BOOK II

THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST

_INTRODUCTION_

HISTORY IN OUTLINE OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY COMPRISING A CURSORY VIEW OF THE SWEEP OF EVENTS AND A TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY

Having followed the fortunes of the Later Roman Empire in the East to the final collapse, we return now to the ancient seat of the Roman Empire, where we are to witness a process at once of disintegration and of development--disintegration of the old Roman influence, development of civilisation and power in the new peoples of the north. Our caption “Later Roman Empire in the West” or “Western Empire” must be understood as applying rather loosely to the peoples now under consideration. We have already (in Vol. VI) witnessed the overthrow of Rome by the Goths and the deposition of the last legitimate emperor of the old Roman line. It has been urged, however, that no really critical alteration in the sweep of world-historic events attended this change.

The fall of Rome marks a convenient epoch in the retrospective view of the historian; it was scarcely an event that could greatly have impressed contemporary witnesses. Odoacer acknowledged the authority of Zeno, emperor of the West, and when Odoacer himself was assailed and overthrown by Theodoric, the latter acted under the influence and authority of the same emperor. And for some centuries the rulers of Italy regarded themselves either as representatives or opponents of the Roman Empire. The Goths, the Lombards, and the Franks in turn invaded Italy and came to dominate her affairs. Yet in theory the Western Empire was still the Roman Empire--though Rome herself had long since fallen from her old time position as capital. It will be recalled that as early as the time of Diocletian the seat of government for the Western division of the empire was transferred to Mediolanum (Milan), and that, at a later day, Honorius made Ravenna his capital. Still the traditional glory of old Rome could not be altogether effaced, and as time went on the ancient city came once more to be regarded as the centre of Italian influence. It was in Rome that Charlemagne was crowned as emperor of the West in the year 800, and his successors repaired to the same ancient capital to receive the imperial dignity for some centuries afterward.

Meantime the real centre of world influence in the West had been shifting to the north. The true capital of the empire of Charlemagne was Aachen (Aix la Chapelle). The land of his nativity and the seat of his chief activities lay to the north of the Alps. In a word, notwithstanding the retention of the old name, the Roman emperor of the West was ruler over a principality that differed radically from the old Roman principality. There was no longer any life in the Latin race. Its time of decadence had come. All hope for progress and development, all prospect of new world influences, lay with the peoples of the north--peoples of wonderful capacities, whose greatest traits could only hope to be developed after many generations of civilisation. A barbarian race cannot attain at once to all the fruits of higher culture. Just as in the early day the Greek and Roman worked their way slowly up to the high plane of world historical influence through many pre-historic generations, so these new races of the north must be given time for development before they could hope to rival in the fruits of their civilisation the works of the old empires of the south. They were to make progress rapidly, partly because they had the old civilisation as a model after which to build; but it was not to be expected that even this aid would enable them to cross the chasm between barbarism and higher civilisation at a bound.

In point of fact, they required some centuries for this development. And since during this time the old civilisation at the south had ceased to be productive, these centuries are known to posterity as the Dark Ages. Nevertheless, there are here and there rays of light in the gloom. At its worst the Western world did not recede into utter barbarism, though it certainly sank far back from the intellectual level of the earlier day. Fortunately, scholarship sufficed to produce records that enable us to form as complete a picture of the life and development of the period as need be desired. Following our custom we shall first outline the sweep of events in chronological epitome before turning to the detailed narrative.

FROM THE STIRRING OF THE HUNS TO THE FOUNDATION OF THE VISIGOTHIC KINGDOM (375-415 A.D.)

The intrusion of the barbaric tribes from the north into the Roman Empire is one of the main events of world history. The dozen or so Indo-Germanic peoples settled between the Volga and the Rhine, together with the Huns, a race believed to be of Mongolian origin, are chiefly concerned in this movement. It begins towards the end of the fourth century A.D., when the Huns and the Alani invade the territory of the Ostrogoths in southern Russia. The latter unite with their invaders and proceed against the Visigoths in eastern Hungary and Rumania. The Christian element of the Visigoths, owing to disputes with the Romans, advances to the west.

378 A.D. The imperial forces oppose them at Hadrianopolis. The emperor Valens is slain.

382 His successor Theodosius makes peace with them for pay and lands.

396 =Alaric= the Visigoth chieftain, not receiving his pay from Arcadius, marches into the Peloponnesus, ravaging as he goes. Stilicho opposes but allows him to escape. Alaric installed as dux in eastern Illyricum.

403 Alaric returns to Illyricum after an unsuccessful attempt to invade Italy.

405-6 Defeat of Radagaisus and his German bands who have invaded Italy. The Vandals, Suevi, and Alani leave the Danube, advance to the Rhine, are driven off by the Gauls, and 409 settle in Spain (see Visigothic kingdom). Meanwhile the Salic Franks are leaving the Rhine delta and settling in northern Gaul (see Merovingian kings) and the Burgundians on the middle Rhine (see kingdom of Burgundy).

410 Alaric on his second invasion captures Rome and sacks it. Death of Alaric.

411 =Atawulf=, brother of Alaric’s wife, leads the Visigoths into Gaul. He takes with him Honorius’ sister, a hostage, and marries her (414).

415 Hard pressed by the Romans Atawulf goes to Spain and conquers Barcelona. He is murdered. =Sigeric= succeeds him, reigning only a few days. =Wallia= succeeds. He makes a treaty of alliance with Honorius and receives territory in southern Gaul, under Roman supremacy, and the Visigothic kingdom of Tolosa [Tolosa (Toulouse) the capital] is founded. This alliance, the first sign of fusion between the Latin and German people, may be said to mark _the beginning of the modern world_.

THE VISIGOTHIC KINGDOM IN FRANCE AND SPAIN (415-711 A.D.)

At the time of foundation of the Visigothic kingdom there exist two states established by the barbaric peoples--the Suevi and the Vandals, who, as we have seen, invaded and settled in Spain (409). The Suevi have six kings until they are reduced by the Visigoths in 469. =Godigisdus= or =Modigisdus= and his son =Gunderic= rule the Vandals until 425, when =Genseric=, brother of Gunderic succeeds. In 429 Genseric, on invitation it is said of Boniface the Roman governor of Africa, leads the whole of his people and a portion of the Alani to Carthage (see kingdom of the Vandals in Africa).

415-418 =Wallia= as the ally of Rome wages war on the Vandals, Suevi, and Alani in Spain.

420 =Theodoric I=, son of Alaric, elected king on death of Wallia. The Visigoths begin to free themselves from Rome.

429 The Vandals leave for Africa.

439 Defeat of the Romans by Theodoric at Tolosa. Treaty of peace with Avitus.

451 The Romans and Visigoths unite against the invasion of Attila, king of the Huns. Defeat of Attila, at battle of Châlons in which Theodoric falls. His son =Torismond= succeeds.

452 Torismond killed by his brother, =Theodoric II=.

456 As the ally of Rome, Theodoric crosses into Spain and nearly exterminates the Suevi in battle near Astorga. He strengthens his own power and makes no attempt to restore the country to Rome.

466 Theodoric killed by his brother =Euric=.

469 Euric makes the Suevi tributary. The Visigoths become completely independent of Rome. Euric is a legislator as well as a warrior and publishes a code of laws.

