volume VII of his Bibliotheca Græca, Hamburg, 1705-1728, 14 vols.

_Georgius Monachus_ (George the Monk), probably lived in the tenth century, and compiled a chronicle which comprehends the period from 813 to 948 A.D., being a continuation of Theophanes Isaurus.

=Georgius Syncellus=, Ἐκλογὴ Χρονογραφίας συνταγεῖσα ὑπὸ Γεωργίου Μοναχοῦ Συγκέλλου γεγονότος Ταρασίου Πατριάρχου Κωνσταντινουπόλεως ἀπὸ Ἀδὰμ μέχρι Διολητιανοῦ, first printed in the Bonn “Corpus.”

_George Syncellus_, Albas or Monachus, lived in the eighth and ninth centuries, and gained his epithet as being the personal attendant or _syncellus_ of the patriarch Tarsasius, who died in 806. His chronicle extends from Adam to Diocletian, but was intended to proceed to 800 A.D., Theophanes of Isaurus actually continuing it to 811. The chronicle of Syncellus is, together with Eusebius, the most important work for a knowledge of Christian chronography.

=Glycas=, Michael, Βίβλος χρονική (Annales), edited by J. Meurius, Theodori Metochitæ, Historiæ Romanæ, etc., Leyden, 1618; Latin translation by Leunclavius, Basel, 1572.

_Michael Glycas_ was born either at Constantinople or in Sicily, but nothing is certain about his personality or period. His _Annals_, from the Creation, go down to the year 1118, so that he must have lived after that date. He writes clearly and concisely, and displays a knowledge of foreign languages. Meurius, in his edition, erroneously ascribed the book to Theodorus Metochita.

=Gregoras Nicephorus=, Ῥωμαϊκὴ ἱστορία, edited by H. Wolf, with a Latin translation, Basel, 1562.

_Gregoras_ (1295-1359) led a life of literary activity which covered nearly all fields of Byzantine learning. His history is a continuation of the work of Pachymeres, and commences with the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204 and goes down to 1359.

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=Hankius=, Martin, De Byzantinarum rerum scriptoribus Græcis, Leipsic, 1677.--=Hesychius of Miletus=, Opuscula, edited by Junius, with a Latin version, Antwerp, 1572; by Meursius, Leyden, 1613; by J. C. Orellius, Leipsic, 1820.

_Hesychius_, called the Illustrious, was born at Miletus, and lived in the times of the emperors Anastasius I, Justin I, and Justinian II. Accounts of his personality are vague, but he is known to be the author of the following works: Ἱστορία Ῥωμαϊκή τε καὶ παντοδαπή, or Χρονικὴ ἱστορία, a synopsis of world history, from the time of Belus, the alleged founder of the Assyrian Empire (1402 B.C.), to the death of Anastasius I in 518; Ὀνοματολόγος ἢ πίναξ τῶν ἐν παιδείᾳ ὀνομαστῶν, which comprises biographies of Hellenic writers, but of which only fragments were preserved; Πάτρια Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, a book on the primitive history of the city of Byzantium which originally formed part of his history.

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=Joannes VI, Cantacuzenus=, Ἱστοριῶν βιβλία Δ, published by Gretserus, with a Latin translation by Jacob Pontanus, Ingolstadt, 1603; edited by Pierre Seguier, Paris, 1645.

_Joannes Angelus Comnenus Palæologus Cantacuzenus_, emperor of Constantinople from 1342 to 1355, is also sometimes styled Joannes VI, being confused with his ward and rival of the same name, who, nominally succeeding in 1342, did not actually rule until 1355. Cantacuzenus’ history covers the period from 1320 to 1357, including his own reign. Its style is easy, dignified, and discriminative, but often vain and hypocritical when relating to his own life or friends. It should be compared with the work of Nicephorus Gregoras, who writes of the same period. Cantacuzenus also wrote a confutation of Mohammedanism.

=Joannes of Antioch=, Ἱστορία Χρονική ἀπὸ Ἁδάμ. (Historia Chronographica ab Adamo), edited by Valesius in his Excerpta, Paris, 1634.

_Joannes of Antioch_ wrote a chronicle at a period conjectured to be about 620 A.D. Nothing is known of his personal life, but Gelzer is inclined to identify him with the patriarch John of Antioch (631-649). His history, commencing with Adam, must have been written after the death of Phocas in 610, for he describes that ruler as “bloodthirsty,” “ὁ αὐτὸς Φωκᾶς ὑπῆρχεν αἰμοπότης.”

=Joannes of Epiphaneia=, Ἰωάννου σχολαστικοῦ καὶ ἀπὸ ἐπάρχων Ἐπιφανέως περὶ τῆς τοῦ νέου Χοσρόου προσχωρήσεως πρὸς Μαυρίκιον τὸν Ῥωμαίων αὑτοκράτορα ἱστοριῶν τόμος ά, edited by B. Hase (with Leo Diaconus), Paris, 1819; by C. Müller, in his Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum, Paris, 1841-1870, 5 vols. (new edition 1883); by L. Dindorf, in his Historici Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.

_Joannes of Epiphaneia_ flourished at the end of the sixth century, and his history deals with the Byzantine affairs from Justinian to Maurice. The manuscript of his work dates from the thirteenth century, and is in the Vatican.

=Joannes Laurentius=, Περὶ μηνῶν συγγραφή (De Mensibus Liber), edited by Nicolaus Schow, Leipsic, 1794.

_Joannes Laurentius_, of Philadelphia, was a Byzantine poet of the sixth century, but his poems have not survived. His historical commentary on the Roman calendar, named above, is compiled from numerous sources, mostly otherwise unknown. He also wrote Περὶ ἀρχῶν τῆς Ῥωμαίων πολιτείας (De Magistratibus Reipublicæ Romanæ), in which he gives an unfavourable picture of the emperor Zeno.

=Joannes Siculus=, Die Chronik des Johannes Sikeliota, edited by A. Heinrich, Gratz, 1892.

_Joannes Siculus_ is supposed to have written a compendium of history from the Creation to Michael III, 866 A.D., or perhaps 1204. Much of the work is lost, the extant portion breaking off in the midst of the Trojan War, after reciting the ancient history of the Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, Jews, Persians, and Ptolemeans.

=Joel=, Χρονογράφια ἐν συνόψει, first edited by Leo Allatius in the Paris “Corpus.”

_Joel_ lived in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and wrote a synopsis of the most important events of history, as known to him, laying stress on Byzantine affairs. The scope of the work is from Adam to 1204 A.D.

=John of Ephesus=, Ἱστορία ἐκκλησιάστικη, The third Book of the Ecclesiastical History of John, Bishop of Ephesus, edited by William Cureton, Oxford, 1853 (other fragments have been edited by J. P. N. Land, the Dutch historian, in his Anecdota Syriaca, Leyden, 1856, 4 vols.).

_John_, bishop of Asia, or Ephesus, was born at Amid about 505. He led the Monophysite party and enjoyed the favour of Justinian. The third book of his history commences with the persecution under Justin in 571. He tells us that, “Most of these histories were written at the very time when the persecution was going on, and under the difficulties caused by its pressure; and it was even necessary that friends should remove the leaves on which these chapters were inscribed, and every other particle of writing, and conceal them in various places, where they sometimes remained for two or three years. When therefore matters occurred which the writer wished to record, it was possible that he might have partly spoken of them before, but he had no papers or notes by which to read and know whether they had been described or not. If therefore he did not remember that he had recorded them, at some subsequent time he probably again proceeded to their detail; and therefore occasionally the same subject is recorded in more chapters than one; nor afterwards did he ever find a fitting time for plainly and clearly arranging them in an orderly narrative.” This extract explains the cause of the confused condition of the _History_. John died in about his eightieth year. The first book of his history has been lost, the second is only in fragments; but a manuscript of the third, in the British Museum, is fairly complete.

