CHAPTER VIII

THE CHILD IN JUDEA

=Historical.= We learn from their own writings that the Jews arose from peoples that lived in the region of the Euphrates, a particular tribe of whom, under the leadership of Abraham, near 2000 B. C., migrated to the land of Canaan or Palestine. Here they lived a nomadic life till a portion of them, the descendants of Jacob, migrated to northeastern Egypt, from whence some centuries later they were led forth by Moses and after wanderings and warrings they entered again into Palestine and built up a nation. After some centuries internal dissensions arose and the larger part withdrew and were later forever lost. The smaller portion continued as a nation and later were carried captives into Babylon and then restored again to their own country. Then later they came under the dominion of the Greeks and then under the Romans. Through this contact with the various civilizations, through the effect of their environment of both the country itself and the tribes about them, but more from that something innate in themselves, they developed into a people that evolved the great religious idea which, it seems, will dominate the entire world.

=Women and Marriage.= Woman was held in high esteem by the Jews. She mingled freely in private and in public with others. The Bible is full of the doings of women--as mothers, as wives, as sisters--showing courage and devotion and wisdom. She took a leading part in the life of the nation, especially in religious affairs. She was protected by a religion that did not debase her but which called for a pure home and a happy family. Woman was greatly respected in spite of some of the sayings about her as the following: "It was observed that God formed woman neither out of the head, lest she should become proud; nor out of the eye, lest she should be curious; nor out of the mouth, lest she should be too talkative; nor out of the hand, lest she should be covetous; nor out of the foot, lest she should gad about; but out of the rib, which was always covered.... As woman is formed from a rib, and man from the ground, man seeks a wife, and not _vice versa_; he only seeks what he lost. This explains why man is more easily reconciled than woman; he is made of soft earth and she of hard bone."[143]

About eighteen was the age at which men generally married, girls younger. A man under thirteen years and a day was forbidden to marry, and a woman under twelve years and a day. Wednesday was fixed as the day for maidens to marry, and Thursday for widows. If the bride was a maid each party was allowed twelve months after betrothal in which to prepare for marriage, in case of a widow but thirty days were allowed. A widower had to wait over three festivals and a widow three months before re-marrying. A marriage could not take place within thirty days of the death of a near relative, nor on the Sabbath, nor on a feast-day. Marriage was not permitted with those not in their right senses, nor in a state of drunkenness. "The Mosaic law (Lev. XVIII., 7-17; XX., 11, etc.) proscribes no less than fifteen marriages within specified degrees of both consanguinity and affinity. In neither consanguinity and affinity, however, does the law extend beyond two degrees, viz., the mother, her daughter, aunt, father's wife, sister on the father's side, wife of the father's brother, brother's wife (excepting in case of the Levirate marriage), daughter-in-law, granddaughter either from a son or daughter, and two sisters together."[144]

It was generally held that all marriages were arranged in heaven and that it was proclaimed there, forty days before the child's birth, just whom he or she should marry. Upon earth, the parent assumed this part and chose for his child the one he was to have in life as a partner. This duty belonged to the father, and if no father, then the mother. The son might make a personal choice of his bride, so that the son's wishes might be consulted, but all proposals, nevertheless, were made by the father. Girls up to twelve years and a day, minors, could be betrothed by the father and this was true of all women in the earlier times, but later, if of age, the woman had to give her own free and expressed consent, without which a union was invalid. The proposals were offered usually by the parents of the young man, but if there was a difference of rank then they were made by the father of the girl.

The betrothal was considered as sacred as marriage and could not be more easily broken. "For a betrothal to be legal, it has to be effected in one of the following three modes: 1. By _money_, or _money's worth_, which, according to the school of Shammai, must be a denar--90 grains of pure gold--or, according to the school of Hillel, a perutah--half grain of pure silver--and which is to be given to the maiden, or, if she is a minor, to her father, as betrothal price. 2. By _letter_ or _contract_, which the young man either in person or through a proxy, has given to the maiden, or to her father when she is a minor. 3. By _cohabitation_, when the young man and maiden, having pronounced the betrothal formula in the presence of two witnesses, retire into a separate room. This, however, is considered immodest, and the young man is scourged."[145]

A father was to provide a dowry for his daughter conformable to her station in life, and should the father not be able to do this the bridegroom would, before marriage, give her sufficient for the necessary outfit. In case of an orphan the dowry was provided from public funds. In earlier times, after the giving over of the marriage price and other gifts, the bridegroom took the bride with him. At a later period a marriage-feast was given at the bride's home, and at a later period yet the wedding-feast was furnished at the home of the bridegroom.

