 157, 367, 432. its relations to the Western Emperors, 196. extent of the kingdom, 323, 324. whether a Bulgarian duchy existed in, 376 (_note_). its frontier towards Germany, 433. its relations with Croatia, 433, 434. acquires Transsilvania, 435. conquests of the Komnênoi from, 381. its struggles with Venice for Dalmatia, 407. Mongol invasion of, 436. its wars with Bulgaria, 430. its conquest of Bosnia, 424. extension of under Lewis the Great, 437. Turkish conquests in, 438. its kings tributary to the Turk, 439. recovered from the Turk, 439, 448. acquisitions of by the Peace of Passarowitz, 440. later losses and acquisitions of, 440, 441. separated from and recovered by Austria, 323. its dual relations to Austria, 441.

Huniades, John, his campaign against the Turks, 426, 438.

Huns, a Turanian people, 17. their invasions, 88, 94.

Iapodes, 62.

Iapygians, 46.

Iberia, Asiatic, 99, 100.

Iberians, a non-Aryan people, 13, 55.

Iceland, Norwegian and Danish settlements in, 131, 471. united to Norway, 488. kept by Denmark, 518.

Ikonion, Turkish capital, 381.

Illyria, Illyricum, Greek colonies in, 20. Roman conquests in, 40, 41, 62. use of the name, 62. prefecture of, 75, 77, 78. western diocese of, 79. kingdom of, 322.

Illyrian Provinces, incorporated with France, 222, 322, 358. misleading use of the name, 322. recovered by Austria, 322.

Illyrians, their kindred with the Greeks, 24. displaced by Slavonic invasions, 115.

Immeretia, 521.

India, French settlements in, 353. Portuguese settlements in, 541. English dominion in, 567. Empire of, _ib._

Indies, division of, between Spain and Portugal, 542.

Ingermanland, 508, 512.

Ionian colonies in Asia, 32.

Ionian Islands, 22. ceded to France, 358, 451. to the Turks, 451. under English protection, 451, 558. added to Greece, 452.

Ireland, the original Scotia, 549, 556. provinces of, 183, 556. Scandinavian settlements in, 471, 556. its increasing connexion with England, 557. English conquest of, _ib._ kingdom and lordship of, _ib._ its shifting relations with England, _ib._ its union with Great Britain, _ib._

Isle of France, 329.

Isle of France; _see_ MAURITIUS.

Istria, Roman conquest of, 55, 62. incorporated with Italy, 62. Slavonic settlements in, 115. March of, 147, 195, 235. fluctuates between Germany and Italy, 195. possessions of Venice in, 242. under Austria, 258, 318.

Italians, their origin, 13. their kindred with the Greeks, 24. two branches of, 45.

Italy, one of the three great European peninsulas, 6, 7. its geographical position, 8, 44. use of the name, 43, 246. inhabitants of, 45, 46. Greek colonies in, 47. growth of Roman power in, 50. divisions of, under Augustus, 74. prefecture of, 75, 78. diocese of, 79. invaded by the Huns, 94. rule of Odoacer in, _ib._ rule of Theodoric in, 95. recovered to the Empire, 105. Lombard conquest of, 107. Imperial possessions in, 108, 123, 152, 371. rule of Charles the Great in, 123. Imperial kingdom of, 128, 134, 137, 146, 147, 234. its ecclesiastical divisions, 170, 171. changes on the Alpine frontier, 232. system of commonwealths in, 235, 238. four stages in its history, 236. growth of tyrannies in, 239. a ‘geographical expression,’ 246, 255. dominion of Spain and Austria in, 247. revolutionary changes in, 252-55. French kingdom of, 253-55, 345, 357. settlement of in 1814, 255. restored kingdom of, 257. its extension, 258. part not yet recovered, _ib._

Ithakê, in the Homeric Catalogue, 26. held in fief by Margarito, 397.

Ivan the Great, of Russia, his conquests, 501, 506. styles himself Prince of Bulgaria, 501.

Ivan the Terrible, of Russia, his conquests, 506, 511.

Ivrea, Mark of, 235, 236.

Jadera; _see_ ZARA.

Jaen, 534, 535.

Jägerndorf, principality of, 210.

Jagiello, union of Lithuania and Poland under, 498.

Jamaica, 544, 565.

Jämteland, 470. conquered by Sweden, 508.

Jatwages, the, 484, 498.

Java, Dutch settlement in, 300.

Jayce, 427.

Jedisan, annexed by Russia, 449, 516.

Jerseys, East and West, 561.

Jerusalem, patriarchate of, 168, 169. taken by Chosroes, 109. extent of the Latin kingdom, 399. taken by Saladin, 400. recovered and lost by the Crusaders, _ib._ crown of, claimed by the kings of Cyprus, 401.

Jezerci; _see_ EZERITES.

Jireček, C. J. on Slavonic settlements, 133 (_note_).

Jôannina, restored to the Empire, 388. taken by the Turks, 421.

John Asan, extent of Bulgaria under, 430.

John Komnênos, Emperor, his conquests, 381.

John Komnênos, Emperor of Trebizond, acknowledges the supremacy of Constantinople, 422.

John Tzimiskês, Emperor, recovers Bulgaria, 377. his Asiatic conquests, 379.

Jomsburg Vikings, settlement of, 471.

Judæa, its relations with Rome, 65.

Jung, on the Roumans, 435 (_note_).

Justinian, extent of the Roman power under, 104, 105, 106.

Jutes, their settlement in Kent, 97.

Jutland, South, duchy of, united with Holstein, 490. called Duchy of Sleswick, _ib._

Kaffa, colony of Genoa, 414.

Kainardji, Treaty of, 449.

Kalabryta, 418.

Kamienetz, ceded by Poland to the Turk, 448, 507.

Kappadokia, kingdom of, 38. annexed by Rome, 67. theme of, 151.

Karians, in the Homeric Catalogue, 28.

Karlili, why so called, 421.

Karlings, Frankish dynasty of, 121.

Kärnthen; _see_ CARINTHIA.

Karolingia, kingdom of, 137, 141, 143, 148, 326.

Kars, joined to the Eastern Empire, 379. annexed by Russia, 522.

Karystos, 403.

Kazan, Khanat of, 501. conquered by Russia, 511.

Kent, settlement of the Jutes in, 97. kingdom of, 160, 555.

Kephallênia, in the Homeric Catalogue, 26. theme of, 151. Norman conquests in, 395, 397. held in fief by Margarito, _ib._ commended to Venice, 410. lost and won by Venice, 411.

Khiva, 522.

Kibyrraiotians, theme of, 150.

Kief, Russian centre at, 481. supremacy of, 482. taken by the Mongols, 483. by the Lithuanians, 498. recovered by Russia, 506.

Kilikia, 76. restored to the Empire, 153, 379.

Kirghis, Russian superiority over, 516.

Klek, Ottoman frontier extends to, 412.

Kleônai, 27.

Köln (Colonia Agrippina), 92. ecclesiastical province of, 175. its archbishops chancellors of Italy and electors, 175, 176. chief of the Hansa, 213. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 224, 358.

Kolocza, ecclesiastical province of, 186.

Kolôneia, theme of, 150.

Korkyra, 22, 26. alliance of with Rome, 40. _See also_ CORFU.

Korkyra, Black (Curzola), Greek colony, 34, 406.

Kôrônê; _see_ CORON.

Kôs, Greek colony, 28. held by the knights of St. John, 389, 415. by the Maona, 414.

Kossovo, battle of, 426.

Krain; _see_ CARNIOLA.

Kresimir, king of Croatia and Dalmatia, 407.

Krotôn, early greatness of, 47.

Ktesiphôn, conquered by Trajan, 99.

Kymê; _see_ CUMÆ.

Kyrênê, Greek colony, 35, 36. Roman conquest of, 63.

Lakedaimonia, 151.

Lakonikê, 29.

Λαμπαρδοί, use of the form, 369 (_note_).

Lancashire, formation of the shire, 556.

Langue d’oc, extent of, 135. effects of French annexations on, 345.

Languedoc, province of, 335.

Laodikeia, 381.

Laon, capital of the Karlings, 143.

Laps, remnant of non-Aryan people in Europe, 12.

Latins, 46. their alliance with Rome, 50.

Lauenburg, represents the elder Saxony, 208. held by the kings of Denmark, 225, 518. joins the German confederation, 225, 519. final cession of, to Prussia, 228, 519.

Lausanne, annexed by Bern, 273.

Lausitz; _see_ LUSATIA.

Lazia, allotment of, 404.

Lechs; _see_ POLES.

Leinster, 183, 556.

Lemberg, ecclesiastical province of, 185, 186.

Lêmnos, becomes Greek, 32.

Leo IX. Pope, grants Apulia as a fief to the Normans, 394.

Leon, kingdom of, 154, 529. shiftings of, 531. its final union with Castile, _ib._

Leopol; _see_ LEMBERG.

Lepanto (Naupaktos) under Anjou, 397. ceded to Venice, 410. to the Turk, 411.

Lesbos, mention of in the Iliad, 28. a fief of the Gattilusi, 414.

Lesina; _see_ PHAROS.

Leukas, Leukadia (Santa Maura), 22, 26. date of its foundation, 31. commended to Venice, 410. lost and won by her, 411, 412.