=Julianus, Flavius Claudius=, Orationes, edited by P. Martinius and C. Cantoclarus, in their edition of Julian’s works, Paris, 1583; by Petavius, Paris, 1630; by Ezechiel Spanheim, Leipsic, 1696. (The orations have also been published separately.)

_Flavius Claudius Julianus_, better known as Julian the Apostate, was born at Constantinople, November 17th, 331. Julian, great as an emperor, was remarkable as an author. He wrote an immense number of elaborate works on varied subjects which are important sources of information regarding the religion and philosophy of his period. The _Orations_ of Julian are historically valuable, especially those dealing with the family of Constantine. He also deals in them with Platonic philosophy and sun-worship, and betrays in many ways his affection for Paganism as opposed to Christianity.

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=Leo Diaconus=, Ἱστορία βιβλίοις ύ, edited by C. B. Hase, with a Latin translation, Paris, 1818.

_Leo Diaconus_ lived in the tenth century, and was a native of Caloë, near Mt. Tmolus. He was a student at Constantinople in 966, and he served as military chaplain under Basilius II in the war against the Bulgarians (986). His history embraces the period between 959-975. Honest and fearless when relating contemporary events, the history, although badly written, and inaccurate on geography and classical history is important, since the author is the only contemporary writer on one of the most brilliant and successful periods of Byzantine history, that of Nicephorus Phocas and Joannes Zimisces. The book contains valuable data on the history and customs of the Bulgarians and Russians, on which Leo is the oldest authority.

=Leo Grammaticus=, Χρονογραφία, τὰ τῶν νέων Βασιλέων περιέχουτα (Chronographia Res a Recentioribus Imperatoribus Gestas Complectens), first printed in the Paris “Corpus.”

_Leo Grammaticus_ was one of the continuators of Theophanes. Nothing certain is known of his life. His Chronicles extend from 813 A.D. to the death of Romanus Lecapenus in 948, or 949.

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=Malalas=, Joannes, Χρονογραφία, edited by Edmund Chilmead, with a Latin translation, Oxford, 1691.

_Joannes Malalas_ (Malelas) was born at Antioch, most probably at about the time of Justinian the Great (528-565), although some authorities assign him to the ninth century. His voluminous chronicle originally began with the creation of the world, but the commencement is lost, and the extant portion begins with the death of Vulcanus and the accession of his son Sol, and finishes with the expedition of Marcianus the nephew of Justinian the Great. Malalas relates much that is absurd, but his account of Justinian is valuable and his work is extremely important as being the first to represent the type of a Christian-Byzantine monk’s chronicle, which is so important in the history of literature. The book is also the first important monument of the popular Grecised idiom, and hence has great philological interest. The influence of Malalas on later Byzantine, oriental, and even western annalists is immeasurable. For six centuries he was so copied and recopied, that the original work became superfluous and now there is only one manuscript of it in existence.

=Malchus Philadelphus=, Βυζανταϊκα, printed in the Bonn “Corpus” (Excerpta).

_Malchus Philadelphus_, born in Syria, and a rhetorician of Constantinople, wrote a history which was used in the _Excerpta de Legationibus_, a compilation undertaken by order of Constantine VII, Porphyrogenitus. The portion of his work of which we have knowledge comprehends only the period from 473 to 480 A.D., this part having been preserved by Photius.

=Manasses=, Constantinus, Σύνοψις ἱστορική, Latin version by Leunclavius, Basel, 1573; edited by J. Meursius, Leyden, 1616; translated into Slavonic by V. Jagíc, in the Archiv für slavische Philologie, Berlin, 1877; and by J. Bogdan, in his Vechile cronice Moldovenesci pana la Urechia, Bukarest, 1891.

_Constantinus Manasses_ lived under the emperor Manuel Comnenus in the middle of the twelfth century, and composed several works in both rhyme and prose. His history, curiously written in a kind of rhythmical prose (“political verse”), is a chronicle from the Creation to the accession of Alexis I in 1081. The edition of Meurius was dedicated to Gustavus Adolphus.

=Menander Protector=, Ἱστορία, edited by Angelo Mai, in his Scriptorum Veterum nova collectio, vol. II, Rome, 1825-1838, 10 vols.; edited by C. Müller, in his Fragmenta Historicum Græcorum, vol. IV, Paris, 1841-1870, 5 vols., new edition 1883; by L. Dindorf, in his Historici Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.

_Menander Protector_ was born at Byzantium in the middle of the sixth century. As a historian, he wrote a continuation of Agathias, from 558 to 582, and in his turn he was continued by Theophylactus Simocatta. Menander is often quoted by Suidas and is one of the best sources for the history of the sixth century.

=Michael Panaretus=, Περὶ τῶν τῆς Τραπεζοῦντος βασιλέων, τῶν Μεγάλων Κομνῃνῶν, ὅπως καὶ πότς καὶ πόσον ἕκαστος ἐβασιλευσεν, edited by L. F. Tafel, in his Eustathii Metropolitæ Thessalonicensis opuscula etc., Frankfort, 1832; and by Ph. Fallmerayer, in the Abhandlungen of the Academy of Bavaria, 1844.

_Michael Panaretus_ lived in the first half of the fifteenth century and gives a chronicle of the empire of Trebizond from 1204 to 1426. He was an eye-witness of many of the events described, and is particularly valuable on this account.

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=Neophytus=, Νεοφύτου πρεσβυτέρου μοναχοῦ καὶ ἐγκλειστοῦ περὶ τῶν κατὰ τὴν χώραν Κύπρον σκαιῶν (Neophyti Presbyteri Monachi et Inclusi, De Calamitatibus Cypri), edited by J. B. Cotelier, in his Ecclesiæ Græcæ Monumenta, Paris, 1677-1686, 3 vols.

_Neophytus_ was born in 1134 and lived as priest and monk in his native Cyprus. His epistle, as named above, gives an account of the usurpation of Cyprus by Isaac Comnenus and of the imprisonment of Isaac by Richard Cœur-de-Lion.

=Nicephorus Callistus Xantoupulus=, Historia Ecclesiastica, Latin version, edited by Joh. Lang, Basel, 1553; reprinted with scholia, 1560 (61); Antwerp, 1560; Paris, 1562, 1566, 1573; Frankfort, 1588; Greek text, with Lang’s translation, Paris, 1630, 2 vols.

_Nicephorus Callistus Xantoupulus_ died about 1350, and the date of his birth has been inferred as about 1290. There are now extant eighteen of the twenty-three books of his ecclesiastical history, which was compiled from Eusebius, Evagrius, and other writers, and covers the period from the time of Christ to the death of Phocas in 610. The work is characterised by its elegant style, which is far above that of his contemporaries. The author’s credulity and lack of judgment, however, cause the book to abound in fables.