Children were very greatly desired by the ancient Hebrews, and especially male children, as the more children a man had the more was he respected. Also the expectance of the Messiah, who might come from any one of the families, made children all the more wished for. Hence marriage was a duty with them, and this desire for children was also a cause for polygamy as thereby more children would be born to a family. Yet polygamy and concubinage was not the rule with the Hebrews but the rare exception, so far as the people generally were concerned, so that they really adopted monogamy and were, probably, the only Semites who did so. Even where polygamy or concubinage did occur the law insisted that each wife or concubine should receive her full conjugal rights, which prevented any extended practice even among the most wealthy.

Divorce was allowed for "any shameful thing," which, necessarily, was interpreted in different ways. "In fact, we know that it included every kind of impropriety, such as going about with loose hair, spinning in the street, familiarly talking with men, ill-treating her husband's parents in his presence, brawling, that is, 'speaking to her husband so loudly that the neighbors could hear her in the adjoining house,' a general bad reputation, or the discovery of fraud before marriage. On the other hand, the wife could insist on being divorced if her husband were a leper, or effected with polypus, or engaged in a disagreeable or dirty trade, such as that of a tanner or coppersmith. One of the cases in which divorce was obligatory was, if either party had become heretical, or ceased to profess Judaism."[146] Yet divorces were not so common as might be thought under so loose a statement for procuring them. Rather strict laws were drawn up explicitly stating for what divorce could be allowed, both to man and to woman. Divorce was discouraged and a conciliation was always tried to be brought about before divorce proceedings began. The divorced parties could marry other parties and even could unite again. The bill of divorcement had to be couched in explicit terms, handed to the woman herself, and in the presence of two witnesses. In separation of the parents where there were children, the daughters were placed in charge of the mother and the sons were given to the father; but should the judge consider it of advantage to the children, the sons also were given to the mother.

In order that children might be of the best, prostitution was not allowed and marriage with a prostitute forbidden. "Marriage with a prostitute was contrary to law, and the sons of such a woman were denied the political and religious privileges of citizenship unto the tenth generation."[147]

=Care and Treatment of Children.= Although all children were desired by the Hebrews, yet there was more rejoicing over the birth of a boy than over the birth of a girl. The father was not permitted to be present at the birth of the child, although later the child was given to him, at which time he placed it on his knees. Sometimes the grandfather was permitted to be present at the birth of the child.

In the earliest times the mothers nursed their own children, prolonging this till the child was two and a half and even three years old. In later times the wealthier classes employed nurses for this duty. It was the custom for the boys to be under the care of the women till the fifth year after which the father took charge of them.

Perhaps the most important ceremony in the earlier years of the child was that of circumcision. The child received its name at this time. Only males were subjected to this. It was performed on the eighth day of the child's life, even though it was the Sabbath. If two of the child's brothers had died from the results of the operation, or if he was weakly, this was deferred till such a time as there would be no great danger. This ceremony was of great importance and so the prescribed rules were strictly adhered to, otherwise it was not valid. Usually the father performed the operation, yet it might be done by any Israelite, and even in special cases by women.

The father had full control of his children. He had the power to inflict the severest of punishment, even death. He had greater power over the daughter than over the son, as he could annul a daughter's vow but not a son's. "When a child has attained the age of thirteen years and one day, he is declared of age by his father in the presence of ten Jews, and then he possesses the legal capacity of acting for himself, and can make and perform his own contracts. After that the sins he commits are on his own account. Previously they were on the account of his father. With respect to girls, they are accounted women when they arrive at the age of twelve years and one-half."[148]

=Duties of Children.= "Honor thy father and thy mother," was the great commandment to the Hebrew child. Undutifulness was almost unknown among them. Loving consideration for the parents was one of their strongest marks. Crimes against parents were scarcely heard of. Respect for old age was another great duty and one which was carefully observed. "The general state of Jewish society shows us parents as fondly watching over their children, and children as requiting their care by bearing with the foibles, and even the trials, arising from the caprices of old age and infirmity."[149]