Leuticii, the, 474, 475.

Letts, 466 (_note_). settlements of, 484.

Lewis I. (the Pious), Emperor, 128, 135.

Lewis II. Emperor, 136.

Lewis VII. of France, effects of his marriage and divorce, 332, 337.

Lewis IX. (Saint) of France, growth of France under, 335.

Lewis XII. of France, effects of his marriage, 341.

Lewis XIV. of France, effects of his reign, 350. his conquests from Spain, 539.

Lewis XV. of France, effects of his reign, 350.

Lewis the Great, of Hungary, his conquests, 409, 437. annexes Red Russia, 498.

Liburnia, 62.

Libya, 76.

Lichfield, bishopric of, 182.

Liechtenstein, principality of, 229.

Liége; _see_ LÜTTICH.

Liguria, Roman conquest of, 55. province of, 79. part of the kingdom of Italy, 147.

Ligurian Republic, the, 252.

Ligurians, non-Aryan people in Europe, 13, 45.

Lille, annexed by France, 301, 349.

Limburg, passes to the Dukes of Brabant, 295. duchy of, within the German confederation, 228.

Limoges, 332.

Lincoln, diocese of, 182.

Lindisfarn, bishopric of, 182.

Lisbon, patriarchate of, 170, 179. conquered by Portugal, 533.

Lithuania, bishopric of, 185. effect of the German conquest of Livland on, 487. its conquests from Russia, 497. joined with Poland, 185, 498, 499.

Lithuanians, settlements of, 15, 484. long remain heathen, 466, 497.

Livland, Livonia, Finnish population of, 484. German conquests in, 486. dominion of the Sword-brothers in, 495. momentary kingdom of, 504. conquered by Poland, _ib._ by Sweden, 508. by Russia, 512.

Livonian Knights; _see_ SWORD-BROTHERS.

Llandaff, bishopric of, 182.

Lodi, 237.

Lodomeria; _see_ VLADIMIR.

Λογγιβαρδία, use of the form, 369 (_note_).

Lokrians, their position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. settle on the Corinthian Gulf, 30.

Lokris, league of, 40.

Lombards, their settlement in Italy, 106, 107. take Ravenna, 108, 123. overthrown by Charles the Great, 123.

Lombardy, kingdom of, 107, 234. under Charles the Great, 123. growth of her cities, 237. ceded to Sardinia, 257.

Lombardy, theme of, 152, 369.

Lombardy and Venice, kingdom of, 255, 322.

London, bishopric of, 182.

Lorraine, duchy of, 193. seized by Lewis XIV., 194. exchanged for Tuscany, 321. finally annexed to France, 194, 351. recovered by Germany, 359.

Lorraine, House of, Emperors of, 321.

Lothar I., Emperor, 135, 136.

Lotharingia, kingdom of, 137, 140, 193.

Lothian, granted to Scotland, 162, 550. effects of the grant, 551.

Lothringen; _see_ LORRAINE.

Louisiana, colonized by France, 352. ceded to Spain, 353, 360. recovered and sold to the United States, 360, 563.

Louvain (Löwen), 294.

Low Countries; _see_ NETHERLANDS.

Lübeck, founded by Henry the Lion, 198, 494. its independence of the bishop, 214. one of the Hansa, 214, 220, 494. conquered by Denmark, 489.

Lübeck, bishopric of, 491.

Lublin, Union of, 505.

Lucanians, 46.

Lucca, 238. under Castruccio, 245. remains a commonwealth, 249. archbishopric of, 171. Grand Duchy of, 253. annexed to Tuscany, 256.

Lund, archbishopric of, 184. ceded to Sweden, 508.

Lüneburg, duchy of, 208.

Luneville, peace of, 194.

Lusatia (Lausitz), Mark of, 199, 475. won by Bohemia, 493.

Lüttich (Liége), bishopric of, 295, 298. annexed by France, 302. added to Belgium, 227, 302. French acquisitions from, 348.

Luxemburg (Lüzelburg), duchy of, 295. annexed to Burgundy, 298. French acquisitions from, 348. within the German confederation, 225. division of, 229, 303. neutrality of, 229.

Luxemburg, House of, kings of Bohemia, 493.

Luzern, joins the Confederates, 262, 270.

Lydians, 33.

Lykandos, theme of, 150.

Lykia, league of, 39. preserves its independence, 64. annexed by Rome, 67.

Lykians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28.

Lyons, in the kingdom of Burgundy, 145, 263. archbishopric of, 167, 173. annexed by Philip the Fair, 264.

Macedonia, 20, 21. its close connexion with Greece, 24. not in the Homeric catalogue, 28. growth of the kingdom, 36, 37. Roman conquest of, 41. diocese of, 78. theme of, 151. recovered by the Empire, 388.

Macedonian, use of the name, 115.

Macon, annexed by Saint Lewis, 336.

Madeira, colonized by Portugal, 541.

Madras, taken by the French, 354.

Madrid, Treaty of, 298, 340.

Magdeburg, archbishopric of, 176. recovered by Prussia, 224.

Magyars, a Turanian people, 17. their settlements, 17, 157, 365, 433. effects of their invasion on the Slaves, 158, 432. called Turks, 379. origin of the name, 433 (_note_).

Mahomet, union of Arabia under, 110.

Mahomet I., Sultan, Ottoman power under, 446.

Mahomet the Conqueror, Sultan, his conquests, 411, 446. extent of his dominions, 446.

Maina, name of Hellênes confined to, 376. recovered by the Empire, 388, 418. independence of, 419.

Maine, county of, 330. conquered by William of Normandy, 332. united with Anjou, _ib._ annexed to France, 333.

Maine, State of, 560.

Mainz, 92. ecclesiastical province of, 175. its archbishops chancellors of Germany and electors, 176. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 358.

Maionians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28.

Majorca, kingdom of, 536.

Malta, taken by the Saracens, 370. by the Normans, 395. granted to the knights of Saint John, 398, 415, 538. revolutions of, 415. held by England, 415, 558.

Man, Scandinavian settlement in, 471, 553. its later history, 488, 553.

Manfred, King of Sicily, his dominion in Epeiros, 397. styled Lord of Romania, _ib._

Mantua, 243, 248, 257.

Manuel Komnênos, his conquests, 381, 424.

Manzikert, battle of, 380.

Maona, the, its dominions, 414.

Marche, county of, 332.

Marcomanni, 85.

Margarito, king of the Epeirots, 397.

Maria Theresa, Empress-Queen, her hereditary dominions, 320. effects of her marriage, 321.

Marienburg, 301, 348.

Marseilles, acquired by France, 265.

Mary of Burgundy, effects of her marriage, 340.

Maryland, 561.

Massa, 249.

Massachusetts, 560.

Massalia, Ionian colony, 35, 36, 56. _see_ MARSEILLES.

Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, his conquests, 438, 493.

Maurienne, Counts of, 278.

Mauritania, 67.

Mauritius (Isle of France), a French colony, 354. taken and held by England, 360.

Maximilian I., his legislation, 203. effects of his marriage, 340.

Mazanderan, 516.

Mazovia, duchy of, 478. recovered by Poland, 499.

Meath, 556.

Meaux, settlement of, 335.

Mechlin, archbishopric of, 177.

Mecklenburg, duchy of, 198. Slavonic princes continue in, 198, 476.

Mediation, act of, 276.

Medici, the, rule of in Florence, 245, 246.

Mediterranean Sea, centre of the three old continents, 5, 6.

Megalopolis, its foundation, 31.

Megara, 29. joins the Achaian League, 40.

Mehadia, 396.

Meissen, Mark of, 199, 475.

Meleda, 406.

Melfi, 394.

Melinci, Melings, 375.

Mendog, king of Lithuania, his conquests, 497.

Mentone, annexed by France, 346, 359.

Mercia, kingdom of, 129, 130, 160, 161.

Mesopotamia, conquest of, under Trajan, 99. under Diocletian, 100.

Messana (Messina), receives Roman citizenship, 53. recovered and lost by the Eastern Empire, 270. taken by the Saracens, 370. by the Normans, 395. first Norman capital, _ib._

Messênê, Dorian, 29. conquered by Sparta, 30. foundation of the city, 31.

Metz, annexed by France, 193, 346. restored to Germany, 229.

Mexico, Spanish conquest of, 543. two Empires of, 544.

Mexico, New, ceded by Spain, 544.

Michael Palaiologos, Eastern Emperor, 422.

Michael, despot of Epeiros, his conquests, 385.

Mieczïslaf, first Christian prince of Poland, 479.

Milan, capital of kingdom of Italy, 147. archbishopric of, 171.

Milan, duchy of, 240, 241, 248. temporary French possession of, 346. a Spanish dependency, 539.

Milêtos, its colonies, 32.

Military Orders, 487, 495-497.

Mingrelia, 521.

Minorca, 538.

Misithra, restored to the Empire, 388, 418.

Mississippi, colonization at the mouth of, 353. made the boundary of Louisiana, _ib._

Mithridates, king of Pontos, his wars with Rome, 64.

Modena, duchy of, 243, 244, 249, 256. annexed to Piedmont, 257.

Modon, held by Venice, 409. lost by her, 411.