=Nicephorus, Patriarcha=, Κωνσταντινουπόλεως Ἱστορία σύντομος (Breviarum Historicum), edited, with Latin version, by D. Patavius, Paris, 1616; translated into French by Monterole, Paris, 1618, and by F. Morel, Paris, 1634; Χρονογραφικὸν σύντομον, edited by Jos. Scaliger, in his Thesaurus Temporum, Leyden, 1606; by J. Camerarius, in a Latin version, Basel, 1561.

_Nicephorus_, patriarch of Constantinople from 806 to 815, when he was deposed by Leo Armenus, was born in 758, and held the office of notary to the emperor Constantine VI. His _Breviarum_ begins with the murder of Maurice in 602 and is continued to the marriage of Leo IV in 770. The Chronology begins with Adam and is brought down to the death-year of the author, 828. Nicephorus is sometimes styled “Confessor” on account of his firm opposition to the iconoclasts.

=Nicetas Acominatus=, Ἱστορία, edited by H. Wolf, with a Latin version, Basel, 1457, and by Simon Goulartius, Geneva, 1593.

_Nicetas Acominatus_, was born at Chonæ, Phrygia, in the middle of the twelfth century, and died at Nicæa, Bithynia, about 1216. He held high offices under Isaac II Angelus; and was at the taking of Constantinople in 1204, of which he relates an impressive account. His history in continuation of Zonares is in ten corollaries of 21 books and deals with the Eastern emperors from 1180 to 1206. In style at times bombastic, Nicetas is deeply incensed against the Latin conquerors, but he is impartial as to his facts.

=Nonnosus=, Ἱστορία, edited by C. Müller, in his Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum, Paris, 1841-1870, 5 vols., new edition 1883; by L. Dindorf, in his Historici Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.

_Nonnosus_, who wrote a history of an embassy he undertook to the Saracens in 533, lived under Justinian I. His original work has perished, and exists only as an abridgment preserved by Photius.

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=Pachymeres=, Georgius, Historia Byzantina, edited by P. Possimus, Greek and Latin text, Rome, 1666-1669, 7 vols.

_Georgius Pachymeres_ was born about 1242 at Nicæa, whither his father had fled after the capture of Constantinople in 1204. After the recapture of the city, Pachymeres went there to study divinity and law, and became advocate general of the Eastern Church and chief justice. He was also employed diplomatically, and died either in 1310 or 1340. His portrait in wood-cut, alleged to be derived from an old manuscript is in Wolf’s edition of Nicephorus Gregoras, Basel, 1562. Pachymeres wrote a number of works, mainly philosophical, but the most important is his history, continuing that of Acropolita, in thirteen books, comprising the histories of the emperors Michael Palæologus and Andronicus Palæologus. It is written with calmness, dignity, and a fair amount of impartiality; but the work is often marred by the introduction of dogmatic theology in which the author seemed to take a keen delight. He was indeed the first Byzantine historian to deal with the history of a highly dogmatic age. Pachymeres was continued by Gregoras Nicephorus.

=Petrus Patricius=, Ἱστορίαι, edited by L. Dindorf, in his Historici Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.

_Petrus Patricius_, was born at Thessalonica, in the year 500. He was employed in the diplomatic service by Justinian I, and died about 562 A.D. His history is supposed to include the period from the second Triumvirate to a little later than the time of Constantine the Great, although only the part extending to the reign of Julian is expressly attributed to him. The rest is from an excerpt _De sententiis_ the conclusion of which is usually called Anonymus post Dionem. Only extracts from it are preserved. Petrus also wrote a work entitled, περὶ πολιτικῆς καταστάσεως, i.e. on state organisation.

=Photius=, Μυριποβιβλου ἤ Βιβλιοθήκη, edited by David Hoeschelius, Augsburg, 1601; Latin version by A. Schottus, Augsburg, 1606; Greek and Latin reprints, Geneva, 1612, and Rouen, 1653; revised Greek text by L. Bekker, Berlin, 1821-1825.

_Photius_ was related by marriage to the emperor Theophilus, and in 858 was irregularly elected to the patriarchate of Constantinople, a circumstance which ultimately led to the separation of the Eastern and Western churches. These events will be fully detailed in volume VIII, in our account of the Papacy. Photius was a man of remarkable intellectual endowment, and held many high offices. His writings for these reasons are extremely valuable. His Βιβλιοθήκα is a comprehensive review of the then existent Greek literature, including historians, civil and ecclesiastical, biographers, philosophers, orators, poets, and story writers. Photius has thus preserved accounts of many writers and works that have otherwise been lost, including portions of the writings of such men as Demosthenes, Diodorus Siculus, Hyperides, and Lycurgus. Photius also wrote a number of theological and ecclesiastical works, a lexicon, and a great number of letters, all valuable for their pictures of the mentality of the age.

=Phranzes=, Georgios, Χρονικόν Γεωργίου Φραντζῆ τοῦ προτοβεστιαρίου … Νῦν προῶτον ἐκδοθὲν ἐπιμελείᾳ φραγκίστου Καρόλου Αλτερ (Alter), Vienna, 1796; Latin translation by Jacob Pontanus, Ingolstadt, 1604.

_Georgius Phranzes_, the last of the Byzantine historians lived during the fifteenth century and held high official position under Constantine XIII. After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks he entered a monastery, where he composed his Chronikon, which is a valuable authority for the details of the capture of Constantinople, and extends from 1259 to 1477. He is trustworthy when dealing with contemporary events, but indulges in long digressions. Professor Alter’s edition is the standard; the translation of Pontanus was characterised by Gibbon as “deficient in accuracy and elegance.”

=Priscus=, Ἱστορία Βυζαντικὴ καὶ κατὰ Ἀττήλαν, fragments edited by D. Hoeschelius, Augsburg, 1603, Latin translations by C. Cantoclarus, Paris, 1609; both reprinted by Fabrot in his Excerpta de Legationibus, Paris, 1648; and in Labbé’s Protrephticon, Paris, 1648.

_Priscus_, an early Byzantine historian, was born in Thrace. We know hardly anything of his life, except for the years 445-447, when he was at the court of Attila as ambassador for Theodosius the Younger. His account of Attila was therefore first hand, but unfortunately only fragments of it have been preserved.

=Procopius=, Ἱστορικὸν ἐν βιβλίοις ὀκτώ, edited by Petrus Pithœus, in his Codex Legum Wisigothorum, Paris, 1559; edited by D. Hoeschelius, Augsburg, 1676; edited by B. Vulcanius, in his Scriptores Gothicarum, Leyden, 1597, 1617; Latin version (claimed as original work by Leonardo Aretino), De bello Italico adversus Gothos gesto, Foligno, 1470, Venice, 1471; translated into English by H. Holcroft, London, 1653; Ἀνέκδοτα (Historia Arcana), edited by N. Allemannus, with a Latin version, Lyons, 1623; Cologne, 1669; edited by Joh. Eichelius, Helmstadt, 1654; translated into English, London, 1674; Κτίσματα (Libri VI de Ædificus conditis vel restoratis auspicio Justiniani), edited by J. Hervagius, Basel, 1531, Paris, 1543; with a Latin translation by F. Craneveld, Paris, 1537.