484 Death of Euric. His son =Alaric II= succeeds. During his reign the code _Breviarium Alaricianum_ is published. Founded on the Theodosian code, it impresses Roman institutions and ideas on the whole people.

507 Death of Alaric in a battle with Clovis, the Merovingian king, at Voulon. =Gesalric= his natural son succeeds. The Ostrogoths unite with the Visigoths and defeat the Merovingians at Arles. Theodoric the Great takes possession of most of the Visigothic possessions in southern France.

511 =Amalaric=, legitimate son of Alaric II, succeeds. He is grandson of Theodoric the Great, who rules his realm for him. The capital transferred from Tolosa to Toledo. Amalaric marries daughter of Clovis.

526 Death of Theodoric the Great. The Ostro- and Visigothic kingdoms become definitely separated.

531 Death of Amalaric in a battle with Merovingian Franks. =Theudes= succeeds.

542 Theudes repels a Frankish invasion of Spain.

548 =Theudisela= succeeds Theudes.

549 =Agila= succeeds. In his reign the Romans recover many towns on the sea coast in an attempt to regain the peninsula.

554 Imprisonment and murder of Agila. =Atanagild=, his political opponent, succeeds.

567 =Liuva= or =Levua I= succeeds. =Leuvigild= becomes associated with him the following year.

572 Death of Liuva. Leuvigild sole king. He recovers some of the towns taken by the Romans.

584 Final conquest of the Suevi. Their country becomes a province of the Visigothic kingdom.

586 =Recared I= succeeds. In his reign, 587, the Visigoths are converted from Arianism to orthodox Catholicism.

601 Death of Recared, succeeded by =Liuva II=.

603 Assassination of Liuva succeeded by =Witteric=. He recovers some towns from the Romans.

610 =Gundemar= succeeds Witteric who is murdered.

612 =Sisibut= succeeds.

621 =Recared II=, who is followed the same year by =Suintila=. All the territory seized by the Romans is regained. The whole peninsula is Visigothic for the first time.

631 Suintila dethroned and =Sisenando= made king.

636 =Chintella= succeeds, followed by

640 =Tulga= or =Tulea=.

642 =Cindasuinto= becomes king.

649 =Recesuinto= becomes associated on the throne.

652 Recesuinto sole ruler at death of Cindasuinto.

672 =Wamba= becomes king.

680 Dethronement of Wamba. He retires to a monastery. =Ervigius= succeeds.

687 =Ergica= or =Ergiza= succeeds.

698 =Witiza= becomes associate king.

702 Witiza sole king.

709 =Roderic= “the last of the Goths” usurps the throne.

710 The first Saracens land in Spain.

711 Saracen army under Tarik invades Spain. Battle of Xeres. Defeat and death of Roderic. The Saracens easily accomplish the conquest of Spain as far as the mountainous districts in the north. End of the Visigothic kingdom.

KINGDOM OF THE VANDALS IN AFRICA (439-534 A.D.)

429 The entire Vandal nation settled in Spain, numbering about 80,000, under the leadership of Genseric, crosses over to Africa, invited, it is said, by Boniface, governor of Africa, then in disgrace at the court of Ravenna. These Vandals pursue a rapid plan of conquest, and are soon in the possession of the whole of Roman Africa except Carthage, Hippo, and Cirta.

431 Capture of Hippo after long siege. Death of St. Augustine.

435 Treaty between Genseric and Valentinian III, by which the Romans retain only Carthage and vicinity.

439 Without any provocation =Genseric= or =Gaiseric= suddenly attacks and captures Carthage. He dates the foundation of his kingdom from this year. His reign is one of warfare. He builds a large fleet for piratical purposes and makes Carthage the leading maritime power of the Mediterranean. The Catholic Christians are much persecuted.

455 Capture and sack of Rome by Genseric, at invitation of Valentinian’s widow Eudoxia.

477 =Huneric=, Genseric’s eldest son, married to Eudocia, daughter of Eudoxia, succeeds at death of Genseric. An ardent Arian, he persecutes the Catholics.

484 =Gunthamund= or =Gundamund=, cousin of Huneric, succeeds him at his death.

496 =Thrasamund= becomes king on Gunthamund’s death. The people are rapidly becoming degenerate through effects of climate, luxury, and vice.

523 On death of Thrasamund, =Hilderic=, son of Huneric, succeeds. He favours Catholicism and restores bishops and churches.

531 The unpopular Hilderic dethroned and imprisoned, his cousin =Gelimer= placed on the throne.

533 To avenge the wrongs of Hilderic, Justinian sends Belisarius to invade kingdom. Capture of Carthage. Battle of Tricamarum and rout of the Vandals. Flight of Gelimer.

534 Surrender of Gelimer. End of the kingdom. The Vandals carried to Constantinople and sent to serve against the Parthians. A few hundred escape to Africa and take part in an insurrection against Belisarius which he quells with difficulty (536). The Vandals disappear from history.

THE HERULIANS AND OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY (476-555 A.D.)

Attila, king of the Huns, does not succeed in founding a state in the Roman Empire. At his death (453) the kingdom of the Huns falls to pieces. The Gepids recover their liberty; the Slavonic tribes follow suit, and gradually make their way into Eastern Europe, their present home.

475 =Odoacer= or =Odovaker=, leader of the Herulians, a military commander in the employ of the emperor, is moved by the act of Orestes in deposing Julius Nepos to attack Orestes in Pavia. Capture and execution of Orestes.

476 This leads to the deposition of the emperor Romulus Augustulus, son of Orestes, and Odoacer is proclaimed king. The emperor Zeno at Constantinople, who, with his successors, remains only titular emperor of Italy, confers the patrician dignity on Odoacer.

488 Zeno commissions Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, to undertake the affairs of Italy.

493 Defeat of Odoacer by =Theodoric the Great= at Ravenna. Theodoric kills Odoacer and becomes king of Italy. He settles at Ravenna, the capital of the Western Empire since the time of Honorius, and assumes name of Flavius. Is recognised by Anastasius at Constantinople. Though professing allegiance to Rome, Theodoric establishes an independent monarchy.

507 After defeat of the Visigoths at Voulon, Theodoric assists them in defeating the Merovingians at Arles. Theodoric adds most of the Visigothic possessions in France to his kingdom. He also governs the Visigothic kingdom for his young grandson Amalaric.

524 Theodoric has the philosopher Boethius and his father-in-law Symmachus put to death for their efforts on behalf of Albinus.

526 Death of Theodoric. His young grandson =Athalaric= succeeds under regency of his mother, Amalasuntha.

534 Athalaric dies of the plague. =Theodatus= or =Theodahad=, a nephew of Theodoric, is elected king. He murders Athalaric’s mother, and in consequence brings on a war with the empire.

536 Theodatus defeated by Belisarius and killed by his own soldiers. =Witiges= is elected king. Belisarius continues the war against the Ostrogoths.

537-538 Siege of Rome by Belisarius.

540 Witiges captured by Belisarius and taken to Constantinople where he dies three years later. =Theodebald= or =Hildibald= elected.