Mœsia, Roman conquest of, 68.

Mohacz, battle of, 438.

Moldavia, Rouman settlement, 437. tributary to the Turk, 439. fluctuations of its homage, 499. joined to Wallachia, 453. shiftings of the frontier, 450.

Molossis, 37.

Moluccas, Dutch settlements in, 300.

Monaco, principality of, 247, 256.

Montbeliard, county of, 261, 350. annexed by France, 355.

Monembasia, restored to the Empire, 388, 418. held by Venice, 410. lost by her, 411.

Mongols, invade Europe, 436, 483. Russia tributary to, 483, 500. effects of their invasion on the Ottomans, 443, 444. decline and break up of their power, 500, 501.

Monmouthshire, becomes an English county, 555.

Monopoli, lost by Venice, 248.

Montenegro, origin and independence of, 427, 428. its Vladikas, 428. joins England and Russia against France, _ib._ its conquest and loss of Cattaro, 322, 428. later conquests and diplomatic concessions to, 429.

Montferrat, marquisate and duchy of, 236, 240, 248. homage claimed from by Savoy, 284. partially annexed by Savoy, 248, 289.

Montfort, Simon of, at Toulouse, 335.

Moors, use of the name, 530.

Môraia, origin and use of the name, 416.

Moravia, 199. history of, 477.

Moravia, Great, kingdom of, 157, 432, 473. overthrown by the Magyars, 433.

Morosini, Francesco, his conquests, 412.

Moscow, patriarchate of, 170. centre of Russian power, 500, 501. advance of, 501.

Moudon, granted to Savoy, 280.

Moulins, county of, 330.

Mülhausen, in alliance with the Confederates, 274. annexed by France, 355.

Munster, 183, 556.

Münster, 224.

Murcia, conquered by Castile, 533, 535.

Muret, battle of, 531.

Muscovy, origin of the name, 500.

Mykênê, its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. destruction of, 31.

Mykonos, held by Venice, 409, 411.

Mysians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28.

Namur, Mark of, 294. annexed to Burgundy, 296.

Naples, cleaves to the Eastern Empire, 369. conquered by King Roger, 396. kingdom of, 250, 254. temporary French possession of, 346. title of king of, 251, 254. Parthenopæan republic, 252. restored to the Bourbons, 256.

Narbonne, Roman colony, 57. Saracen conquest of, 112. ecclesiastical province of, 173. annexed to France, 335.

Narses, wins back Italy to the Empire, 105.

Nassau, Grand Duchy of, 226. annexed by Prussia, 228.

Natal, 566.

Naupaktos; _see_ LEPANTO.

Nauplia, won from Epeiros by the Latins, 417. held by Venice, 410. lost by her, 411.

Navarre, kingdom of, 154, 528. extent of under Sancho the Great, 529. break-up of, 530. its decline, 531. union with, and separation from France, 336, 531. conquered by Ferdinand, 537. northern part united to France, 342.

Navas de Tolosa, battle of, 533.

Naxos, duchy of, 413. annexed by the Turk, 413, 447.

Negroponte, use of the name, 409 (_note_).

Neopatra, Epeirot dynasty of, 419. Catalan conquest of, 416. taken by the Turks, 417, 420.

Netherlands, their separation from Germany, 203, 291, 299. Imperial and French fiefs in, 293. an appendage to Castile under Charles V., 539. French annexations in, 348. barrier towns against France, 349. _see_ UNITED PROVINCES.

Netherlands, kingdom of, 302. divided, 303.

Netz District, 514.

Neufchâtel, allied with Bern, 274. passes to Prussia, 224, 274. granted to Berthier, 276. joined to the Swiss Confederation, 276, 359. separated from Prussia, 276.

Neustria, Lombard, 234.

Neustria, kingdom of, 121, 134. united with Aquitaine, 135, 339.

New Amsterdam, 300, 561.

New Brunswick, 564.

New England, settlements of, 560. form four colonies, _ib._

New France, settlement of, 352.

New Hampshire, 560.

New Netherlands, colony of, 300, 561. united to New Sweden, 561. conquered by England, 300, 561.

New Orleans, 353, 563.

New South Wales, 565.

New Sweden, 561. united to New Netherlands, _ib._

New York, 300, 561.

New Zealand, 566.

Newfoundland, first settlements in, 559. remains distinct from Canada, 565.

Nibla, taken by Castile, 534.

Nidaros; _see_ TRONDHJEM.

Nikaia, Turkish capital of Roum, 380. recovered by Alexios Komnênos, 381. Empire of, 386. its extent and growth, 387. taken by the Turks, 389, 445.

Nikêphoros Phôkas, Eastern Emperor, his Asiatic conquests, 379.

Nikomêdeia, taken by the Turks, 389, 445.

Nikopolis, theme of, 152. battle of, 438.

Nîmes, Saracen conquest of, 112. under Aragon, 335. annexed to France, _ib._

Nimwegen, Peace of, 301, 349.

Nish, taken by the Turks, 426.

Nisibis, fortress of, 100.

Nizza, annexed by Savoy, 265, 282. taken by Buonaparte, 355. restored to Savoy, 359. finally annexed by France, 258, 288, 359.

Nogai Khan, overlord of Bulgaria, 431.

Noricum, conquest of, 68. in the diocese of Illyricum, 79.

Normandy, duchy of, 142. character of its vassalage, 328. union of with Aquitaine, Anjou, and Britanny, 333. annexed by Philip Augustus, 333.

Normans, their conquests in Italy and Sicily, 370, 393-395. in England, 163. in Epeiros, 380, 395. their conquests in Sicily compared with those of the Crusaders, 398.

Northmen, use of the name, 469. their settlements, 471, 550, 552, 556.

Northumberland, kingdom of, 97, 129, 162. earldom of granted to David, 551. recovered by England, 552.

Norway, its extent and settlements, 131, 159, 471. united to England under Cnut, 163. its independence of the Empire, 467. formation of the kingdom, 469. Iceland and Greenland united to, 488. united with Sweden and Denmark, 488. its wars with Sweden, 508. united with Sweden, 464, 518.

Noto, taken by Count Roger, 395.

Nova Scotia, ceded to England, 352, 562.

Novara, 249.

Novempopulana, 173.

Novgorod, beginning of, 481. commonwealth at, 483. Russia represented by, 484. does homage to the Mongols, 500. annexed by Muscovy, 501.

Novgorod, Severian, principality of, 483.

Novi-Bazar (Rassa), 424.

Numantia, Roman conquest of, 56.

Numidia, province of, 59.

Nürnberg, 209, 215, 220, 226.

Nystad, Peace of, 512.

Obotrites, 474.

Ochrida, taken by the Bulgarians, 377. kingdom of, its extent, 377, 378.

Oczakow, annexed by Russia, 449.

Odessa, does not answer to Odêssos, 516 (_note_).

Odo, king of the West Franks, does homage to Arnulf, 139, 326.

Odoacer, his reign in Italy, 94. overthrown by Theodoric, 95.

Oesel, won by Denmark, 491, 504. under the Sword-brothers, 496. under Sweden, 508.

Ogres; _see_ MAGYARS.

Oldenburg, united with Denmark, 509. becomes a separate duchy, 513. Grand Duchy of, 226. annexed by France, 222.

Olgierd, king of Lithuania, 497.

Oliva, Peace of, 510.

Oliverca, ceded to Spain by Portugal, 538.

Olynthos, 33.

Opicans, Oscans, 46.

Opsikion, theme of, 151.

Optimatôn, theme of, 151.

Oran, conquered by Spain, 543.

Orange, 263. annexed to France, 265, 350.

Orange River State, 566.

Orchomenos, its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27. its secondary position in historic times, 30. destroyed by the Thebans, 31.

Oreos, 403.

Orkney, Scandinavian colony, 471. earldom of, 553. pledged to Scotland, 488.

Osrhoênê, 100.

Ostmen, their settlements in Ireland, 159, 556.

Otho de la Roche, founds the lordship of Athens, 416.

Otranto, Turkish conquest of, 446.

Otto the Great, Emperor, subdues Berengar, 147. crowned at Rome, 148.

Ottocar II., king of Bohemia, his German dominion, 492.

Ottoman Turks, their position in Europe, 17. compared with the Magyars and Bulgarians, 365. with the Saracens, 442. their special character as Mahometans, _ib._ their dominion compared with the Eastern Empire, 443. their origin, 444. effect on, of the Mongol invasion, _ib._ their first settlements, _ib._ invade Europe, 445. under Bajazet, 445. their conquests of Servia, 426. of Thessaly and Albania, 420, 421. of Bulgaria, 431. invade Hungary, 438. overthrown by Timour, 390, 445. reunited under Mahomet I., 446. under Mahomet the Conqueror, _ib._ take Constantinople, 391, 446. their conquests in Peloponnêsos, 419. of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 427. under Selim and Suleiman, 447. their conquest of Hungary, _ib._ greatest extent of their dominion, 448. decline of their power, 448-450. their wars with Russia, 449.

Oudenarde, becomes French, 349. restored, _ib._

Oviedo, 529.

Paderborn, 224.

Padua, 237.

Pagania, originally Servian, 405. its extent, 406.

Paionia, 20.