_Procopius_, the most important late Greek-Byzantine historian, was born at Cæsarea, in the beginning of the sixth century. After studying at Constantinople, his natural gifts gained him, in 527, a position as secretary to Belisarius, whom he accompanied in his several wars. He also served with distinction under Justinian, who created him prefect of Constantinople in 562. His literary work was extensive, and much dispute has centred around his name, some claiming, for instance, that he was a physician on account of his minute description of the plague. His _History_, is by far his most important work, dealing with the period 408-554, his description of his own times being written in a faithful and masterly manner. Indeed, he is said to have kept a diary when he accompanied Belisarius upon his expeditions against the Vandals. His history was continued by Agathias. The Κτίσματα is an interesting account of the architectural endeavours of Justinian, somewhat flattering to the emperor’s memory, but written with a full knowledge of the architectural art. The Ἀνέκδοτα is a collection of witty and curious stories--court scandal mostly--the authorship of which is generally ascribed to Procopius, though some have doubted that it could be the work of a grave statesman and historian.

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=Scylitzes=, Joannes, Σύνοψις ἱστοριῶν συγγραφεῖσα παρὰ Ἰωάννου κουροπαλάτου καὶ μεγάλου δρουγγαρίου τῆς Βίγλας τοῦ Σκυλίτζη (Synopsis Historiarum Scripta a Joanne Scylitze Curopalata et Magno Drungario Vigiliæ), translated into Latin by J. B. Gabius, Venice, 1570.

_Joannes Scylitzes_, surnamed _Curopalates_, held high official positions at the Byzantine court as late as 1081. The history now attributed to him, and of which the complete Greek text has never been published, resembles that of Cedrenus in several ways, and his claim to original authorship used to be hotly disputed. It is, however, now generally conceded that Cedrenus was the copyist. The chronicle includes the period from 811-1079.

=Sicilian History=, edited by F. Batiffol with a Latin translation, in the Comtes Rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris, 1890.

This work, by an unknown Greek, gives events in Sicily from 827 to 965. The Greek text is preserved in two manuscripts,--Cod. Vatic. 1912 and Cod. Paris, suppl. gr. 920. An old Arabic manuscript at Cambridge has been recently proved to be a translation of this history.

=Symeon Metaphrastes=, Χρονογραφία (Annales), in the Paris, Venice, and Bonn “Corpora.”

_Symeon Metaphrastes_, also called _Magister_ and _Logotheta_, lived in the second half of the tenth century, and served as chief secretary of state under Leo VI and Constantine VII. He was a voluminous writer and compiler, and his _Sanctorum Vitæ_ gives the biographies of nearly seven hundred saints. His _Annals_ cover the period from Leo V, 813 A.D., to Romanus II, 960. His _Chronicle_, a work somewhat different from the _Annals_, has never been published, and is contained in a number of manuscripts with varying titles.

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=Themistius=, Πολιτικοὶ λόγοι, edited by Aldus, Venice, 1534, and by Dindorf, Leipsic, 1832; Latin version by Hermolaus Barbarus, Venice, 1481, and often reprinted.

_Themistius_, philosopher and rhetorician, lived at Constantinople and Rome in the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius, all of whom regarded him with favour. He became a senator, and in the reign of Theodosius was appointed prefect of Constantinople. He was frequently employed on embassies and in other public business. Besides various philosophical works, thirty-five of his orations survive, several being congratulatory addresses to the emperors Constantius, Valentinianus, and Valens. He died about the year 390 A.D.

=Theodorus Anagnostes (Lector)=, Ἐκκλησιαστική ἱστορία, edited by R. Stephens, in his Excerpta, Paris, 1544; by Christopherson, with a Latin version, Geneva, 1612; by H. Valesius, Paris, 1673; reprinted, Cambridge, 1720; Turin, 1748.

_Theodorus Anagnostes (Lector)_ lived probably in the reign of Justin I or Justinian I, and wrote a compendium of church histories from Constantine the Great to the death of Constantius II. His _Historia_ covers the period from Theodosius the Younger to Justin I or Justinian I, but it survives only in extracts by Nicephorus Callistus (fourteenth century), by Joannes Damascenus, and others. He is the chief authority for the reign of the emperors Zeno and Anastasius.

=Theodorus=, bishop of Cyzicus, Χρονικόν.

_Theodorus of Cyzicus_ was supposed to be the author of a chronicle of the world from Adam to the reconquest of Constantinople in 1261, but very little is known of his personality, and his work exists only in fragments, which have never been published.

=Theodosius of Syracuse=, Θεοδοσίου μοναχοῦ τοῦ καὶ γραμματικοῦ ἐπιστολὴ πρὸς Λέοντα διάκονον περὶ τῆς ἁλώσεως Συρακούσης, edited by B. Hase (with Leo Diaconus), Paris, 1819.

_Theodosius_ was a monk of Syracuse, taken away as a captive to Panormo when the Saracens took Syracuse in 880. While the events of the catastrophe were fresh in his memory, he committed them to writing in the form of a letter to Leo Diaconus.

=Theophanes= of Byzantium, Ἱστορικῶν λόγοι δέκα, fragments edited by C. Müller, in his Fragmentorum Historicorum Græecorum, vol. IV, Paris, 1841-1870, 5 vols., new edition, 1883; by L. Dindorf, in his Historici Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.

_Theophanes_ of Byzantium lived probably in the sixth century. His history deals with the Persian War under Justin II, from the breaking of the truce with Chosroes in 567, and going down to the tenth year of the war. Theophanes preserved the record of the bringing of the silkworm to Italy, the Romans not knowing previously that silk was the product of an insect.

=Theophanes Isaurus=, Χρονικόν, edited by J. Goar, Paris, 1655.

_Theophanes Isaurus_, named also the Confessor, was born of noble parentage during the reign of Constantine V (741-775), and while a youth married the daughter of Leo the Patrician. After discharging sundry public offices he retired from the world and founded a monastery, his wife going into a convent. He attended the Council of Nicæa in 787, where he vehemently defended image worship, and when, in 813, he was called upon to recant his views, he preferred imprisonment and banishment. His history begins with Diocletian, 284 A.D., at the point where Georgius Syncellus stopped, and continues to 813, the time of his imprisonment, his death occurring in 818. The work is of no high order, but is valuable in the absence of better sources of information. His accounts of the affairs of the Eastern Empire are far more trustworthy than those relating to the Western Empire, in regard to which he makes the most extraordinary mistakes. A continuation of Theophanes’ _Chronicle_ was prepared at the command of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, and has come down to us under the title of Χρονογραφία συγγραφεῖσα ἐκ προστάγματος Κωνσταντίνου τοῦ φιλοχρλιστου δεσπότου καὶ αὐτοράτορος … ἀρχομένη ὅπου ἔληξε Θεοφάνης … τω βασιλεῖ Μιχαὴλ υἱοῦ Θεοφίλου τοῦ κουροπαλάτου, ἤγουν ἀπο τῆς βασιλεάς Λέοντος τοῦ Ἀρμενίου (Scriptores post Theophanen), edited by Leo Allatius, in his Σύμμικτα, Cologne, 1653; and by Combesius, in the Paris “Corpus.” The period dealt with is 813-961, and the compilation is by sundry anonymous writers. Georgius Monachus and Leo Grammaticus also took up his history from 813.

=Theophilus Abbas=, Life of Justinian, edited by James Bryce, in the Archivio Storico of the Società Romana de Storia Patria, Rome, 1887.