541 Theodebald gains a victory over Belisarius, but is murdered by his body-guard, and =Eraric= succeeds him. He enters into negotiations with Justinian, which displeases his subjects, and =Totila= or =Baduila= is elected in his place.

542 Totila captures Naples.

546 Totila captures Rome. Belisarius recovers it the following year.

552 Narses replaces Belisarius in Italy. Defeat and death of Totila at battle of Taginæ. =Theias= or =Teias= is elected king.

553 Defeat and death of Theias at the Draco. The Ostrogoths conclude the war on condition that they be allowed to leave Italy. Failure of the expedition of the Alamannian leaders, Leutharis and Butilin, to oppose Narses. Italy once more becomes part of the Roman Empire.

THE EXARCHATE OVER ALL ITALY (553-568 A.D.)

553 =Narses= rules Italy in the Byzantine emperors’ names as an exarch. He holds court at Ravenna.

562 Narses takes Verona and Brixia (Brescia).

565 Narses recalled to Constantinople by an insulting message from the empress. It is said that on account of this he invites the Lombard chief, Alboin, to seize Italy. =Longinus= succeeds him.

568 Invasion of Alboin, the king of the Lombards, assisted by the Gepids. He wrests northern and central Italy as far as the Tiber from the Byzantines. Venice, Ravenna, Genoa and the Liguria, Naples, and southern Italy except Beneventum, continue to form the exarchate, and their history is part of the eastern division of the empire. We must now distinguish three centres of rule in Italy--Pavia, the Lombard capital; Ravenna, the strong seat of the Byzantine exarchate, while at Rome, to which the Lombard power is only feebly extended, the pope is fast acquiring strength and influence.

THE LOMBARD KINGDOM OF ITALY (568-774 A.D.)

=Alboin=, before his invasion of Italy, had conquered the Gepids with the aid of the Avars (567). Then together with the Gepids he sweeps down upon Italy in 568.

571 Capture of Pavia after a three years’ resistance. Alboin makes it his capital.

573 Murder of Alboin by his wife, Rosamund, because, it is said, he attempts to make her drink from the skull of her father, the Gepid king. =Cleph= succeeds. He extends the Lombard conquests into southern Italy.

575 Cleph is assassinated, and the dukes do not elect another sovereign for ten years. No central power.

584 Election of =Authari=, son of Cleph, to the throne.

588 Smaragdus, the Byzantine exarch, forms a coalition of the Franks, Romans, and Avars to destroy the Lombards. It comes to nothing. The Lombards begin to be converted to orthodoxy.

590 =Agilulf= succeeds Authari. Territory in northeast Italy, including Cremona, conquered from the exarch. Continuance of conversion to orthodox Catholicism by Gregory the Great.

593 Agilulf threatens to invade Rome, but is bought off by Gregory.

615 =Adalwald= succeeds his father; he is poisoned, and

625 =Ariwald= elected. He is an Arian.

636 =Rothari= succeeds to the throne. He conquers Genoa and the Liguria from the exarchate.

642 The exarch and the Romans suffer a great defeat at hands of Rothari on the banks of the Scultenna (Tanaro).

644 Publication of the Lombard code of laws.

652 =Rodwald= succeeds his father.

653 Assassination of Rodwald. =Aribert I=, a Bavarian, elected king. He proscribes Arianism.

661 Aribert succeeded by his sons =Perctarit= and =Godebert=.

662 =Grimwald=, duke of Benevento, usurps the throne. He completes conversion of the Lombards.

671 =Perctarit= reinstated.

686 Death of Perctarit. His son =Cunincbert= succeeds.

700 =Liutbert= succeeds. Is dethroned by 701 =Raginbert=. =Aribert II= also king the same year.

712 =Ansprand= defeats Aribert in battle and takes throne. Death of Ansprand. =Liutprand=, his son, succeeds. Liutprand is a great prince and sets out to complete the subjugation of Italy, but succeeds only in breaking up the independence of the two southern duchies of Spoleto and Benevento.

726 On account of iconoclastic controversy, Gregory II allies himself with Liutprand and throws off allegiance to the Byzantine Empire. The autonomy of Rome is established.

728 Liutprand captures Classis near Ravenna, but the exarch Eutychius retakes it the following year. The pope appeals to Charles Martel for aid against the Lombards in vain.

744 Liutprand’s nephew =Hildebrand= succeeds on his death, but is shortly deposed and =Ratchis= made king. He continues Liutprand’s plan of conquest but is also deposed, 749 and enters a monastery. His brother =Aistulf= succeeds.

751 Aistulf captures Ravenna. The Byzantine Empire loses all possessions in central Italy. Pepin, Austrasian mayor of the palace, responds to the continued appeals of the pope for assistance against the Lombards.

753 Pepin forces Aistulf to sue for peace.

755 Aistulf violates peace and with the northern and Beneventine Lombards attacks Rome. Pepin comes a second time, and forces Aistulf to relinquish all his acquisitions. Ravenna, Pentapolis, and other territory turned over to the pope, and the first foundations of the papal states are laid. The Byzantine possessions are confined to southern Italy. Venice remains independent though nominally subject to Constantinople.

756 Death of Aistulf. =Desiderius=, duke of Tuscany, succeeds. He allies himself with the Greeks against the pope and the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento.

771 On accession of Pope Adrian I, quarrels with papacy break out. Desiderius plunders the territory of Rome. Adrian appeals to Charlemagne, who is Desiderius’ father-in-law, for help.

774 Charlemagne captures Desiderius in Pavia, and assumes title of king of the Lombards. End of the Lombard kingdom. The Lombards become incorporated with the Italian population, and their country is one of the great provinces of Italy, until the Lombard cities regain their independence (1183).

THE FRANKISH KINGS AND EMPERORS IN NORTH AND CENTRAL ITALY (774-888 A.D.)

774-781 =Charlemagne (Charles the Great)= remains the king of the Lombards. The pope retains the territory granted him by Pepin.

780 The pope summons Charles against a coalition of the Byzantines and the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento.

781 Charlemagne crowns his son =Pepin= “king of Italy.” This is the first time the title is used.

786 Charlemagne reduces Arichis of Benevento to subjection. The Italian dominions now extend to Calabria, although Benevento never becomes entirely dependent.

800 Coronation of Charlemagne as emperor.

812 Death of Pepin. His son =Bernhard= succeeds.

817 The emperor Louis I, le Débonnaire, arranges for his succession, which arrangement does not please Bernhard and he rebels. =Louis= captures Bernhard, puts out his eyes, and takes the crown of Italy. Death of Bernhard.

822 Louis makes his son =Lothair I= king of Italy.

840 Death of Louis.

843 At Treaty of Verdun, Lothair confirmed as emperor, receives Italy as part of his kingdom.

844 =Louis II=, son of Lothair, is crowned king of Italy.

850 Louis shares the imperial dignity with his father.

855 Lothair gives up the reins of government, and retiring to a monastery, dies same year.

875 On death of Louis, his uncle =Charles the Bald= invades Italy and seizes the crown. The pope crowns him emperor.

877 The pope summons Charles to drive the Saracens from Italy, but he dies on the way. =Carloman of Bavaria=, son of Ludwig the German, seizes the crown of Italy.