=Dress.= The principal garment worn was a tunic, which encircled the whole body and came down to the knees. Under this was an inner garment that went down to the heels. Over all was a mantle, which was a piece of cloth nearly square, several feet in length and breadth, which was wrapped round the body, or tied over the shoulders. A girdle was worn about the waist, some of which worn by the women were of costly fabric and studded with precious stones. A kind of turban was worn on the head. There were three kinds of veils worn. One hung down from the head, so that the lady could see all around; a second was a kind of mantilla, which covered the head and was thrown about the whole person; a third kind was like the modern oriental veil, covering the face and front, leaving only the eyes free. Sandals were worn, and the ladies also wore slippers, some of which were very costly being embroidered or adorned with gems and so arranged that the pressure of the foot emitted a delicate perfume.

The hair was considered a chief point of beauty and so it was well cared for. With the women it was worn long and curled and plaited and adorned with gold ornaments and pearls. Auburn hair being a favorite color, sometimes the hair was dyed and again it was sprinkled with gold-dust. To keep the hair in place, there were hair-pins and combs. Perfumery was greatly in use as were cosmetics, the ladies painting their cheeks and blackening their eyebrows. "As for ornaments, gentlemen generally wore a seal, either on the ring-finger or suspended round the neck. Some of them had also bracelets above the wrist (commonly of the right arm), made of ivory, gold, or precious stones strung together. Of course, the fashionable lady was similarly adorned, adding to the bracelets finger-rings, ankle-rings, nose-rings, ear-rings, gorgeous head-dresses, necklaces, chains, and what are nowadays called 'charms.' As it may interest some, we shall add a few sentences of description. The ear-ring was either plain, or had a drop, a pendant, or a little bell inserted. The nose-ring, which the traditional law ordered to be put aside on the Sabbath, hung gracefully over the upper lip, yet so as not to interfere with the salute of the privileged friend. Two kinds of necklaces were worn--one close-fitting, the other often consisting of precious stones or pearls, and hanging down over the chest, often as low as the girdle. The fashionable lady would wear two or three such chains, to which smelling-bottles and various ornaments, even heathen 'charms,' were attached. Gold pendants descended from the head-ornament, which sometimes rose like a tower, or was wreathed in graceful snake-like coils. The anklets were generally so wrought as in walking to make a sound like little bells. Sometimes the two ankle-rings were fastened together, which would oblige the fair wearer to walk with small, mincing steps. If to all this we add gold and diamond pins, and say that our very brief description is strictly based upon contemporary notices, the reader will have some idea of the appearance of fashionable society."[150]

=Amusements.= It is presumed that Jewish children had games as the children of other nations, yet but slight account is given of such. It is noted that they kept tame birds and imitated marriages and funerals. They also engaged in singing and dancing, but males and females did not dance together, and the dancers performed according to their feelings, wild and fantastic, slow and graceful, nor were there any set forms for dancing. The youth must have taken part in the military sports which took place in public. Another means of entertainment was that of riddles, Samson's well-known one is an illustration. "Riddles are still 'put forth' at weddings. Here is a common one:

Black as night, it is not night; It cuts its wings, it is no bird; Damaged the house, it is no mouse; It ate the barley and is no donkey.

_Answer_--The ant."[151]

The following is quoted from Jerome: "It is customary in the cities of Palestine, and has been so from ancient times, to place up and down large stones to serve for exercises for the young, who, according in each case to their degrees of strength, lift these stones, some as high as their knees, others to their middle, others above their heads, the hands being kept horizontal and joined under the stone."[152]

=Education.= "If we take a general, and at the same time, it is to be admitted, a somewhat ideal, view of the education of the Jewish race, we shall find its beginnings and its specific character expressed in the sixth chapter of Deuteronomy: 'Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord: And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might. And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be in thine heart: And thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up....' Accordingly, we may say that a present God, whom to fear was 'the beginning of wisdom,' the honoring of parents and elders, a sacred family life, the memory of a great history, the practical wisdom of proverbs, and a gradually growing lyric psalmody, constituted the elements of the education of the masses down to the time of the Exile."[153] Thus the education of the Hebrew child began at a very early age, as it would be taught these essential things as early as it could understand. The parents would begin its training in the home. Higher training, and in fact anything beyond the very rudiments, was given only to the upper classes. The teachers for the most part were highly respected. They were expected to be able men, not too young, and married.