_Theophilus Abbas_ was cited by N. Allemannus, in his _Anecdota_, published in 1623, as the author of a life of Justinian. Nothing, however, was known of the work or of the author until 1887, when Mr. Bryce discovered the work in manuscript in the Barberini Library, Rome. The manuscript purports to be extracted from an original Slavonic manuscript, but the work appears to be of such a legendary character as not to be of much historical value. This Theophilus is not at all to be identified with the jurist Theophilus, who aided Justinian in the drawing up of his Code.

=Theophylactus Simocatta=, Ἱστορία οἰκουμενή, edited by B. Vulcanius, Leyden, 1596; by Jacob Pontanus, with a Latin version, Ingolstadt, 1604; translated into French by F. Morel, Paris, 1603, 1608.

_Theophylactus Simocatta_ was of Egyptian descent, but was born in Locria. He is known to have held public office under Heraclius about 610-629 A.D. His history, in continuation of Menander’s, deals with the life of the emperor Maurice, who reigned from 582 to 602, and is the oldest and best authority on the period. It is related that when the author read a passage from his work after the death of the emperor, the audience was moved to tears.

* * * * *

=Xiphilinus=, Joannes, Ἐπιτωμή, edited by Leunclavius, Frankfort, 1592; (see also Dion-Cassius, whose works were abridged by Xiphilinus).

_Xiphilinus_ of Trapezus, the historian, was a nephew of the patriarch of the same name, and lived in the second half of the 11th century. He made, at the command of Michael VII Ducas (1071-1078), an epitome of Dion-Cassius, which unfortunately includes only books 61-80, because the earlier ones were lacking in the copy of Dion used by Xiphilinus. His copy was incomplete in other places also. The work is of value as preserving the main facts of the original, the greater part of which is lost, for from book 61-80 of the History of Rome of Dion-Cassius we have only the abridgment made by Xiphilinus, and some other epitomes which were probably made by the same person who epitomised the portion from the 55th to the 60th book.

* * * * *

=Zonaras=, Joannes, Χρονικόν (Annales), edited by H. Wolf, Basel, 1557, 3 vols.

_Joannes Zonaras_ lived in the twelfth century under the emperors Alexis I Comnenus and Calo-Joannes. His _Chronicle_ is in eighteen books, and extends from the creation of the world to the death of Alexis in A.D. 1118. It is compiled from various Greek authors, such as Josephus and Dion-Cassius. Of the first twenty books of Dion-Cassius we have nothing but the abstract of Zonaras. In the latter part of his work Zonaras wrote as an eye-witness of the events which he describes. Zonaras, who also wrote a lexicon and other works, was continued by Nicetas Acominatus.

=Zosimus=, Ἱστορία νεα, edited by F. Sylberg, in his Scriptores Historiæ Romanæ Minores, Frankfort, 1590; by Ludwig Mendelssohn Dorpat, 1887; Latin translation by Leunclavius, Basel, 1756; English translation, The History of Count Zosimus, London, 1814.

_Zosimus_ lived in the age of Theodosius the Younger (408-450), and probably resided at Constantinople. His history of the Roman empire, in six books, must have been written after the year 425, as appears from a record of that year, although the period actually covered by the history is from the death of Commodus (192 A.D.) to 410. It is mainly a compilation from previous historians, but when giving judgment he is strongly biased in favour of Paganism and against Constantine, Theodosius, and other champions of Christianity. He has a great love of the marvellous and his chronology is confused.

_C. Modern Works_

=Abel=, Sigurd, Der Untergang des Langobardenreichs in Italien, Göttingen, 1859.--=Adams=, W. H. D., Remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum, London, 1868; 2nd edition, 1878.--=Allcroft=, A. H., The Making of the Monarchy, London, 1893; (in collaboration with W. F. Masom), Rome under the Oligarchs, London, 1892; Tutorial History of Rome to 14 A.D., London, 1895.--=Aly=, F., Cicero, sein Leben und seine Schriften, Berlin, 1891.--=Alzog=, J. B., Lehrbuch der Universalgeschichte der christlichen Kirche, Mayence, 1840.--=Ampère=, J. J. A., L’histoire romaine à Rome, Paris, 1861-1864; L’empire romaine à Rome, Paris, 1867, 4 vols.

_Jean Jacques Antoine Ampère_, French historian, born at Lyons, August 12th, 1800, died at Pau, March 27th, 1864. He was professor in the College of France and a member of the French Academy. In his book Ampère has tried to reconstruct Roman history from Roman monuments, and the first half is given up to the period of the kings. The work is rather ingenious than convincing, being based largely on conjecture, but it is full of scholarship and artistic enthusiasm.

=Arnold=, Thomas, History of Rome, London, 1840-1843; 1882; History of the Later Roman Commonwealth, London, 1882, 2 vols.; The Second Punic War, edited by W. T. Arnold, London, 1886.

_Thomas Arnold_, born at West Cowes, Isle of Wight, June 13th, 1795, was educated at Winchester and Oxford, being elected fellow of Oriel in 1815. He resided at Oxford until 1819, devoting himself to historical and theological studies. Upon leaving the university he settled in Laleham, where his spare time was occupied with the study of Thucydides and the new light which had been thrown on Roman history and historical method generally by the researches of Niebuhr. In August, 1828, he entered upon his duties as head-master of Rugby. Under his superintendence this school became a sphere of intellectual, moral, and religious discipline, where healthy character was formed and men fitted for the duties and responsibilities of life. In 1841 he was appointed to the chair of modern history at Oxford, where he had delivered eight lectures, when he died very suddenly June 12th, 1842.

Owing to the author’s death his _History of Rome_ was not completed beyond the Spanish campaign in the Second Punic War (to B.C. 241). Based on Niebuhr, whose theories on early Roman history have now been abandoned, the book is thus superseded by several more recent ones, though its account of the Punic wars is as satisfactory as any in the English language. The memory of Arnold has been idealised in _Tom Brown’s Schooldays_, a novel by Thomas Hughes (1822-1896), who was educated under Arnold at Rugby.

=Arnold=, W. T., The Roman System of Provincial Administration, London, 1879.

This work well shows the greatness of the Romans in the administration of provincial affairs. The author was a grandson of Thomas Arnold.

=Aschbach=, Jos., Geschichte der Westgothen, Frankfort, 1827.--=Assemann=, W., Handbuch der allgemeinen Geschichte, Brunswick, 1853-1864, 6 vols.--=Aube=, Barthélemy, Histoire des persécutions de l’Église, Paris, 1875, 2 vols.--=Aube=, Benjamin, Les chrétiens dans l’empire romain de la fin des Antonins jusqu’au milieu du IIIᵐᵉ siècle, Paris, 1881.

* * * * *

=Babelon=, E. C. F., Description historique et chronologique des monnaies de la république romaine, Paris, 1885-1886, 2 vols.--=Bähr=, J. C. F., Geschichte der römischen Litteratur, Carlsruhe, 1828; 4th edition, 1868-1873, 3 vols.--=Baring-Gould=, S., The Tragedy of the Cæsars, London, 1892.--=Beaufort=, Louis de, Dissertation sur l’incertitude des cinq premiers siècles de l’histoire romaine, Paris and Utrecht, 1738; 2nd edition, 1866; English translation, London, 1738; Histoire de la république romaine, Paris, 1766.--=Becker=, W. A., Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1843-1846, 2 vols. (continued by Marquardt, which see); Gallus, oder römische Scenen aus der Zeit Augustus, Berlin, 1880-1882, 3 vols.; English translation, Gallus: Roman Scenes in the Time of Augustus, London, 1882 (in Becker’s _Gallus_ Roman life is represented much in the same way as Greek life is pictured in his _Charicles_).