879 On death of Carloman the crown comes to his brother =Charles the Fat=.

888 Deposition of Charles the Fat. The empire which, during his reign, has been restored to the extent of Charlemagne’s dominions is again sundered.

THE QUASI-ITALIAN SUCCESSION (888-962 A.D.)

888 Italy (excepting, of course, the papal dominions and the territory under control of the Byzantine Empire) is now divided between Berengar of Friuli (grandson of Louis le Débonnaire) and Guido of Spoleto. The estate of Lombardy chooses =Berengar I= king.

889 =Guido=, disappointed in his hopes of obtaining the crown of France, returns to Italy and drives Berengar into Germany.

891 Guido and his son Lambert crowned emperors by Pope Formosus.

894 Death of Guido. His son =Lambert= succeeds as sole emperor.

896 The East Frankish king Arnulf invades Italy on request of the exiled Berengar, and is crowned emperor.

898 Death of Lambert. Berengar regains his kingdom. During these struggles the Saracens make frequent incursions into Italy.

900 The Magyars invade Italy and badly defeat Berengar. This is the cause of much dissatisfaction with Berengar among the nobles.

901 =Louis of Provence= invades Italy, and is crowned emperor =Louis III= by Benedict IV. Berengar flees to Germany, but returns and regains possession of his kingdom the following year (902).

905 After many struggles Berengar captures Louis and puts out his eyes.

915 Berengar crowned emperor by John X in reward for exertions against the Saracens.

921 Conspiracy of nobles against Berengar; the crown offered to Rudolf II of Burgundy. Berengar calls in aid of the Magyars.

924 The people of Verona, disgusted at Berengar’s alliance, slay him. The Hungarians pillage Pavia and withdraw from Italy. =Rudolf of Burgundy= succeeds.

926 Rudolf retires to Burgundy, owing to lack of support in Italy. =Hugo=, count of Arles, is placed on the throne by a powerful party.

931 Hugo associates his son, =Lothair II=, in the kingship. They are little more than puppets in the hands of a demoralised aristocracy. Hugo fails in attempt to obtain imperial dignity. He renounces his possessions in Provence to Rudolf on condition that the latter make no further attempts upon Italy.

946 Berengar, marquis of Ivrea, takes up arms against Hugo on account of his tyranny and oppression. Hugo dethroned. Lothair retains title, but Berengar is real ruler.

950 Death of Lothair. =Berengar II= and his son =Adalbert= are elected kings of Italy. Berengar tries to compel Adelheid, widow of Lothair, to marry Adalbert. On her refusal he treats her most cruelly.

951 On account of Adelheid’s wrongs Otto I, the East Frankish king, invades Italy and compels the two kings to become his vassals. Otto marries Adelheid.

962 Deposition of Berengar and Adalbert. Otto crowned emperor. The kingdoms of Italy and Germany (East Francia) are united.

THE FIRST KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY (413-534 A.D.)

The Burgundians, a Gothic tribe, invade Gaul in 275, but are driven out by the emperor Probus. Returning in 287 they settle on the Neckar and the Rhine, and 413 they establish a kingdom with =Gundicar=, their leader, as king.

436 =Gunderis= succeeds his father. He extends the kingdom, which reaches from the Saône and lower Rhone and from Dijon, to the Mediterranean.

470 The kingdom is divided among Gunderis’ four sons: =Chilperic=, =Gundobald=, =Godegisil=, and =Gondemar=, but it is soon reunited under Gundobald, who makes the Burgundian code of laws.

516 =Sigismund= succeeds his father, Gundobald, and he in turn is succeeded by =Gundimar=.

534 Conquest of the kingdom of Burgundy by the sons of Clovis. It forms a part of the Frankish kingdom.

561 The Frankish kingdom is redivided among the sons of Clotaire. Burgundy a separate kingdom until 613 (see Merovingian kings).

THE SECOND KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY OR ARLES (879-1032 A.D.)

When Carloman seizes the kingdom of Italy in 877 he compels Boson, the imperial governor of Charles the Bald, to retire to France, where he possesses himself of Provence and neighbouring territories.

879 =Boson= founds the kingdom Cisjuran or Lower Burgundy with capital at Arles.

882 Boson compelled to recognise Charles the Fat as his suzerain.

887 Death of Boson. His son =Louis= succeeds for three years under his mother’s regency.

888 =Rudolf I=, a Guelf count, establishes the kingdom of Transjuran or Upper Burgundy. His country consists of modern Switzerland as far east as the Reuss.

901 Louis of Provence, or Cisjuran Burgundy, invades Italy and is crowned emperor Louis III.

905 Berengar regains possession of Italy and puts out Louis’ eyes. Louis returns to Arles.

911 Death of Rudolf I of Upper Burgundy. His son. =Rudolf II=, succeeds.

921 Rudolf invited to invade Italy. He is proclaimed king. He becomes real ruler on death of Berengar, 924.

925 Hugo, count of Arles, who is ruling in the name of the blind Louis, compels Rudolf to retire and takes the throne of Italy.

927 Death of Louis. =Hugo= succeeds him.

931 Hugo exchanges the Cisjuran kingdom for Rudolf’s claim on Italy. The Cisjuran and Transjuran kingdoms of Burgundy become united under Rudolf.

937 Death of Rudolf. His son =Conrad= succeeds.

993 Death of Conrad. His son, =Rudolf III=, succeeds.

1016 Rudolf cedes the kingdom to the emperor Henry II, but is to remain in possession until his death.

1032 Death of Rudolf. The kingdom claimed by Eudes, count of Champagne. But the emperor, Conrad II, causes himself to be crowned king of Burgundy, and the next year, on death of Eudes, enters into peaceful possession of the country. Burgundy becomes part of the Holy Roman Empire.

THE KINGDOM OF THURINGIA

The Thuringians in the fourth and fifth century have an extensive kingdom from the Elbe to the Danube. In 531, when =Hermanfrid= is king, they are attacked by the Merovingian Franks (sons of Clovis) and the Saxons who become allied for this purpose. Hermanfrid is defeated and slain. The northern part of the kingdom is taken by the Saxons and the southern becomes Frankish territory.

THE KINGDOM OF THE SALIC FRANKS OR MEROVINGIANS (486-751 A.D.)

The Salic Franks or Merovingians, together with the Ripuarian Franks, have, by the beginning of the fifth century, settled along the Rhine and its tributaries from Mainz to the sea. They serve in the legions of the empire. In 406 they offer great resistance to the Vandals, Suevi, and Alani, who cross the Rhine and finally settle in Spain. The Salians begin to spread over northern Gaul, and in 429, under their chief =Clodion=, they win a great battle at Cambray and reach the Loire.

447 =Merovæus= or =Mérovée=, son-in-law of Clodion, succeeds as chief.

451 The Franks lend assistance to Aëtius, the Roman general, at his victory over Attila at Châlons.

458 =Childeric=, son of Merovæus, succeeds as the Salic chief.

481 =Clovis=, son of Childeric, succeeds at age of fifteen.

486 Clovis attacks the Romans under Syagirus at Soissons in northern Gaul. His great victory destroys the last vestiges of Roman power in the country, and the Salic kingdom is established. Clovis makes Soissons his capital.