Paionians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28.

Palaiologos, House of, 366. branch of at Montferrat, 240.

Palatinate of the Rhine, 215. united with Bavaria, _ib._

Pale, fluctuations of the, 557.

Palermo (Panormos), a Phœnician colony, 48. taken by the Saracens, 370. taken by the Normans, 395. becomes the capital of Sicily, 395.

Palestine, its relations to Rome, 65.

Pampeluna, diocese of, 179. kingdom of; _see_ NAVARRE.

Pannonia, Roman conquest of, 68. in the diocese of Illyricum, 79. Lombard kingdom in, 106. Bulgarian attempt on, 376.

Panormos; _see_ PALERMO.

Papal Dominions, beginning and growth of, 239, 242, 244, 249. its overthrow and restoration, 252, 253, 359. annexed by France, 253, 256. annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 258.

Paphlagonia, kingdom of, 38. theme of, 150.

Paphlagonians, 28.

Parga, commends itself to Venice, 410. surrendered to the Turks, 451.

Paris (Lutetia Parisiorum), 58. capital of the duchy of France, 142. capital and centre of the kingdom of France, 144, 167. becomes an archbishopric, 174.

Paris, treaty of, 353, 354, 360, 450.

Parma, 237, 241. given to the Spanish Bourbons, 249. the duchy restored, 256. annexed to Piedmont, 257.

Parthenopæan Republic, the, 252.

Parthia, its rivalry with Rome, 65, 81.

Partition, crusading act of, 383.

Passarowitz, Peace of, 440.

Patras, under the Pope, 418. held by Venice, 410, 418.

Patriarchates, the, 168, 169.

‘Patrician,’ title of, 123.

Patzinaks, 17, 113, 156, 158, 365.

Pavia, old Lombard capital, 147, 237. county of, 241.

‘Pax Romana,’ 66.

Pelasgians, use of the name, 24. in the Homeric catalogue, 28.

Peloponnêsos, its geographical position, 21. Homeric divisions of, 27. changes in, 29. united under the Achaian League, 40. Slavonic settlements in, 116, 375, 461. theme of, 151. won back to the Eastern Empire, 153. Latin conquests in, 417. Venetian settlements in, 409, 410. recovered by the Eastern Empire, 418. becomes an Imperial dependency, 388. conquered by the Turks, 391, 419. Venetian losses in, 411. conquered by Venice, 412. recovered by the Turks, 412.

Pembrokeshire, Flemish settlement in, 554.

Pennsylvania, 561.

Pentedaktylos; _see_ TAŸGETOS.

Perateia, meaning of the name, 422. Turkish conquest of, 423.

Perche, united to France, 336.

Perekop, conquered by Lithuania, 498. added to Poland, _ib._ lost by Poland, 499.

Pergamos, kingdom of, 38, 61.

Persia, wars of with Greece, 33. with Rome, 81, 99, 109. Saracen conquest of, 82, 111. revival of, 98, 100. Russian conquests in, 516.

Peru, Spanish conquest of, 543.

Perugia, 239.

Peter the Great of Russia, his wars with Charles XII., 512.

Peter, count of Savoy, 278.

Pharos (Lesina), 34, 406.

Philadelphia, taken by the Turks, 390.

Philip, rise of Macedonia under, 37.

Philip Augustus, King of France, his annexations, 333.

Philip the Fair, King of France, effects of his marriage, 336. his momentary occupation of Aquitaine, 337.

Philip of Valois, King of France, his attempt on Aquitaine, 337.

Philip the Hardy, Duke of Burgundy, duchy of Burgundy granted to, 339.

Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, his acquisitions, 296-298.

Philippeville, held by France, 301, 348.

Philippine Islands, conquered by Spain, 543.

Philippopolis, first Bulgarian occupation of, 377. first Russian occupation of, _ib._ finally becomes Bulgarian, 389, 430. taken by the Turks, 431.

Phœnicians, their colonies, 28, 35, 48.

Phôkaia, held by the Maona, 414.

Phôkis, 21. league of, 40.

Phrygians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28.

Piacenza, 237, 241. given to the Spanish Bourbons, 249.

Picts, 98, 549. united with the Scots, 550.

Piedmont, joined to France, 252, 356. reunited with Sardinia, 256. union of Italy comes from, _ib._

Pietas Julia; _see_ POLA.

Pinerolo, occupied by France, 347.

Pippin, king of the Franks, conquers Septimania, 121.

Pisa, archbishopric of, 171. position of, 238. conquers Sardinia, _ib._ subject to Florence, 245.

Plataia, destroyed by Thebes, 31.

Podlachia, conquered by Poland, 498.

Podolia, lost by Galicia, 498. added to Poland, _ib._ ceded to the Turks, 448, 507. recovered by Poland, _ib._

Poitou, annexed by Philip Augustus, 334.

Pola (Pietas Julia), Roman colony, 63.

Polabic branch of the Slaves, 474.

Poland, kingdom of, 159, 200, 479. its ecclesiastical relations, 465. its relations to the Empire, 467, 478. wars of, with Russia, 478, 506. various tribes in, 478. its conversion, 479. its extent under Boleslaf, 478. internal divisions of, _ib._ consolidation of, 498. Pomerania falls away from, 492. conquests of, 498, 499. joined with Lithuania, 498, 499. Red Russia restored to, 437. Zips pledged to, _ib._ its acquisitions from the Teutonic knights, 497. acquires Livland, 504. its relations with Wallachia and Moldavia, 439. its wars with Sweden, 508. cedes Podolia to the Turk, 448. partitions of, 212, 440, 513, 515. formation of the new kingdom, 520. united to Russia, 520.

Poland, Little, 479.

Poles (Lechs), their settlements, 478.

Polizza, independence of, 407.

Polotsk, principality of, 483.

Pomerania, Pomore, Pommern, its extent, 199, 200. its early relations to Poland, 478, 479. Danish conquests in, 489. falls away from Poland, 491, 492. its divisions, 200, 492. divided between Brandenburg and Sweden, 210, 213, 504. its western part incorporated with Sweden, 518. ceded to Denmark and then to Prussia, 225, 518.

Pomerelia, purchased by the Teutonic knights, 496. restored to Poland, 497.

Pondicherry, a French settlement, 354. conquests and restorations of, 360.

Ponthieu, county of, 330. acquired by William of Normandy, 332. made over to England in 1360, 338, 558.

Pontos, kingdom of, 38. Roman conquest of, 64. diocese of the Eastern Prefecture, 76.

Portugal, 155, 527. formation of the kingdom, 532. its growth, 533. kingdom of Algarve added to, 534. extent of, in the thirteenth century, 534, 535, 540. its African conquests, 541. its colonies, 541, 542. divides the Indies with Spain, _ib._ annexed to and separated from Spain, 537.

Posen, Grand Duchy of, 224, 231, 520.

Potidaia, 33.

Prag, ecclesiastical province of, 176.

Prefectures, of the Roman Empire, 75-79.

Pressburg, Peace of, 220.

Prevesa, held by Venice, 412. ceded to the Turk, 451.

Primorie; _see_ HERZEGOVINA.

Provençal language, its fall, 345.

Provence, origin of the name, 57. part of Theodoric’s kingdom, 93, 95. ceded to the Franks, 105, 118. part of the kingdom of Burgundy, 145. Angevin counts of, 263. annexed to France, 264, 344.

Provinces, Roman, nature of, 51. Eastern and Western, 52.

Prussia, use of the name, 192, 211, 230. long remains heathen, 466. dominion of the Teutonic Knights in, 496. beginning of the duchy, 503. its geographical position, 504. united with Brandenburg, 204, 209, 504, 513. independent of Poland, 504. growth of, 202, 511. kingdom of, 512. its acquisition of Silesia, 211. of East Friesland, _ib._ its share in the partition of Poland, 212, 513-515. losses of, 222, 223, 519. recovery and increase of its territory, 224. head of North German confederation, 228. annexes Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, 519. war with France, 229.

Prussia Western, 212, 513.

Prussia South, 212, 514.

Prussia New East, 212.

Przemyslaf, king of the Wends, founds the house of Mecklenburg, 476.

Pskof, commonwealth of, 483. annexed by Muscovy, 501.

Puerto Rico, 544.

Punic Wars, the, 52, 56.

Pyrenees, Peace of, 301, 348.

Pyrrhos, 37.

Quadi, 85.

Quebec, 352.

Queensland, 566.

Rætia, conquest of, 68.

Ragusa, origin of, 115. ecclesiastical province of, 186. keeps her independence, 407, 412. prefers the Turk to Venice, 412. annexed to Austria, 320, 322.

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 559.

Rama, Hungarian kingdom of, 424, 441.

Rametta, taken by the Saracens, 370.

Ramsbury, see of, 182.

Rascia; _see_ DIOKLEA.

Rassa (Novi Bazar), capital of Dioklea, 424.

Rastadt, Peace of, 350.

Ravenna, residence of the Western Emperors, 81. of the Gothic kings, 95. of the exarchs, 105. taken by the Lombards, 108, 123. its ecclesiastical position, 171. under Venice, 242. lost by Venice, 248.

Red Russia; _see_ GALICIA.

Regensburg, 220.

Revel, bishopric of, 184.