In a general way education among the Hebrews may be divided into two epochs--pre-exilic, from the foundation of the kingdom down to the return from the Babylonian captivity, and post-exilic, from the close of the first period to the fall of Jerusalem and the final dispersion of the Jews.

During the first period there was no public means of education. Instruction was given by the parents, the very young child of both sexes being under the mother's care, but when older the boys went with the father out into his work and so learned from him. The young people were taught the history of their own people, their relation to God, the meaning of the religious feasts, the needed ethical and social training, and the things necessary for making a living and the care of the home. "Higher education was scarcely known until after the exile. Even the priesthood and scribes were limited to a certain knowledge of law, and of historical and judicial literature. In the schools of the prophets, besides theological interpretation and the law, they apparently learned only the arts of sacred music and poetry, whereby they were to be stimulated to greater ecstasy, and were instructed in the compilation of maxims, narratives, and annals. It has been claimed that they were taught some mathematics and astronomy, to mark off the religious festivals, but this is very doubtful."[154]

During the Captivity, the Hebrews came in contact with the education of Babylon, so that upon their return to their own country education became more general and this continued to grow till contact with the Greeks and Romans brought about more general education and the establishment of schools for the training of the priests and the youth of the upper classes, and later public elementary schools began to grow up and became the most prominent feature of Jewish education. Rich and poor alike attended these schools. Reading and writing and a little arithmetic were taught the younger pupils, the older pupils were given instruction in the law. All pupils were obliged to learn a trade.

In the teaching the children were required to use the memory a great deal so that frequent repetition was the practice and, as in other oriental countries, the pupil was to do this work aloud and should he try to do it quietly he was reproved. In teaching the child to read, he was first given the alphabet, the letters being placed on a board for him so that he could see them. The child had to read aloud to his teacher, who corrected his pronunciation. The Hebrew Bible was begun to be read by the child at an early age. In learning to write, a copy was made in a wax tablet which the child traced with a stylus, and after a while he followed a copy on papyrus or parchment with a pen. In the more advanced work, interpretation of the law, etc., would be given by the instructor, the youth, would listen attentively and then strive to reproduce in exact words what had been given.

In the early period, at least, discipline must have severe. If we are allowed to form an opinion based on the old Testament, then we must conclude that the rod took a prominent part in every child's education, and from the authorities given us it is pretty certain that the ancient Jewish parent did not spare the rod whether he spoiled the child or not.

In the early epoch, girls received but little training, only such as was necessary to the carrying on of the domestic duties. At no time did girls receive such training as the boys, but in the second epoch they were taught to read and to write with dancing and music and domestic arts. Yet it would seem that there were some women who showed training beyond the simple subjects and who were able to take a place alongside the educated men of their times.

Jewish education was unsystematic, narrow, and selfish, art and science was scarcely known, and the literature was limited to the ideas connected with their God. Yet there was produced a beautiful family life, a thoughtful and kind treatment of children, a higher position for women than with any other oriental nation, a great reverence for parents, and a true idea of their relation to the Supreme Being.

LITERATURE

1. Cornill, Carl Heinrich, The culture of ancient Israel.

2. Dean, Amos, The history of civilization.

3. Edersheim, Alfred, History of the Jewish nation.

4. Edersheim, Alfred, Sketches of Jewish social life in the days of Christ.

5. Ellis, G. Harold, The origin and development of Jewish education. _Pedagogical seminary_, IX (1902), 50-62.

6. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, A history of education, Before the middle ages. 7. Laurie, S. S., Historical survey of pre-Christian education.

8. Lees, G. Robinson, Village life in Palestine.

9. Letourneau, Ch., The evolution of marriage.

10. Lewis, Henry King, The child, its spiritual nature.

11. McClintock, John, and Strong, James, Cyclopædia of biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature.

12. Milman, Henry Hart, The history of the Jews from the earliest period down to modern times.

13. Thwing, C. F., The family.