493 Clovis marries Clotilda, a Christian princess.

496 Victory of Clovis over the Alamanni. Conversion of Clovis and the Franks to orthodox Christianity.

507 Clovis defeats the Visigoths at the great battle of Voulon, and kills Alaric the king. He now possesses the country from the Loire to the Pyrenees, and transfers his capital to Paris, where he occupies himself with securing his kingdom by destruction of all powerful neighbours, showing neither scruple nor pity.

511 Promulgation of the Salic law. Death of Clovis and division of the kingdom among his four sons.

(1) =Theodoric= or =Thierry I= takes the northeastern part (afterwards Austrasia), capital at Metz.

(2) =Childebert I=, the central district, capital Paris.

(3) =Clodomir=, western Gaul along the Loire, capital Orleans.

(4) =Clotaire=, the old Salic land, capital Soissons.

In spite of the division, national unity is maintained, and the Franks continue their attacks on their neighbours on all sides.

524 Death of Clodomir in battle. His brothers seize his possessions.

531 Conquest of the Thuringians.

532 Conquest of the kingdom of Burgundy.

534 Death of Theodoric. =Theudebert= succeeds at Metz.

548 =Theudebald= succeeds Theudebert at Metz.

555 Clotaire takes possession of Theudebald’s kingdom.

558 On death of Childebert, Clotaire becomes sole ruler of the reunited kingdom. First application of the Salic law.

561 Death of Clotaire. The kingdom again divided.

(1) =Charibert= rules at Paris.

(2) =Gontram= at Orleans.

(3) =Sigebert= at Metz.

(4) =Chilperic= at Soissons.

567 Death of Charibert. Chilperic of Soissons seizes Charibert’s kingdom. The three Frankish kingdoms now take definite form. They are known as (1) Austrasia, capital Rheims. (2) Burgundy, capital Orleans. (3) Neustria, capital Soissons. The family division leads to terrible feuds, in which Austrasia and Neustria take the principal parts. Burgundy is weak and sides first with one and then the other. The office of mayor of the palace rises to importance. The Benedictines come from Italy and help to keep culture alive.

575 Sigebert of Austrasia, at war with Chilperic, is killed by assassins hired by Chilperic’s wife Fredegund. His son =Childebert II= succeeds.

584 Assassination of Chilperic of Neustria (called the “Nero and Herod of his time”) probably at instigation of Fredegund. His infant son =Clotaire II= succeeds under regency of Fredegund who has had Chilperic’s sons by a former wife put to death.

593 Death of Gontram of Burgundy. By his will the kingdom passes to his nephew Childebert II of Austrasia.

596 Death of Childebert II. His young sons =Theodoric= or =Thierry II= and =Theudebert II= take the crowns of Burgundy and Austrasia respectively under regency of their grandmother Brunehild. A terrible feud between Fredegund and Brunehild begins.

598 On Fredegund’s death, =Brunehild= seizes almost the whole of Neustria. She aims to make the power of Austrasia secure against the nobles, who, with Arnulf bishop of Metz, and Pepin of Landen (ancestor of the Carlovingians), wages war with her.

613 In battle with the nobles and Clotaire II, Brunehild’s army deserts her. She is captured and put to death by torture, also Theudebert’s sons and =Sigebert II=, successor of Theodoric II. Clotaire II becomes sole king of the Franks, but the real power has now passed to the mayors of the palace, to which title the race of the Pepins have acquired an hereditary claim in Austrasia. The rest of the Merovingians are known as “les rois fainéants.”

628 On death of Clotaire his son =Dagobert I= succeeds. The Merovingian power is now at its height.

638 Death of Dagobert, who divides the kingdom between his two young sons.

(1) =Clovis II= receives Burgundy and Neustria.

(2) =Sigebert III= receives Austrasia.

654 Death of Sigebert. His son Dagobert is sent to Ireland and reported dead. Clovis rules the whole Frankish kingdom.

656 Death of Clovis. His son =Clotaire III= receives Neustria and Burgundy, and another son, =Childeric II=, receives Austrasia.

670 Death of Clotaire, without issue. Childeric annexes his possessions.

673 Assassination of Childeric, his wife and son. His brother =Theodoric=, or =Thierry III=, succeeds.

674 =Dagobert II= returns from Ireland and seizes the kingdom of Austrasia.

679 Assassination of Dagobert. The struggle for the supremacy between Neustria and Austrasia is now entirely between Ebroin, mayor of the palace of Neustria, and Martin and =Pepin of Heristal= of Austrasia. The kings have lost all vestige of ruling power.

681 Assassination of Ebroin succeeded by Berthar, who is too weak to resist Pepin of Heristal.

687 Victory of Pepin of Heristal over Berthar at Textri. End of the struggle between the two Frankish powers. =Pepin of Heristal= real monarch of the Franks. He assumes title of dux and princeps Francorum.

691 Death of Thierry III. His young son =Clovis III= succeeds as nominal king.

695 Death of Clovis. His brother =Childebert (III) the Just= becomes nominal king.

711 =Dagobert III= succeeds his father as nominal king.

714 Death of Pepin of Heristal. He leaves the kingdom to his grandson under guardianship of =Plectrudis= his widow. Plectrudis imprisons Pepin’s natural son Charles. A state of confusion at once arises. Neustria shakes off the yoke and Austrasia is assailed on all sides. The Austrasians release =Charles Martel= from prison and make him the ruler of the Franks.

715 Death of Dagobert. =Chilperic II=, son of Childeric II, succeeds.

717 Charles defeats the Neustrians at Vincy, and drives back the invading Saxons from the Rhine. Chilperic is deposed by Charles, and =Clotaire IV=, of obscure origin, is made king.

720 Death of Clotaire, and recall of Chilperic who dies shortly after. Charles now invests =Theodoric= or =Thierry IV=, a son of Dagobert III, with the title of royalty.

732 Battle of Tours (or Poitiers). Charles goes to the aid of Duke Eudes of Aquitania, who has been invaded by the Saracens, and drives them back to Spain.

737 On death of Thierry IV, Charles makes no attempt to appoint a new king. He continues warfare upon his foes.

741 Death of Charles Martel, leaving the power to his two sons =Pepin le Bref= and =Carloman=.

742 =Childeric (III) the Stupid=, son of Chilperic II, is allowed to assume the name and form of royalty. War with the Alamanni and other hostile peoples continued.

747 Carloman renounces his principality, the Germanic part of the kingdom (Austrasia, Swabia, and Thuringia), and becomes a Benedictine monk. Pepin le Bref sole ruler.

751 Deposition of Childeric who is placed in a monastery. Pepin is raised to title of king and confirmed by the pope.

THE CARLOVINGIAN KINGS (751-800 A.D.)

751 =Pepin= king of the Franks. He conducts a successful campaign against the Saxons. Campaign against Aistulf of Lombardy.

755 Pepin proceeds a second time against Aistulf, who violates peace, and compels him to relinquish Ravenna, Emilia, the Pentapolis, and the duchy of Rome to the pope. This “Donation of Pepin” is the foundation of the pope’s temporal power.