_Rex Francorum_, title of, 144.

Rheims, position of the archbishop, 167. ecclesiastical province of, 175.

Rhine, the boundary of the Roman Empire, 71. frontier of, 348, 350, 355.

Rhodes, in the Homeric Catalogue, 28. keeps its independence, 37, 41. annexed by Vespasian, 41, 63. held by the knights of Saint John, 389, 415. revolutions of, 414. knights driven out from, 447.

Rhode Island, 560.

Riazan, annexed by Muscovy, 501.

Richard I., of England, takes Cyprus, 372. grants it to Guy of Lusignan, 318.

Riga, ecclesiastical province of, 185. under the Sword-brothers, 496. under Sweden, 508.

Rimini (Ariminum), 54, 244.

Riparanensia, 154, 529.

Robert Wiscard, duke of Apulia, 394. his conquests in Epeiros, 395.

Rochester, bishopric of, 181.

Roesler, R., on the origin of the name Magyar, 433 (_note_). on the Roumans, 435 (_note_).

Roger I., count of Sicily, his conquests, 395.

Roger II., king of Sicily, his conquests, 395.

Romagna (Romania), represents the old Exarchate, 147, 238. origin of the name, 234, 364. cities in, 244. annexed to Piedmont, 257.

Roman, name kept on in the Eastern Empire, 63, 363, 364, 366. continued under the Turks, 380.

Roman Empire; _see_ EMPIRE, ROMAN.

Romania, geographical name of the Eastern Empire, 364, 376. Latin Empire of, 383.

Romania in Italy; _see_ ROMAGNA.

Romano, lordship of, 237.

Rome, the centre of European history, 9. origin of, 49. becomes the head of Italy, 50. nature of her provinces, 51. her Macedonian wars and conquests, 41. her rivalry with Parthia, _ib._ wars of, with Persia, 81. Patriarchate of, 168, 171. her later history, 239. becomes the Tiberine Republic, 252. restored to the Pope, 253. incorporated with France, _ib._ restored to the Pope, 256, 359. recovered by Italy, 258.

Roskild, Treaty of, 508. bishopric of, 184.

Rostock, 494.

Rottweil, 274.

Rouen, capital of Normandy, 142. ecclesiastical province of, 173.

Roum, Sultan of, 380.

Roumans, origin of the name, 71, 364, 435. their northern settlements, 435.

Roumania, 436. principality of, 453. effects of the Treaty of Berlin on, 453.

Roumelia, Eastern, 454.

Roussillon, released from homage to France, 335, 531. recovered by Aragon, 537. finally annexed by France, 342, 348, 537.

Rovigo, annexed by Venice, 244.

Rügen, held by Denmark, 476, 490. by Sweden, 509.

Rupertsland, 564.

Russia, its origin, 158, 159, 480, 481. its relations towards the Turks, 449. geographical continuity of its conquests, 467. origin of the name, 480 (_note_), 481. ecclesiastical relations of, 465, 468, 480. its relations to the Eastern Empire, 159, 468. its imperial style, 468. Scandinavian settlement in, 472. advance of against Chazars and Fins, 481. its rulers become Slavonic, _ib._ attempts on Constantinople, 482. its isolation, _ib._ its first occupation of Bulgaria, 377. divided into principalities, 482, 483. becomes tributary to the Mongols, 483, 500. effect of the German conquest of Livland on, 487. revival of, 499 _et seq._ delivered by Ivan the Great, 501. advance of, 505-507, 511-517, 521-523. compared with Sweden, 507. wars with Sweden, 508, 512, 518. conquered by Poland, 506. lands recovered by, _ib._ assumes the title of Empire, 512. becomes a Baltic power, 512. its share in the partitions of Poland, 513-515. no original Polish territory gained at this time by, 515, 520. new kingdom of Poland united to, 520. extent and character of its dominion, 522. its territory in America sold to the United States, 523.

Russia, Red; _see_ GALICIA.

Ruthenians, 434.

Rutland, formation of the shire, 556.

Ryswick, Peace of, 349.

Sabines, 46.

Sachsen-Lauenburg; _see_ LAUENBURG.

Saguntum, taken by Hannibal, 56.

Saint Andrews, ecclesiastical province of, 183.

Saint Asaph, bishopric of, 182.

Saint Davids, bishopric of, 182.

Saint Domingo, Spanish settlements in, 543. French settlement in, 353. distinct from Hayti, 544.

Saint Gallen, abbey of, 216.

Saint John, knights of, conquer Rhodes, 389, 415. their conquests, 415. Malta granted to, 398, 415. driven out of Rhodes, 447.

Saint John of Maurienne, bishopric of, 173.

Saint Lucia, kept by England, 360.

Saint Omer, held by Spain, 349.

Saint Petersburg, foundation of, 512.

Saint Sava, duchy of; _see_ HERZEGOVINA.

Saladin, takes Jerusalem, 400.

Salamis, its position in the Homeric catalogue, 27.

Salerno, principality of, 147, 152.

Salisbury, diocese of, 182.

Salona, Roman colony, 62. destroyed, 115.

Salôna, principality of, 417. conquered by the Turks, 420.

Saluzzo, disputed homage of, 283, 284, 287. annexed by France, 287. ceded to Savoy, 287, 347.

Salzburg, archbishopric of, 176, 215. becomes a secular electorate, 220. annexed by Austria, 221, 322. by Bavaria, 222. recovered by Austria, 224, 322.

Samaites, 484.

Samigola, 484.

Samland, Danish occupation of, 471.

Samnites, 46. their wars with Rome, 51. conquered by Sulla, _ib._

Samo, kingdom of, 473.

Samogitia, purchased by the Teutonic knights, 496. restored to Lithuania, _ib._

Samos, 32. theme of, 150. held by the Maona, 414.

Sancho the Great, king of Navarre, extent of his dominion, 529.

San Marino, independence of, 247, 255, 258.

San Stefano, treaty of, 454.

Santa Maura; _see_ LEUKAS.

Saracens, their settlements in Europe, 16. rise of, 110. their conquests of Persia, Africa, and Spain, 111, 365. their province in Gaul, 112, 527. greatest extent of their power, 112, 526. conquest of Sicily, 370. compared with the Ottoman Turks, 442. end of their rule in Spain, 537.

Sarai, capital of the Mongols, 500.

Sardica; _see_ SOFIA.

Sardinia, 44. its early inhabitants, 53. Roman conquest of, _ib._ province of, 79. lost to the Eastern Empire, 369. occupied by Pisa, 238. conquered by Aragon, 245, 538. united to Savoy, 251. kingdom of, 257.

Sathas, M., referred to, 460.

Savona, march of, 236.

Savoy, House of, 234. position and growth of, 277 _et seq._ originally Burgundian, 278. its relations to Geneva, 281. annexes Nizza, 282. its claims on Saluzzo, 283. Bernese conquests from, 272. Italian and French influence on, 284. its decline, 285. its later history, 288-289. French annexations from, 344. French occupation of, 286, 346. Italian advance of, 248. its union with Sicily and Sardinia, 251. boundaries of, after the fall of Buonaparte, 359. annexed by France, 258, 359.

Saxon Mark, the, 198.

Saxons, 85, 91. their settlement in Britain, 97.

Saxony, conquered by Charles the Great, 122, 126. duchy of, 140, 207. use of the name, 191, 207. break-up of the duchy, 207. new duchy and electorate of, 208, 209. circle of, _ib._ kingdom of, 222, 226. dismemberment of, 224.

Scanderbeg, revolt of Albania under, 421.

Scandinavia, ecclesiastical provinces of, 184. its momentary union with Britain, 462. compared with Spain, 463. Eastern and Western aspects of, 464. its barbarian neighbours, 466. kingdoms of, 130, 468. its influence on the Baltic, compared with that of Germany, 486.

Scania, originally Danish, 131, 184, 469. its momentary transfer to Sweden, 487. Hanseatic occupation of, 494. annexed to Sweden, 508.

Schaffhausen, joins the Confederates, 272.

Schlesien; _see_ SILESIA.

Sclavinia, kingdom of, 476. Danish conquest of, 489.

Scotland, origin of the name, 98, 549. dioceses of, 183. its greatness due to its English element, 548. historical position of, 549. analogy of Switzerland to, _ib._ formation of the kingdom, 550, 551. settlements of the Northmen in, 550, 552. acknowledges the English supremacy, 550. different tenures of the dominions of its kings, 551. grant of Lothian and Cumberland to, 162, 550, 551. its shifting relations towards England, 552. its union with England, _ib._

Scots, their settlement in Britain, 98, 548. their union with the Picts, 556.

Scutari; _see_ SKODRA.

Scythia, Roman province of, 77.

Sebasteia, theme of, 150.

Sebastopol, answers to old Cherson, 516 (_note_).

Sebenico, under Venice, 411.

Seleukeia, independence of, 39. annexed to the Empire by Trajan, 99. theme of, 150.

Seleukids, extent and decline of their kingdom, 38.

Selim I., Sultan, his conquests in Syria and Egypt, 447.

Seljuk Turks, their invasions, 365, 379. driven back by the Komnênoi, 381. weakened by the Mongols, 443.

Selsey, see of, 182.

Selymbria, won back to the Empire, 387, 391.