_Wilhelm Adolf Becker_ was born at Dresden, 1796, and died at Meissen, September 30th, 1846. His handbook satisfied a need which was keenly felt towards the middle of the last century. The activity in the investigation of old Roman antiquities called forth by Niebuhr demanded a work giving a general survey of the certified results of previous investigation. This is precisely what the _Handbuch_ did. Single items were carefully examined and placed in their proper position, and the whole was accompanied by valuable notes giving the most important sources, a study of which had led the author to his positions, and giving also opinions differing from his, so that the book served as a guide to further independent study. The work was long considered indispensable to specialists, though it has of late years been superseded somewhat by the works of Mommsen. For biographical purposes it is still of great value.

=Beesly=, A. H., The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla, London, 1877.--=Beesly=, Edward S., Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius, London, 1878.--=Bekker=, A., Corpus Scriptorum Historiæ Byzantinæ; see Byzantine History.--=Beloch=, Julius, Campanien, Geschichte und Topographie des antiken Neapel und seiner Umgebung, Berlin, 1879; Breslau, 1890.--=Bergk=, Theodor, Kritische Bearbeitung des _Monumentum Ancyranum_, Göttingen, 1873.--=Bethmann-Hollweg=, M. A., Gerichtsverfassung und Prozess des sinkenden römischen Reiches, Bonn, 1834.--=Bickersteth=, A., Outlines of Roman History, London, 1891.--=Binding=, Karl, Geschichte des burgundisch-romanischen Königreichs, Leipsic, 1868.--=Block=, G., Les origines du sénat romain, Paris, 1883.--=Blondel=, J. E., Histoire économique de la conjuration de Catilina, Paris, 1893.--=Bluhme=, Friedrich, Die Gens Langobardorum und ihre Herkunft, Bonn, 1868-1874, 2 vols.--=Boissier=, M. L. G., Cicéron et les amis, Paris, 1866; 1872; La religion romaine, d’Auguste aux Antonins, Paris, 1874, 2 vols.; 2nd edition, 1878; L’opposition sous les Césars, Paris, 1878; 2nd edition, 1885; La fin du paganisme, Paris, 1891, 2 vols.

_Marie Louis Gaston Boissier_, born at Nîmes, August 15th, 1825, became professor of rhetoric at Nîmes and Paris, and, in 1861, of Latin eloquence in the College of France. He is a member of the Academy, and Commander of the Legion of Honour since 1888. All of Boissier’s works are of interest, presenting often a wholly new point of view. The work on Roman religion deals with the religious revolution which took place between the time of Cicero and of Marcus Aurelius. The change was from a state of general scepticism to a period when even the philosophers were religious, and the author traces the causes of this change. The picture showing the condition of the inferior classes is particularly interesting. Also in his book on Cicero the author gives a delightful picture of the society in which the great orator moved.

=Borsari=, L., Topografia di Roma antica, Milan.--=Botsford=, George Willis, A History of Rome, London and New York, 1901; The Story of Rome as Greeks and Romans tell it, London and New York, 1903.--=Bouche-Leclercq=, A., Histoire de la divination dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1879-1882, 4 vols.; Manuel des institutions romaines, Paris, 1886.--=Bradley=, Henry, The Goths, London, 1888, Article in the Academy, London, May 15th, 1886.--=Brandis=, C. G., Studien zur römischen Verwaltungsgeschichte, in Hermes, vol. 31.--=Breal=, Michael, Les tables Eugubines, texte, traduction et commentaire, avec une grammaire et une introduction historique, Paris, 1875.--=Breysig=, K., Kulturgeschichte der Neuzeit, Berlin, 1901, 2 vols.--=Breysig=, Theodor, Die Zeit Karl Martels, in Jahrbücher der Deutschen Geschichte, Leipsic, 1869.--=Brosien=, Hermann, Karl der Grosse, Berlin, 1885.--=Browne=, R. W., History of Roman Classical Literature, London, 1884.--=Brunengo=, G., Il Patriziato romano di Carlomagno, Prabo, 1893.--=Bryce=, James, The Holy Roman Empire, London, 1862.

Bryce’s book shows the mutual relations of Rome and Germany during the Middle Ages, and is invaluable in throwing clear light on their intricacies. The author shows that the Roman Empire continued to exist throughout the Middle Ages, which is the key to an understanding of the whole period.

=Budinger=, Max, Untersuchungen zur römischen Kaisergeschichte, Leipsic, 1868-1871, 3 vols. (contains a good account of the Augustan history).--=Bunbury=, S. H., A History of Ancient Geography, 1879, 2 vols.--=Burger=, C. P., Neue Forschungen zur alten Geschichte Roms, Amsterdam, 1894.--=Burn=, R., Rome and the Campagna, London, 1870; 2nd edition, 1875; Old Rome: a handbook to the ruins of the City and the Campagna, London, 1880.--=Bury=, J. B., History of the Later Roman Empire, from Arcadius to Irene, London, 1889, 2 vols.; A History of the Roman Empire, London, 1893. (A biographical notice of this writer has been given in vol. I, page 295.)

* * * * *

=Canina=, Luigi, Gli edifizi di Roma antica, Rome, 1848-1856, 6 vols.--=Capes=, W. W., The Roman Empire of the Second Century; or the Age of the Antonines, London, 1876; The Early Empire: from the Assassination of Cæsar to that of Domitian, London, 1876.--=Capponi=, Gino, Sulla dominazione dei Longobardi in Italia, in Scritti editi ed inediti, Florence, 1877, 2 vols.--=Champagny=, F. J. R., Les Césars: Tableau du monde romain sous les premiers empereurs, Paris, 1841-1853; Les Césars du IIIᵐᵉ siècle, Paris, 1870.--=Chapot=, V., La classis prætoris Misenansis, Paris, 1896.--=Charlemagne=, Capitularies of, in Migne’s Patrologiæ latinæ, Paris, 1844-1855, 221 vols.--=Church=, A. J., Carthage (Stories of the Nations), London, 1886; Pictures from Roman Life, London, 1893.--=Church=, R. W., The Beginnings of the Middle Ages, A.D. 500-1000, London, 1877.

This is a good introduction to a study of the Middle Ages, being one of the best short histories of the time from the fall of Rome to the dissolution of the Carolingian empire. The book shows the paths leading up to the union of church and empire under Otto the Great.

=Clinton=, H. Fynes, Fasti Romani, Oxford, 1845-1850, 2 vols.; An Epitome of the Civil and Literary Chronology of Rome and Constantinople, from the Death of Augustus to the Death of Heraclius, edited by H. Fynes Clinton, London, 1853.

_Clinton’s_ works are standards on the civil and literary chronology of Greece, Rome, and Constantinople and are indispensable to students of ancient history.