758 Capture of Narbonne, the Saracen capital. The Mohammedans driven out. Pepin overruns Aquitania.

768 Death of Pepin, leaving the kingdom to his two sons =Charlemagne= and =Carloman=.

771 Death of Carloman. Charlemagne proclaimed sole ruler. He suppresses a rising in Aquitania, and makes his son Louis king.

772 Beginning of conquest and conversion of the Saxons--a thirty years’ struggle. Storming of Ehresburg. Overthrow of the idol, Irmincul, which compels the Westphalian Saxons to submit.

774 Charlemagne, who has been summoned to Italy by Pope Adrian I, whom Desiderius the Lombard king is attacking, captures Desiderius at Pavia and assumes the crown of Lombardy. The Saxons expel the Frankish garrisons and renew their ravages.

776 Charlemagne makes his son Pepin king of Italy.

777 The Saxons are apparently subdued after two campaigns. At Paderborn Charlemagne receives their homage. Large numbers of them are baptised. Charles visits Spain to receive homage.

778 On the return from Spain the rear guard under command of Roland is attacked at Roncesvalles and Roland slain. The Saxons, aided by the Danes, break out in revolt.

779 Charlemagne again subdues the Saxons, but as soon as he leaves the country they rebel.

782 Great massacre of the Saxons at Verdun.

785 The Saxons again quieted. Conversion of Wittikind, the leader, and his followers. Germany becomes Christian.

788 Bavaria incorporated in Charlemagne’s dominions.

791-798 Campaigns against the Avars ending in their conquest. Pannonia added to the kingdom. The Danes, Wends, and Czechs also become subjects. The duke of Benevento is obliged to give homage. Charles’ rule extends from the Eider to Sicily and from the Ebro to the Theiss. Fresh revolts among the Saxons.

799 Pope Leo III expelled from Rome seeks Charlemagne’s camp at Paderborn. The king restores him to Rome.

THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE AND THE KINGDOM OF EAST FRANCIA (800-961 A.D.)

800 =Charlemagne= crowned emperor of the Romans by Leo on Christmas eve.

801 Harun ar-Rashid sends an embassy with presents to Charlemagne.

804 New revolts among the Saxons and Danes suppressed. The Saxons are finally conquered. Gottfried, king of Denmark, invades Frankish provinces.

808 Defeat of the Danes by Charles son of Charlemagne.

810 Charlemagne proceeds against Gottfried in person. Murder of Gottfried by his servants and peace with the Danes.

813 Charlemagne crowns his sole surviving son =Louis (I) le Débonnaire=, emperor.

814 Death of Charlemagne. Louis succeeds to the whole empire except Italy, which is in the hands of Pepin’s son Bernhard.

817 Louis declares his eldest son, Lothair, his successor to the empire, giving him Austrasia and the greater part of Germany. Pepin receives Aquitania, and Ludwig Bavaria and adjacent province. Dissatisfied at this Bernhard of Italy rebels. He is captured and blinded by Louis and the kingdom given to Lothair (820).

829 Louis re-divides the empire in favour of his youngest son Charles (born 823). This dissatisfies the three other sons, and civil war breaks out.

833 Capture of Louis by his sons on the Field of Lies at Compiègne.

834 Louis released by his son Ludwig and placed again on throne.

838 Death of Pepin. Lothair and Charles divide his share of the empire, which causes Ludwig to rebel against them.

840 Death of Louis in the midst of the civil war. His son =Lothair I= succeeds to the title of emperor, and claims right to govern the whole of the empire. His brothers Ludwig and Charles combine against him.

841 Defeat of Lothair at Fontenay, leading to

843 Treaty of Verdun, dividing the empire among the brothers as follows:

(1) =Lothair I= retains imperial title. He receives Italy, and the centre of the Frankish lands--a narrow strip reaching to the North Sea, Provence, and the greater part of Burgundy.

(2) =Ludwig the German=, the eastern part of the Frankish lands between the Rhine and Elbe.

(2) =Charles the Bald=, the western lands, Neustria, Aquitania, North Burgundy, Septimania, and the Spanish March.

The history of France, distinct from Germany, begins. Lothair’s territory north of Italy is called the kingdom of Lotharingia or Lorraine.

849 Lothair associates his son Louis II in the empire.

850 Lothair divides his possessions among his three sons.

(1) Louis II (emperor) receives Italy (see Italy).

(2) Lothair II receives Lorraine. He cedes Alsace to the emperor Louis II.

(3) Charles receives Provence, etc.

Death of Lothair I.

858 Ludwig the German attacks dominions of Charles the Bald, but is obliged to retreat.

863 Death of Charles of Provence. His kingdom is divided between the emperor Louis and Lothair II of Lorraine.

869 Death of Lothair. Charles the Bald seizes Lorraine and has himself crowned.

870 Treaty of Mersen between Charles the Bald and Ludwig the German. Ludwig takes the eastern half of Lothair’s kingdom, and Charles the western.

875 Ludwig the German expects the imperial crown on death of Louis II. Charles the Bald obtains it, and Ludwig prepares to avenge his wrongs.

876 Death of Ludwig the German. His three sons amicably divide the kingdom.

(1) =Carloman= takes Bavaria, Bohemia, and the eastern provinces.

(2) =Ludwig= or =Louis III= takes Saxony, Franconia, Friesland, and northern Lorraine.

(3) =Charles the Fat=, the remainder.

The emperor, Charles the Bald, attempts to seize Ludwig’s territory, upon which Carloman of Bavaria seizes the crown of Italy.

877 Death of Charles the Bald, and beginning of struggle between Ludwig III and Carloman for the imperial crown.

880 Death of Carloman. His natural son Arnulf claims the Bavarian crown, but being satisfied with the gift of Carinthia, it is given to Ludwig. Charles the Fat seizes Italy and

881 Is crowned emperor by Pope John VIII.

882 Death of Ludwig without issue. The entire dominion of Germany becomes vested in Charles the Fat.

884 Charles becomes king of France (see France). The entire empire of Charlemagne (with the exception of Arles) is once more united under one ruler, but he proves utterly unfit for his charge and

887 After the disgraceful treaty with the Northmen (see France) he is deposed at Tribur and dies almost immediately afterward.

East Francia (afterwards Germany), West Francia (France), and Italy are once more divided. The East Franks or Germans elect =Arnulf of Carinthia=, illegitimate son of Carloman of Bavaria, as their king.

891 Arnulf defeats the Northmen at Loewen.

893 He allies himself with the Magyars or Hungarians, a Finnish tribe that has made its way into Hungary from the Ural region, for a campaign against the king of Moravia. He is only partially successful, and opens a way for the Magyar invasion of western Europe.

895 Arnulf seizes the West Frankish province of Lorraine and makes it into a kingdom for his natural son Zwentibold.

896 Arnulf invades Italy in the interests of the exiled king Berengar I. He defeats the emperor Lambert and restores Berengar. The pope crowns him emperor, which title he holds without dispute on death of Lambert (898).

899 Death of Arnulf. His six-year-old son =Ludwig (IV) the Child= becomes king of East Francia (Germany). He is under the influence of Hatto, archbishop of Mainz.