Semigallia, Semigola, part of the duchy of Curland, 514. dominion of the Sword-brothers in, 496.

Semitic nations in Europe, 16.

Sena Gallica (Sinigallia), Roman colony, 54.

Sens, ecclesiastical province of, 173. divided, 174.

Septimania (Gothia), 90, 154, 526. Saracen conquest of, 112, 118. recovered by the Franks, 113, 121. march of, 142.

Servia, Slavonic character of, 114, 373, 423. conquered by Simeon, 377, 424. its relations to the Empire, 424. restored to the Empire, 378, 424. revolts from the Empire, 379, 424. recovered by Manuel, 381, 424. beginning of the house of Nemanja, 424. its possessions on the Hadriatic, 405. loses Bosnia, 424. advance of under Stephen Dushan, 389, 419-420, 425. Empire of, 420, 425. break up of the Empire, 426. later kingdom of, _ib._ conquests and deliverances of, _ib._ revolts and deliverance of, 452. enlarged by the Berlin Treaty, 453.

Servians, never wholly enslaved, 429. fourfold separation of the nation, 453.

Severia, conquered by Lithuania, 499.

Severin, Banat of, attacked by Bulgaria, 430.

Seven Weeks’ War, the, 228.

Seville, ecclesiastical province of, 179. recovered by Castile, 534, 535.

Sforza, House of, 241.

Sherborne, see of, 182.

Shetland, Scandinavian colony, 471. pledged to Scotland, 488.

Shires, mentioned in Domesday, 555. two classes of, _ib._

Shirwan, 521.

Siberia, khanat of, 501. Russian conquest of, 511.

Sicily, early inhabitants of, 45, 48. Phœnician colonies in, 35. Greek colonies in, 22, 34, 53. the first Roman province, 52, 79. state of under Rome, 53. theme of, 152. Saracen conquest of, 153, 370. recovered by George Maniakês, 370. Norman kingdom of, 250, 367, 371, 393-395. its conquests from the Eastern Empire, 397. never a fief of the Western Empire, 233. under Charles of Anjou, 250, 397. its revolt, _ib._ its union with Aragon, 250, 538. united with Savoy, 251. with Austria, _ib._ with Naples, 251, 540. its practical effacement, 398. compared with the Crusading states, _ib._ compared with Venice, 402.

Sicilies, The Two, kingdom of, 250, 251, 253, 398. union of with Aragon, 538. part of the Spanish monarchy, 240, 540. divided, 254. reunited, 256. joined to Italy, 257.

Siculi; _see_ SZEKLERS.

Sidon, Phœnician colony, 35.

Siebenbürgen, origin of the name, 435 (_note_); _see_ TRANSSILVANIA.

Siena, archbishopric of, 171. commonwealth of, 238, 245. annexed by Florence, 246.

Sikanians, 48.

Sikels, 48.

Sikyôn, in the Homeric catalogue, 27. a Dorian city, 29.

Silesia, its early relations to Poland, 200, 478, 479. passes under Bohemian supremacy, 200, 492. joined to the Bohemian kingdom, 493. becomes a dominion of the House of Austria, 493. the greater part conquered by Prussia, 211. Polish territory added to, 515.

Silvas, conquered by Portugal, 533.

Simeon, Tzar of Bulgaria, his conquests, 376.

Sind, 113.

Sinôpê, 39, 64, 422.

Sirmium, 81.

Sitten, see of, 173.

Skipetars; _see_ ALBANIANS.

Skodra (Scutari), kingdom of, 62. Servian, 406. dominion of the Balsa at, 428. sold to Venice, 410, 428. taken by Mahomet the Conqueror, 411.

Skopia, 425.

Slaves, their settlement and migrations, 14, 113, 133, 365. compared with those of the Teutons, 16, 114. their two main divisions, 114, 158. parted asunder by the Magyars, 158, 432. their settlements within the Eastern Empire, 115. in Greece and Macedonia, 116, 373, 374, 461. recovered to the Eastern Empire, 375. remain on Taÿgetos, _ib._ their relations to the Western Empire, 159, 197, 199, 201, 465, 466. general history of the Northern Slaves, 472-485.

Slavia, duchy of, 492.

Slavinia, name of, 115.

Slavonia, 323, 434.

Slavonic Gulf, 476.

Sleswick, duchy of, 213, 490. its relations with Denmark, 490. under Christian I., 491. effect of the Peace of Roskild on, 509. guaranteed to Denmark, 513. wars in, 228. transferred to Prussia, 228, 519.

Slovaks, 434, 477.

Smolensk, principality of, 483. conquered by Lithuania, 499. its shiftings between Russia and Poland, 506.

Smyrna, 32. acquired by Genoa, 389.

Sobrarbe, formation of the kingdom, 530. united to Aragon, 531.

Social War, the, 51.

Sofia (Sardica), taken by the Bulgarians, 376. by the Turks, 431.

Solothurn, joins the Confederates, 262, 270.

Sorabi, 474, 475.

Spain, use of the name, 3 (_note_). its geographical character, 10. non-Aryan people in, 12, 13. Celtic settlements in, 14, 56. Greek and Phœnician settlements in, 35, 56. its connexion with Gaul, 55. first Roman province in, _ib._ final conquest of, _ib._ diocese of, 79. settlements of Suevi and Vandals in, 90. West-Gothic kingdom in, 89. southern part won back to the Empire, 105. reconquered by West-Goths, 108, 526. Saracen conquest of, 111, 154, 526. separated from the Eastern Caliphate, 113. conquests of Charles the Great in, 127, 527. foundation of its kingdoms, 154, 155, 549 _et seq._ its ecclesiastical divisions, 178. its geographical relations with France, 342. its quasi-imperial character, 463. compared with Scandinavia, 463, 525. with South-eastern Europe, 525. nation of, grew out of the war with the Mussulmans, 526. king of, use of the title, 535. African Mussulmans in, 530, 532, 533. end of their rule in, 537. divides the Indies with Portugal, 542. extent of under Charles V., 247, 298, 539. its conquests in Africa, 543. its insular possessions, _ib._ revolutions of its colonies, 544. its possessions in the West Indies, _ib._

Spalato, its origin, 115. ecclesiastical province of, 186. under Venice, 44.

Spanish March, the, conquered by Charles the Great, 122, 128, 529. remains part of Karolingia, 141, 155. division of, _ib._

Spanish Monarchy, the greatest extent of, 539. partition of, _ib._

Sparta, her supremacy, 29. joins the Achaian league, 40.

Speyer, bishopric of, 175. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 358. becomes Bavarian, 226.

Spizza, originally Servian, 406. annexed by Austria, 324, 429, 441.

Spoleto, Lombard duchy of, 108, 147.

Stalbova, Peace of, 508.

Stati degli Presidi, 246.

Steiermark; _see_ STYRIA.

Stephen Dushan, extent of the Servian Empire under, 389, 419, 420, 425.

Stephen Tvartko, king of Bosnia, 426.

Stephen Urosh, his conquest of Thessaly and title, 420, 426.

Stettin, 210.

Stormarn, 489, 490.

Strabo, his description of Hellas, 18 (_note_).

Stralsund, 494.

Strassburg, bishopric of, 175. seized by Lewis XIV., 194, 350. restored to Germany, 229.

Strathclyde, 130, 549, 550. acknowledges the English supremacy, 162. granted to Scotland, 162, 551.

Strigonium (Gran), ecclesiastical province of, 186.

Strymôn, theme of, 151.

Styria (Steiermark), duchy of, 217, 308.

Sudereys; _see_ HEBRIDES.

Suevi, their settlements, 87, 90.

Suleiman, the Lawgiver, his conquests, 438, 447. his African overlordship, 447.

Sumatra, Dutch settlement in, 300.

Surat, French factory at, 354.

Susdal, 483.

Sussex, kingdom of, 160, 555.

Sutherland, 550.

Sutorina, Ottoman frontier extends to, 412.

Svealand, 131.

Sviatopluk, founds the Great Moravian kingdom, 473.

Sviatoslaf, overruns Bulgaria, 377. his Asiatic conquests, 482.

Swabia, circle of, 216. ecclesiastical towns in, _ib._

Sweden, 131, 159, 470. its position in the Baltic, 463. its relation to the Empire, 467. its conquest of Curland, 472. of Finland, 486, 488. joined with Norway and Denmark, 487. separated, 488. growth of, compared with Russia, 507. advance of under Gustavus Adolphus, _ib._ wars of with Russia and Poland, 508. advance of against Denmark and Norway, _ib._ its German territories, 213. greatest extent of, 509, 510. its settlements in America, 561. its decline, 512. its later wars with Russia, 512, 518. losses of, 512, 518. its union with Norway, 464, 518.

Swiss League, beginning and growth of, 262, 268-274.

Swithiod, 470.

Switzerland, represents the Burgundian kingdom, 146, 259, 291. German origin of the Confederation, 262, 268, 269. popular errors about, 269. eight ancient cantons of, 270. effect of on the Austrian power, 217, 311. beginning of its Italian dominions, 271, 286. thirteen cantons of, 272, 274. its allied and subject lands, 272, 273. extent and position of the League, 275. its Savoyard conquests, 272, 273. its relations with France, 344. abolition of the federal system in, _ib._ restored by the Act of Mediation, 276. Buonaparte’s treatment of, 355. nineteen cantons of, 276. present confederation of twenty-two cantons, 276, 359.