=Closset=, Leon de, Essai sur l’historiographie des romains, Brussels, 1850.--=Comyn=, Robert, History of the Western Empire, London, 1851, 2 vols.--=Coulton=, J. J., Inquiry into the meaning of the name “Roma,” London, 1893.--=Creighton=, M., Rome, London, 1875.--=Crivellucci=, Amadeo, Papers on Lombard History, in Studi Storici, Pisa, 1892.--=Cruchon=, G., Les banques dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1879.--=Cruttwell=, C. T., A History of Roman Literature, from the earliest period to the death of Marcus Aurelius, London and New York, 1877.--=Cumont=, F., Textes et monuments figurés, relatifs aux mystères de Mithra, Brussels, 1895, 1896, 2 vols.--=Curios=, J. G., Vorgeschichte Roms, Leipsic, 1878.--=Curteis=, A. M., History of the Roman Empire from the death of Theodosius to Charlemagne, London, 1875.

This book covers the portion of mediæval history about which we have the least information. Curteis has based his work principally upon Gibbon, Milman, and Thierry and gives perhaps the most acceptable account of the period.

* * * * *

=Dahn=, Felix, Die Könige der Germanen. Wesen und Geschichte des ältesten Königtums der germanischen Stämme, Würzburg, 1861-1871, vols. 1-6; vol. 7, Leipsic, 1895; Prokopius von Cäserea, Berlin, 1865; Longobardische Studien, Leipsic, 1876; Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Völker, Berlin, 1881-1890, 4 vols.--=Davidson=, J. L. S., Cicero and the Fall of the Republic, in Heroes of the Nations, London and New York, 1898.--=Deguignes=, Jos., Histoire Générale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongols, et des autres Tartares Occidentaux, avant et depuis Jesus Christ jusqu’à présent, Paris, 1756-1758, 3 vols.--=Denis=, Jacques François, Histoire des Théories et des idées morales de l’antiquité, Paris, 1856, 2 vols.--=Dennis=, George, The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, London, 1848, 2 vols.--=Desjardin=, E., Géographie historique et administrative de la Gaule, Paris, 1876-1893, 4 vols.--=Dindorf=, Ludwig August, Historici Græci minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.--=Dirksen=, H. E., Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ, Leipsic, 1842.--=Dodge=, Theodore A., Hannibal: Cæsar (Great Captains), Boston, 1892.--=Doesburg=, J. J., Geschiedenis der Romenien, Amsterdam, 1890.--=Döllinger=, J. J. von, Das Kaiserthum Karls des Grossen und seiner Nachfolger, in Akademische Vorträge, vol. III.; The First Age of Christianity and the Church, London, 1877.--=Domaszewski=, A. von, Die Heere der Bürgerkriege in den Jahren 49-42, v. Chr., Neue Heidelberger Jahrbücher, 1894; 1895.--=Dreyfus=, R., Essai sur les lois agraires sous la république romaine, Paris, 1894.--=Drumann=, W., Geschichte Roms in seinem Übergange von der republikanischen zur monarchischen Verfassung, 2nd edition, Berlin, 1899-1902, 2 vols, (contains an excellent account of Sulla).--=Du Cange=, Charles du F., Histoire de l’empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs français, Paris, 1657.

_Charles du Fresne Du Cange_, a French lexicographer, was born at Amiens in 1610. His life was devoted to research into antiquity and the Middle Ages, and he merited the surname of the French Varro. His works are very valuable to the student of ancient or mediæval history.

=Dümmler=, Ernst, Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches, Leipsic, 1887-1888, 3 vols.--=Dunham=, S. Astley, History of Europe in the Middle Ages, London, 1837.--=Duruy=, Jean-Victor, Histoire romaine depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu’à la mort de Théodose, Paris, 1879-1885, 7 vols.; Histoire romaine, Paris, 1889-1891; Histoire romaine jusqu’à l’invasion des barbares, Paris, 1899.--=Dyer=, T. H., A History of the City of Rome, its structures and monuments, from its foundation to the end of the Middle Ages, London, 1865; History of the Kings of Rome, London, 1868.

_Thomas Henry Dyer_, born at London, May 4th, 1804; died at Bath, Jan. 30, 1888. He was for some time employed as a clerk in the West India House, but eventually devoted himself entirely to literature. In his history he finds fault with the scepticism of writers like Niebuhr, being himself inclined to accept early Roman history as definite. When he deals with later historic times, however, he becomes judicious and trustworthy, but the book has to do with antiquities rather than institutions and is not so much political as archæological.

* * * * *

=Ebert=, A., Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Litteratur, Leipsic, 1874-1880, 2 vols.; French translation of vol. II by Aymeric and Condamin, Paris, 1882, 2 vols.--=Eichhorn=, Karl Friedrich, Deutsche Staats- und Rechts-Geschichte, Göttingen, 1843-1845, 4 vols.--=Enmann=, A., Zur römischen Königsgeschichte, St. Petersburg, 1892.--=Esmein=, J. P. H. E. A., Mélanges d’histoire, du droit et de critique, Paris, 1887.

* * * * *

=Fabia=, P., Les sources de Tacite dans les histoires et les annales, Paris, 1893.--=Farrer=, T., Paganism and Christianity, London, 1891.--=Favé=, Ildephonse, L’ancienne Rome, Paris, 1880; L’empire des Francs depuis sa fondation jusqu’à son démembrement, Paris, 1889.--=Finlay=, George, Greece under the Romans, London, 1857; The History of Greece from its conquest by the Crusaders to its conquest by the Turks, and of the Empire of Trebizond, London, 1851; History of the Byzantine and the Greek Empires from 716-1453, Edinburgh and London, 1853-1854, 2 vols.; History of Greece from its Conquest by the Romans to the present time, edited by H. F. Tozer, Oxford, 1877, 7 vols.--=Fisher=, G. P., The Beginnings of Christianity, New York, 1877.--=Fiske=, George Converse, The Politics of the Patrician Claudii, in the Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. XII, Cambridge, Mass., 1902.--=Flasch=, F. M., Constantin der Grosse, Würzburg, 1891.--=Förstemann=, Ernst Wilhelm, Geschichte des deutschen Sprachstamms, Nordhausen, 1874-1875, 2 vols.--=Forsyth=, William, Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero, London, 1867.--=Fountain=, F. O., Defence of Nero, Chiswick, 1892.--=Freeman=, E. A., General Sketch of European History, London, 1872; Cornelius, Sulla, and Flavian Cæsars (in Essays, ser. II), London, 1872; Illyrian Emperors (Essays, ser. III), London, 1880; History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy, edited by J. B. Bury, London, 1893.--=Friedländer=, Ludwig, Über den Kunstsinn der Römer in der Kaiserzeit, Königsberg, 1852; Über die Spiele der alten Römer, in Marquardt’s Römische Staatsverwaltung, Leipsic, 1873-1878; Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms, Leipsic, 1888-1890, 3 vols.

_Ludwig Friedländer’s_ works represent the cultural side of Roman life rather than the political. His _Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms_ is one of the most important books on the subject. In it we get a lifelike picture of the more important aspects of Roman civilisation during the first two centuries of the empire.

=Froude=, J. A., Cæsar, London and New York, 1866.--=Fuchs=, J., Der zweite punische Krieg und seine Quellen, Polybius und Livius, Wiener-Neustadt, 1894.--=Furchheim=, Fr., Bibliografia di Pompei, Ercolano e Stabia, Naples, 1892.--=Fustel de Coulanges=, N. D., La cité antique, Paris, 1864.