900 Revolt of the subjects of Zwentibold. He is killed by the rebels, and Lorraine passes to Ludwig.

908 The Magyar invasion begins to assume serious proportions.

910 Ludwig defeated by the Magyars on the Lech.

911 Death of Ludwig--the last Carlovingian prince in Germany. The feudal system has now become firmly established in Germany and the royal power is but a shadow of that exercised by the early Carlovingians. The crown is refused by Otto the Illustrious of Saxony and =Conrad I= duke of Franconia is elected king.

911-918 The Danes, Slavs, and Magyars continue their invasion. The duke of Lotharingia or Lorraine transfers his allegiance to the king of France. Conrad sends armies to France but is unable to prevent the loss of Lorraine. He struggles against the rising power of the dukes, especially with that of Henry of Saxony--a quarrel forced by the clergy. Conrad repents of this and on his death-bed advises election of Henry as his successor.

918 On death of Conrad =Henry (I) the Fowler= is elected king of East Francia. The Saxon line begins and the German monarchy is founded. Henry is a wise and great ruler. In the first year of his reign he obtains acknowledgment of his supremacy from the refractory dukes of Swabia and Bavaria.

924 Henry makes a nine years’ truce with the still troublesome Magyars, and pays them yearly tribute.

925 Lorraine is again added to Germany to which it belongs for the next eight centuries.

929 Victory at Lenzen over Wends and Danes.

933 On expiration of truce, Henry refuses further tribute to the Magyars. They make a fresh inroad but are totally defeated by Henry in Thuringia.

936 Henry prepares to go to Rome to claim the imperial crown won by no German since Arnulf. He dies before he can get started. His son by Matilda, =Otto (I) the Great=, is elected to succeed him.

937 An attempted Magyar invasion is repelled, and the invaders turn off into France.

938 Otto quells rebellion of the dukes of Bavaria and Franconia and his own half brother Thankmar, who falls at the battle on the Eresburg.

939 Rebellion of Otto’s brother Henry aided by the duke of Lorraine. They are defeated at Birten, and call on French for help.

941 Henry, forgiven, becomes a firm ally of Otto, and is made duke of Bavaria (946).

944 Otto makes Conrad the Red, duke of Lorraine.

948 Otto appoints his son, Ludolf, duke of Swabia.

946-950 Otto interferes in the civil wars of France.

950 Successful war with the Wends. Submission of the duke of Bohemia.

951 First expedition of Otto into Italy to avenge wrongs of Adelheid. Marriage of Otto and Adelheid. Berengar II submits to Otto.

953 Rebellion of Ludolf and Conrad.

954 First invasion of the Magyars, joined by the rebels. Ludolf and Conrad submit but are deprived of their duchies. Subjection of Bavaria by Henry.

955 Great victory over the Hungarians on the Lechfeld. They do not again invade Germany. Otto conducts a victorious expedition against the Wends. The Bavarian Ostmark (afterwards duchy of Austria) re-established.

961 The pope appeals to Otto for help against Berengar II. Otto goes to Italy and deposes Berengar and Adalbert. Otto’s son Otto II crowned king of Germany.

962 Otto crowned emperor by John XII. Union of the German kingdom and the empire.

THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

THE SAXON EMPERORS (962-1024 A.D.)

Otto discards title of _Rex Francorum Orientalium_ for that of _Imperator Augustus_. The pope realises that Otto will be a hard master and allies himself with the deposed Adalbert.

963 Otto captures Rome and deposes John XII. Leo VIII is elected in his place.

964 The Romans rebel and replace John. Berengar compelled to surrender in an attempt to recover Italy. Death of John and election of Benedict V. Otto takes Rome a second time and restores Leo VIII. He returns to Germany carrying Benedict with him.

967 Otto avenges the deposition of Leo’s successor, John XIII, by great cruelty to the Romans. Otto summons Otto II to Rome, where John XIII gives him the imperial crown. Two great maxims of the empire are established.

(1) The election of the pope to be invalid without consent of emperor.

(2) The German king to be king of Italy and Rome, though not to assume imperial title until crowned by the pope.

968 Invasion of the Greek provinces by Otto on account of difficulties over the marriage arrangements of Otto II and Theophano, daughter of the Byzantine emperor. The matter is pacifically arranged on accession of Joannes Zimisces.

973 Death of Otto I. =Otto II= sole possessor of the royal and imperial titles.

976 Conspiracy of Otto’s cousin, Henry the Wrangler, of Bavaria, who has caused himself to be crowned at Ratisbon. He is defeated and deposed.

977 War with France over Lorraine. Narrow escape of Otto at Aachen.

980 Peace with France. Otto holds Lorraine as a benefice of France.

981 Otto goes to Rome to settle internecine quarrels.

982 Otto invades southern Italy in an attempt to conquer the Byzantine provinces. After a victory he encounters defeat by the Greeks and their Saracen allies in Calabria.

983 The Danes and Wends successfully invade the northern provinces. Death of Otto. His three-year-old son =Otto III= succeeds as king of Germany and Italy. Theophano conducts regency in Germany, and Adelheid in Italy.

991 Death of Theophano. Adelheid and Willigis, archbishop of Cologne, assume regency in Germany.

995 Otto takes up conduct of affairs.

996 Otto summoned to Rome on account of difficulties between the Pope and Crescentius, the Roman consul. Coronation of Otto as emperor by Gregory V. Crescentius swears obedience to Otto, but breaks his oath.

998 Otto comes a second time to Rome and puts Crescentius to death.

999 Otto and Pope Silvester II plan for a great union of the Eastern and Western Empires under Otto.

1000 A widespread belief that the world will end this year brings great troops of pilgrims to Rome. Poland acknowledges the supremacy of the emperor.

1001 Revolt of the Romans.

1002 Death of Otto. The nobles and bishops of Italy at once choose =Arduin=, marquis of Ivrea, king of Italy. He is crowned at Pavia. The Germans, after a bitter contest, elect =Henry II=, son of Henry the Wrangler, king of Germany.

1004 Henry, having pacified Germany, marches against the unpopular Arduin, is proclaimed king of Italy and crowned. The Germans burn Pavia. War with Poland compels Henry to return to Germany without reducing Arduin.

Boleslaw, duke of Poland, has seized Bohemia, and Henry compels him to give it up, but Boleslaw continues to wage war for some years. War with Flanders. Baldwin reduced to submission, but he obtains the country of Valenciennes and a large part of Zeeland.

1014 Henry proceeds a second time against Arduin, who gives up resistance and retires to a monastery. Coronation of Henry as emperor at Rome.

1015 The Normans settle in southern Italy.

1016 Rudolf III of Burgundy surrenders his crown to Henry, holding the kingdom until his death.

1018 Peace made with Poland.

1021 Henry proceeds against the Byzantines in southern Italy. The newly arrived Normans assist him. Capua and Salerno are reduced, but the plague compels him to withdraw (1022). Henry exhorts the Lombards and Normans to expel the Greeks.

1024 Death of Henry without issue.

THE FRANCONIAN OR SALIAN EMPERORS (1024-1137 A.D.)

1024 Election of =Conrad II= of Carinthia to the kingship of Germany. Insurrection in Pavia. The crown of Italy offered to various French nobles, but they refuse it.