Sword-Brothers, their connexion with the Empire, 495. established in Livland, _ib._ extent of their dominion, 496. joined to the Teutonic Order, _ib._ separated from them, 496, 503. fall of the Order, 504.

Sybaris, Greek colony, 47.

Syracuse, Greek colony, 48. Roman conquest of, 52. taken by the Saracens, 370. recovered and loss by the Eastern Empire, _ib._ by the Normans, 395.

Syria, kingdom of, 38, 61. Roman province of, 65. Saracen conquest of, 111. partially restored to the Empire, 379. conquered by Selim I., 447.

Szeklers, settle in Transsilvania, 435.

Tangier, 527, 541, 558.

Tannenberg, battle of, 496.

Taormina (Tauromenion), taken by the Saracens, 370.

Tarantaise, ecclesiastical province of, 173.

Tarentum, (Taras), early greatness of, 47. archbishopric of, 172. taken by the Normans, 394.

Tarifa, taken by Castile, 534.

Tarragona, ecclesiastical province of, 178. joined to Barcelona, 532.

Tarsos, restored to the Empire, 153, 379.

Tartars; _see_ MONGOLS.

Tasmania, 566.

Tauros, Mount, 61.

Tauromenion; _see_ TAORMINA.

Taÿgetos, Slave settlement on, 375.

Tchernigof, principality of, 483. lost and recovered by Poland, 506.

Temeswar, 440.

Tenda, county of, 287.

Tênos, held by Venice, 409, 411.

Terbounia (Trebinje), 405, 425.

Terra Firma, compared with ἤπειρος, 26 (_note_).

Teutonic Knights, their connexion with the Western Empire, 495. effects of their rule, _ib._ extent of their dominion, 496. joined to the Sword-brothers, _ib._ separated from them, 496. their losses, 496, 497. their cessions to Poland, 497. their vassalage to Poland, _ib._ secularization of their dominion, 503.

Teutons, their settlements, 15, 16, 82, 87, 96. their wars with Rome, 84. confederacies among, _ib._

Thasos, 32.

Thebes, head of the Boiôtian League, 27, 30. destroyed by Alexander, 31.

Theodore Laskaris, founds the Empire of Nikaia, 386.

Theodoric, King of the East Goths, his reign in Italy, 95.

Thermê, 33; _see_ THESSALONIKÊ.

Thesprotians, in the Homeric catalogue, 26. invade Thessaly, 30.

Thessalonikê, theme of, 151. kingdom of, 384. its effects on the Latin Empire, _ib._ its extent under Boniface, 385. taken by Michael of Epeiros, 385. Empire of, _ib._ separated from Epeiros, _ib._ incorporated with the Empire of Nikaia, 387. sold to Venice, 404, 410. taken by the Turks, 391, 404, 446.

Thessaly, Thesprotian invasion of, 30. subservient to Macedonia, 37, 40. province of, 78. part of the kingdom of Thessalonikê, 385. added to Servia by Stephen Urosh, 420. Turkish conquest of, _ib._

Thionville, 301.

Thirty Years’ War, the, 203, 347.

Thopia, House of, Albanian kings in Epeiros, 420.

Thorn, Peace of, 497. recovered by Prussia, 520.

Thrace, Greek colonies in, 20, 33. its geography, _ib._ conquered by Rome, 68. diocese of, 76. theme of, 151.

Thracians, in the Homeric catalogue, 28.

Thrakêsion, theme of, 151.

Thurgau, won from Austria by the Confederates, 271, 313.

Thuringians, 91. conquered by the Franks, 117.

Tiberine Republic, 252.

Tigranes, king of Armenia, subdued by the Romans, 65.

Timour, overthrows Bajazet, 390, 445.

Tingitana, province of, 79.

Tirnovo, kingdom of, 430.

Tobago, 360.

Tocco, House of, effects of their rule in Western Greece, 421.

Toledo, archbishopric of, 178. conquered by Alfonso VI., 532, 535.

Tortona, 237, 249.

Tortosa, Aragonese conquest of, 532.

Toul, annexed by France, 193, 346.

Toulouse, Roman colony, 57. capital of the West Gothic kingdom, 90. county of, 142, 330. ecclesiastical province of, 174. annexed to France, 335.

Touraine, united to Anjou, 330. annexed by Philip Augustus, 333.

Τοῠρκοι, 433 (_note_).

Tournay, becomes French, 349.

Tours, battle of, 113. bishopric of, 173.

Trajan, Emperor, his conquests, 70, 99. forms the province of Dacia, _ib._

Transpadane Republic, 252.

Transsilvania, 323. conquered by the Magyars, 435. Teutonic colonies in, 435. tributary to the Turk, 439. incorporated with Hungary, 440.

Transvaal, annexation of, 566.

Traü, 406.

Trebinje; _see_ TERBOUNIA.

Trebizond (Trapezous), city of, 36, 150. Empire of, 386, 422. acknowledges the Eastern Emperor, _ib._ conquered by the Turks, 423.

Trent, county of, 235. bishopric of, 147, 195, 237. fluctuates between Germany and Italy, 195. within the Austrian circle, 217. annexed by Bavaria, 221. recovered by Austria, 224, 255, 318.

Triaditza; _see_ SOFIA.

Trier, taken by the Franks, 92. ecclesiastical province of, 175. chancellorship of Gaul held by its archbishops, 176. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 358.

Trieste, commends itself to Austria, 232, 312.

Trinidad, 544.

Tripolis (Asia), county of, 399.

Tripolis (Africa), conquered by Suleiman, 447.

Trojans, 28.

Trondhjem (Nidaros), ecclesiastical province of, 184.

Trondhjemlän, ceded to Sweden, 508. restored to Norway, 509.

Troyes, treaty of, 338.

Tuam, ecclesiastical province of, 183.

Tunis, conquests and losses of by the Turk, 447. conquered by Charles V., 447, 543.

Turanian nations in Europe, 17, 365.

Turks, Magyars so called, 379, 433 (_note_). _see also_ OTTOMANS and SELJUKS.

Tuscany, use of the name, 234. commonwealths of, 238. grand duchy of, 249, 256. exchanged for Lorraine, 321. annexed to Piedmont, 257.

Tver, annexed by Muscovy, 501.

Tyre, Phœnician colony, 35.

Tyrol, within the circle of Austria, 217. taken by Bavaria, 221. recovered by Austria, 224, 323.

Tzar, origin of the title, 512 (_note_).

Tzernagora; _see_ MONTENEGRO.

Tzernojevich, dynasty of, 428.

Tzetinje, foundation of, 428.

Ukraine Cossacks, 506.

Ulster, province of, 183.

United Provinces, the, 299. recognition of their independence, 300. colonies of, 300, 561.

United States of America, the greatest colony of England, 559. formation of, 560-562. acknowledgement of their independence, 562. their extension to the West, 563. their lack of a name, _ib._ cessions to by Spain, 544.

Upsala, archbishopric of, 184.

Urbino, duchy of, 244. annexed by the Popes, 249.

Uri, obtains the Val Levantina, 271.

Utica, Phœnician colony, 35.

Utrecht, its bishops, 294. annexed to Burgundy, 298. archbishopric of, 177. peace of, 301, 349, 352.

Val Levantina, won by Uri, 271.

Valence, annexed to the Dauphiny, 264.

Valencia, ecclesiastical province of, 178. conquered by Aragon, 533, 536.

Valenciennes, annexed by France, 349.

Valentia, province of, 80.

Valladolid, bishopric of, 178.

Valois, county of, 330. added to France, 331.

Valtellina, won by Graubünden, 273. united to the French kingdom of Italy, 253. to the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 256.

Vandals, 87. their settlements in Spain and in Africa, 89, 90. end of their kingdom, 105.

Varna, battle of, 426, 438.

Varus, defeated by Arminius, 67.

Vasco de Gama, discovers Cape of Good Hope, 541.

Vasto, 236.

Vaud, conquered from Savoy, 273. freed, 275.

Veii, conquered by Rome, 50.

Venaissin, annexed to France, 265, 355.

Veneti, 46.

Venetia, 47, 235. Roman conquests of, 55. province of, 79.

Venice, her origin, 94. patriarchal see of, 170. her greatness, 241, 367. relations to the Eastern Empire, 233, 369, 378. compared with Genoa and Sicily, 402. her first conquests in Dalmatia and Croatia, 406, 407. her share in the Latin conquest of Constantinople, 383. compared with Sicily, 402. effect of the fourth Crusade on, 402, 403. inherits the position of the Eastern Empire, 403, 410. her dominion primarily Hadriatic, 404, 405. her possession of Crete, Cyprus, and Thessalonikê, _ib._ her Greek and Albanian possessions, 408-410. loses and recovers Dalmatia, 409, 410. acquires Skodra, 410, 428. her losses, 411. her Italian dominions, 241, 242, 248. losses of by the treaty of Bologna, 248. conquest and loss of the Peloponnêsos, 412. annexed to Austria, 252. part of the French kingdom of Italy, 253. restored to Austria, 255. momentary republic of, 267. united to Italy, 232, 258.

Verden, bishopric of, 208, 213. held and lost by Sweden, 509, 513.

Verdun, division of, 136. bishopric of annexed by France, 193, 346.

Vermandois, annexed to France, 331.

Verona, fluctuates between Germany and Italy, 139, 195. history of, 237. subject to Venice, 241. to Austria, 252. restored to Italy, 232.

Vespasian, his annexations, 41.

Viatka, commonwealth of, 483. annexed by Muscovy, 501.

Victoria (Australia), 566.

Vienna, Congress of, 520 battle of, 439.

Vienne, 93, 263. ecclesiastical province of, 173. annexed to France, 264.

Viennois, Dauphiny of, 263. annexed to France, 264, 344.

Vindelicia, conquest of, 68.

Visconti, House of, 240.

Vlachia; _see_ WALLACHIA AND ROUMANIA.

Vlachia, Great; _see_ THESSALY.

Vlachs, use of the name, 366. _see_ ROUMANS.

Vladimir, first Christian prince of Russia, takes Cherson, 378, 482.

Vladimir, on the Kiasma, supremacy of, 482.

Vladimir (Lodomeria) annexed by Lewis the Great, 437. under Austria, 323, 440, 514.

Volhynia, conquered by Lithuania, 498. recovered by Russia, 514.

Volscians, 46. their wars with Rome, 50.

Vratislaf, king of Bohemia, 492 (_note_).

Wagri, Wagria, 474, 489.

Waldemar, king of Denmark, conquests and losses, 489.

Wales, North, use of the name, 130.

Wales, Harold’s conquests from, 553. conquest of, 554. full incorporation of, 555.

Wales, principality of, 554.

Wallachia, formation of, 436. shiftings of, 438-440. its union with Moldavia, 453.

Wallis, League of, 272. its conquests from Savoy, 273. united with France, 274. becomes a Swiss Canton, 276, 359.

‘Wandering of the Nations,’ 83.

Warsaw, duchy of, 223, 519. extent of, 520.

Weleti, Weletabi, Wiltsi, 474.

Wells, bishopric of, 182.

Welsh, use of the name, 98.

Wessex, kingdom of, 97, 129. its growth and supremacy, 130, 160, 161, 162.

Westfalia, duchy of and circle, 207. kingdom of, 222.

Westfalia, Peace of, 215, 346, 509.

West Indies, French colonies in, 353. British possessions in, 360, 565.

Westmoreland, formation of the shire, 556.

Widdin, twice annexed by Hungary, 430, 431, 437.

William the Conqueror, his continental conquests, 332. England united by, 163.

William of Hauteville, founds the county of Apulia, 394.

William the Good, king of Sicily, his Epeirot conquests, 396.

Winchester, bishopric of, 182.

Wismar, 494.

Witold, of Lithuania, his conquests, 499.

Worcester, bishopric of, 182.

Worms, bishopric of, 175. annexed to France, 220. restored to Germany, 358.

Württemberg, county of, 216. electorate and kingdom of, 220. its extent, 226.

Würzburg, bishopric of, 226. its Bishops Dukes of East Francia, 206, 214. Grand Duchy of, 221, 222.

York, archbishopric of, 182.

Zabljak, ancient capital of Montenegro, 428.

Zaccaria, princes of, hold Chios, 414.

Zachloumia, 405, 425.

Zagrab; _see_ AGRAM.

Zähringen, dukes of, 261, 262.

Zakynthos (Zante), conquered by William the Good, 396. held in fief by Margarito, 397. commended to Venice, 410. tributary to the Sultan, 411.

Zalacca, battle of, 532.

Zante; _see_ ZAKYNTHOS.

Zara (Jadera), Roman colony, 62. ecclesiastical province of, 186. held by Venice, 405, 411. Peace of, 409.

Zaragoza, ecclesiastical province of, 178. conquered by Aragon, 532.

Zealand, province of, 218.

Zealand, Danish island, 469.

Zeno, reunion of the Empire under, 94.

Zeugmin, recovered by Manuel Komnênos, 381.

Zips, pledged to Poland, 437, 499.

Zug, joins the Confederates, 270.

Zürich, minster of, 216. joins the Confederates, 270.

Zutphen, county of, annexed to Burgundy, 298.

Zuyder-Zee, inroads of, 293.

_Spottiswoode & Co., Printers, New-street Square, London._

* * * * *

[Transcriber’s note: The following changes have been made to this text:

Page ix: ‘Kyrêne’ to ‘Kyrênê’—‘Crete, Cyprus, Kyrênê’.

Page xxviii: ‘Brobant’ to ‘Brabant’—‘Brabant; Hainault’.

Page xlii: ‘Lauenberg’ to ‘Lauenburg’—‘Saxony; Lauenburg;’.

Page 31: ‘Peloponnêsian’ to ‘Peloponnesian’—‘Peloponnesian cities’.

Page 94, sidenote: ‘B.C. 476-493’ to ‘A.D. 476-493’.

Page 114, sidenote: ‘South-eastern’ to ‘South-western’.

Page 208, sidenote: ‘121.’ to ‘1212.’—‘1180-1212.’

Page 217: ‘Görtz’ to ‘Görz’—‘borderlands of _Görz_’.

Page 240, sidenote: ‘Palaiologioi’ to ‘Palaiologoi’—‘Palaiologoi at Montferrat, 1306.’

Page 320: ‘at’ to ‘as’—‘as it stood.’

Page 352: ‘Napoleone’ to ‘Napoleon’—‘Napoleon Buonaparte was born’.

Page 354: ‘theatened’ to ‘threatened’—‘seriously threatened’.

Page 368: ‘setttlement’ to ‘settlement’—‘conquest and settlement’.

Page 372: ‘begining’ to ‘beginning’—‘beginning of the eleventh’.

Page 373: missing word ‘time’ added—‘to time enforced.’

Page 379: ‘posssession’ to ‘possession’—‘Imperial possession’.

Page 389: ‘Nikomédeia’ to ‘Nikomêdeia’—‘_Nikaia_, _Nikomêdeia_’.

Page 396, sidenote: ‘Epirot’ to ‘Epeirot’—‘Epeirot conquests of William’.

Page 407: ‘Kommênos’ to ‘Komnênos’—‘Under Manuel Komnênos’.

Page 418, sidenote: ‘1343.’ to ‘1383.’—‘1348-1383.’

Page 428: ‘Balza’ to ‘Balsa’—‘the house of Balsa’.

Page 432, sidenote: ‘84’ to ‘884’—‘884-894.’

Page 493: ‘burggraves’ to ‘burgraves’—‘burgraves of Nürnberg.’

Page 512: ‘Ăbo’ to ‘Åbo’—‘Peace of Åbo’.

Page 539, sidenote: ‘possesions’ to ‘possessions’—‘outlying possessions’.

Page 550: ‘Northhumberland’ to ‘Northumberland’—‘part of Northumberland’.

Page 561, sidenote: ‘1346’ to ‘1646’—’Maryland. 1646.’

Page 564, sidenote: ‘Dependen’ to ‘Dependent’—‘Dependent confederacy.’

Page 580: ‘ecclesiastial’ to ‘ecclesiastical’—‘Embrun, ecclesiastical province’.

Page 583: ‘Geatas’ to ‘Geátas’—‘Gauts, Geátas’.

Page 586: ‘Jagerndorf’ to ‘Jägerndorf’—‘Jägerndorf, principality of’.

Page 587: ‘Kamenietz’ to ‘Kamienetz’—‘Kamienetz, ceded by Poland’.

Page 587: ‘Korônê’ to ‘Kôrônê’—‘Kôrônê; _see_ CORON.’

Page 587: ‘Koloneia’ to ‘Kolôneia’—‘Kolôneia, theme of’.

Page 589: ‘Luzelburg’ to ‘Lüzelburg’—‘Luxemburg (Lüzelburg)’.

Page 590: ‘Monbeliard’ to ‘Montbeliard’—‘Montbeliard, county of’.

Page 592: ‘Komnenos’ to ‘Komnênos’—‘Alexios Komnênos, 381.’

Page 594: ‘Phokaia’ to ‘Phôkaia’—‘Phôkaia, held by’.

Page 594: ‘Julii’ to ‘Julia’—‘Pietas Julia; _see_ POLA.’

Page 595: ‘remain’ to ‘remains’—‘long remains heathen’.

Page 595: ‘Bradenburg’ to ‘Brandenburg’—‘united with Brandenburg’.

Page 599: ‘Maniakes’ to ‘Maniakês’—‘recovered by George Maniakês’.

Page 599: ‘Sinopê’ to ‘Sinôpê’—‘Sinôpê, 39’.

Page 600: ‘Soluthurn’ to ‘Solothurn’—‘Solothurn, joins the Confederates’.

Page 600: ‘610’ to ‘10’—‘its geographical character, 10’.

Page 600: ‘Califate’ to ‘Caliphate’—‘Eastern Caliphate, 113.’

Page 600: ‘Presidenti’ to ‘Presidi’—‘Stati degli Presidi’.

Page 603: ‘Tzernoievich’ to ‘Tzernojevich’—‘Tzernojevich, dynasty of’.]