1025 Revolt of Duke Ernst of Swabia.

1026 Conrad proceeds to Italy. Crowned king of Italy at Milan. Pavia and Ravenna reduced to submission by force.

1027 Coronation of Conrad as emperor. Schleswig abandoned to the Danes.

1030 Disastrous invasion of the Poles. Ten thousand Germans carried to Poland.

1031 Conrad forces Poles to restore captives and reunites Lusatia to the empire.

1033 Conrad unites Burgundy to the empire after a struggle with a claimant, Count Eudes of Champagne.

1035 Civil war in Lombardy brings Conrad to Italy.

1037 Promulgation of the feudal edict of Conrad. Fruitless siege of Milan. Conrad withdraws on account of pestilence.

1039 Death of Conrad. His son =Henry III=, already crowned king of Germany (1026), succeeds. Height of the imperial power. Civil war in Italy continues.

1041 Campaign against Bretislaw of Bohemia, who offers his country as a fief of the crown.

1042-1044 Campaign against Hungary where German supremacy is first asserted. King Peter becomes a vassal of the empire.

1044 Fall of Milan before Henry.

1046 At council of Sutri Henry deposes the three rival popes, and puts Clement II in the holy see. He also nominates the three succeeding popes.

1047 Clement crowns Henry emperor. Henry goes to southern Italy and invests the Normans with the territories they have conquered. He afterwards repents of this generosity, and helps Leo IX against the encroaching strangers.

1049 After a long struggle with Gottfried of Lorraine the duchy is given to Gerhard, the ancestor of the modern house of Lorraine.

1052 Henry gives up a contest with the great dukes, who fear he is attempting to bring the duchies under his direct authority. He besieges Pressburg for ten months, but suddenly abandons it.

1055 Henry returns to Italy to contend with the powerful duke of Tuscany.

1056 Death of Henry. His son =Henry IV=, six years old, succeeds. He has been crowned king two years before. The empress Agnes is the regent, but she is carefully watched by Henry, archbishop of Augsburg. Rebellion of Otto of Thuringia, against the young king, put down.

1062 Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, abducts the king from the custody of the archbishop of Augsburg. The influence of Agnes ends. Hanno finds a powerful rival in Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen, who controls the supreme power in 1065.

1066 Henry assumes the government. Hanno contrives the banishment of Adalbert.

1069 Recall of Adalbert. Restored to power he influences the Saxons against Henry.

1072 Death of Adalbert, and revolt of the Saxons.

1073 The Saxons cause Henry to flee from the Harzburg. Humiliating peace.

1075 Henry defeats the Saxons on the Unstrut. He dictates his own terms of peace. Henry appeals to Pope Gregory VII to degrade the prelate, who sided with the rebellious Saxons. Gregory responds by calling on the king to answer certain charges brought against him by his subjects. The pope issues a bull against lay investiture.

1076 Henry calls a council at Worms and declares the pope deposed. Gregory excommunicates the king, who is suspended from his royal office by the Diet of Tribur. Beginning of the war of the investitures--ecclesiastical against the civil power.

1077 Deserted by many adherents, Henry humbles himself before the pope at Canossa. The Germans elect =Rudolf of Swabia= king.

1080 After a victory of Rudolf, Gregory recognises him as king. Henry calls a council of the clergy faithful to him. It declares Gregory deposed and elects Clement III. Rudolf slain in battle. Defeat of the army raised by Countess Matilda. Second excommunication of Henry. He at once lays siege to Rome.

1084 Henry takes possession. Gregory shuts himself up in the castle of St. Angelo. Coronation of Henry by the anti-pope Clement III. Robert Guiscard releases Gregory, who dies the following year, at Salerno.

1085 Defeat of Henry by =Hermann of Luxemburg=, who has been elected to succeed Rudolf of Swabia.

1087 Resignation of Hermann. =Eckbert of Meissen= elected to succeed him.

1089 Death of Eckbert. The rebellious faction comes to terms with Henry.

1090 Henry goes to Rome to support the anti-pope Clement III. Mantua captured, but in general he is unsuccessful.

1092 Revolt of Henry’s eldest son Conrad, who has been anointed king of Germany in 1087. Conrad is crowned king of Italy, and promised the imperial crown by the pope on condition that he yield on the great question of investitures.

1096 Henry returns to Germany.

1097 The first band of crusaders crosses Germany.

1099 The Germans declare Conrad deposed as king and elect his brother Henry.

1101 Death of Conrad.

1105 Henry’s son Henry, abetted by Pope Paschal II, rebels against him. The emperor flees to Liège.

1106 Death of Henry IV. =Henry V= succeeds.

1107 Milan makes herself into a republic.

1110 Assured of the support of the German princes, Henry goes to Rome to settle the question of investitures. The Treaty of Sutri, compromising the rights of the church.

1111 The pope refuses to crown Henry on account of this Treaty of Sutri, and Henry imprisons the pope and cardinals. The pope is compelled to bestow the imperial crown.

1112 When Henry leaves, the Lateran council declares the concessions of Sutri invalid and the emperor excommunicated.

1114 Rebellion in Germany headed by Lothair of Saxony and the archbishops of Mainz and of Cologne.

1115 Victory of the rebels near Mansfeld. Contest with the pope over the division of the countess Matilda’s estate.

1116 Henry visits Rome, and causes himself to be recrowned in the absence of Paschal.

1119 Excommunication of Henry and his anti-pope Gregory by Pope Calixtus II.

1122 War of the investitures settled by the Concordat of Worms. It is a compromise, but the papacy remains master of the field. Absolution of Henry.

1125 Henry prepares to attack Rheims, but dies at Nimeguen. =Lothair II of Saxony= elected to succeed him.

1127 War between Frederick of Swabia and Conrad of Franconia, nephews of Henry V. Frederick soon yields his claims in favour of Conrad and the latter enters Lombardy.

1128 Coronation of Conrad as king of Italy.

1130 Alliance of the anti-pope Anacletus and Roger II of Sicily against Lothair.

1132 Lothair goes to Italy against the alliance and Conrad. The latter retires.

1133 Coronation of Lothair as emperor by Innocent II. He receives the allodial possessions of Matilda as a fief from the pope.

1134 Albrecht the Bear conquers Brandenburg.

1135 Conrad and Frederick submit to the emperor.

1137 Siege of Salerno in campaign of Lothair and Innocent II against Roger. Roger driven from Italy. Death of Lothair on his way back to Germany. By this time the supreme power in Germany has been gradually transferred from the emperor to the diet, and the fiefs have been converted into hereditary dominions. End of the Franconian Dynasty.

We interrupt the story of the “Western Empire” or “Holy Roman Empire” at this point partly as a matter of convenience, partly because the empire has ceased to be Roman in any traditional sense of the word. In so far as it remains an empire, it has become essentially German. There is little unity of interest between the northern and the southern domains. Later emperors sometimes fail to come to Italy at all; sometimes come as invaders and conquerors rather than as recognised sovereigns. For a long time the German domains are by no means securely unified, and the Italian states are utterly inharmonious. The story of internecine strife in each of these domains, leading finally, after centuries of contention, to the development of the Italian kingdom and the Austrian and German empires of our own day, will be told in later volumes.