* * * * *

=Gaillard=, Gabriel H., Histoire de Charlemagne, Paris, 1782, 4 vols.--=Gardner=, A., Julian and the last Struggle of Paganism, London and New York, 1895.--=Gardthausen=, Victor, Augustus und seine Zeit, Leipsic, 1891, 2 vols.--=Geffcken=, H., Staat und Kirche in ihrem Verhältniss geschichtlich entwickelt, Berlin, 1875; English translation, Church and State, their relations historically considered, London, 1877.--=Gell=, William (in collaboration with John P. Gandy), Pompeiana: the Topography, Edifices and Ornaments of Pompeii, London, 1821.--=Gelzer=, H., Abriss der byzantinischen Kaisergeschichte, in Karl Krumbacher’s _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_, Munich, 1897.--=Gerard=, Histoire des Francs d’Austrasie, Brussels, 1865, 2 vols.--=Gerdes=, Heinrich, Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, Leipsic, 1891-1898, 2 vols.--=Gerlach=, F. D., Die Geschichtsschreiber der Römer bis auf Orosius, Stuttgart, 1855.--=Gfrörer=, August Friedrich, Geschichte der ost- und westfränkischen Karolinger, Freiburg, 1848, 2 vols.; Byzantinische Geschichten, edited by Weiss, Gratz, 1872-1874, 2 vols.--=Gibbon=, Edward, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, London, 1776-1788, 6 vols.; edited by H. H. Milman, London, 1838-1839, 12 vols.; edited by an English Churchman, London, 1853, 7 vols.; edited by W. Smith, London, 1854-1855, 8 vols.; edited by J. B. Bury, London, 1896-1900, 7 vols. (see Prolegomena).

_Edward Gibbon_, the most eminent of English historians, was born at Putney, 1737. His delicate constitution interfered with his early studies, but at fifteen he entered Magdalen College, Oxford. In his autobiography he speaks of the fourteen months he spent there as “the most idle and unprofitable of his whole life.” Becoming at this time a convert to Romanism, his father sent him to Lausanne, Switzerland, where he studied for five years under a Calvinist minister, who won him back to Protestantism. He returned to England in 1758, and in 1761 published his first work, _Essay on the Study of Literature_, in French, with which language he was at the time, as he himself says in his autobiography, more familiar than with English. His visit to Rome about 1763 first suggested to him the idea of writing his famous history. The work was finished in 1787, after the author had spent eighteen years of labour upon it. It covers the whole period from Trajan to the conquest of Constantinople, relating not only the political events and situation, but representing all phases of life in a wonderfully attractive, frequently dramatic, manner. His strong bias against Christianity is the only point upon which he has been attacked. Otherwise, so thorough and exact were his investigations that although the book was completed over a century ago, few errors have been brought to light in it by the steady researches of a century. In 1783 he retired to Lausanne, where he lived for the remainder of his life. He died in London in 1794, on one of his visits to England.

=Giesebrecht=, F. W. B. von, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Brunswick, 1855-1888, 5 vols.--=Gilbert=, Otto, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum, Leipsic, 1883, 3 vols.--=Gilman=, A., General History of Rome (Story of the Nations), London and New York, 1886.--=Goldsmith=, Oliver, The History of Rome, from the Foundation of the City of Rome to the Destruction of the Western Empire, London, 1769; 1825, 2 vols. (A biographical notice of this author has been given in vol. IV, page 631.)--=Gray=, Elizabeth C. Hamilton, Tour to the Sepulchres of Etruria, London, 1840.--=Greenidge=, A. H. J., Roman Public Life, London, 1901.--=Gregorovius=, Ferdinand, Die Geschichte des römischen Kaisers Hadrian und seiner Zeit, Königsberg, 1851, reprinted under the title, Der Kaiser Hadrian, Gemälde der römisch-hellenischen Welt zu seiner Zeit, Stuttgart, 1884; Die Grabdenkmäler der Päbste, Leipsic, 1857; Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter, Stuttgart, 1859-1873, 8 vols.; 4th edition, 1886-1895; English translation, History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages, London, 1894, 6 vols.; Italian translation ordered by municipal authorities of Rome, Storia della città di Roma nel medio evo, Venice, 1874-1876, 8 vols.

_Ferdinand Gregorovius_ was born at Neidenburg, Prussia, January 19th, 1821. He studied theology at Königsberg, but a journey to Italy, in 1852, caused him to devote his future life to historical research. For his _History of Rome in the Middle Ages_, Gregorovius was granted the honorary citizenship of that city. He died at Munich, May 1st, 1891.

=Grimm=, J., Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer, Göttingen, 1828.--=Grindle=, G. E. A., The Destruction of Paganism in the Roman Empire, Oxford, 1892.--=Gueldenpenning=, A., Geschichte des oströmischen Reiches, Halle, 1885.--=Guillot=, C., Droit public romain, Mayenne, 1895.--=Guirand=, P., La différence entre César et le sénat, Paris, 1878.

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=Hadley=, J., Introduction to Roman Law, New York and London, 1874.--=Hagenback=, K. R., Kirchengeschichte von der ältesten Zeit bis zum 19ten Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1885, 7 vols.--=Hahn=, H., Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reiches 741-752, in Jahrbücher der Deutschen Geschichte, Berlin, 1863.--=Hallam=, H., The View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages, London, 1818.--=Hammer-Purgstall=, J. von, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches, Vienna, 1827-1834, 10 vols.--=Hardie=, W. R., Character and Genius of the Roman People, London, 1895.--=Harnack=, A., Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des Gnosticismus, Leipsic, 1873; Die Zeit des Ignatius und die Chronologie der antiochenischen Bischöfe, Leipsic, 1878; Das Mönchtum, Seine Ideale und Geschichte, Giessen, 1881; 4th edition, 1895; Geschichte der altschriftlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius, Leipsic, 1893; Das Christentum und die Geschichte, Leipsic, 1896; =Hauréau=, J. B., Charlemagne et sa cour, Paris, 1852-1855.--=Hegel=, G. W. F., Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte, Berlin, 1833, 8 vols.; English translation by J. Sibree, Lectures on the Philosophy of History, London, 1857.--=Hegel=, R., Geschichte der Städteverfassung von Italien, Leipsic, 1847, 2 vols.--=Hemans=, C., Historical and Monumental Rome, London, 1874.--=Herbert=, W., Attila, King of the Huns, London, 1838. (An epic poem in twelve books, containing also an historical treatise on Attila and his predecessors.)--=Hertzberg=, G. F., Geschichte Griechenlands unter der Herrschaft der Römer, Berlin, 1875; Geschichte des römischen Kaiserreiches, Berlin, 1880-1882; Geschichte der Byzantiner und des osmanischen Reiches, Berlin, 1882-1884; Geschichte der Römer im Alterthum, Berlin, 1885.--=Herzog=, E. von, Geschichte und System der römischen Staatsverfassung, Tübingen, 1884-1891, 2 vols.--=Heyd=, Wilhelm von, Geschichte des Levantehandels im Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1885-1886.--=Heyne=, C. G., Antiquitates Byzantinæ, 1808-1811.--=Hirsch=, F., Das Herzogtum Benevent bis zum Untergang des Langobardenreiches, Leipsic, 1847.--=Hirschfeld=, H. O., Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiete der römischen Verwaltungsgeschichte, Berlin, 1877; Zur Geschichte des lateinischen Rechts, Berlin, 1879; Inscriptiones Galliæ Narbonensis Latinæ, Berlin, 1888; Timagones und die gallische Wanderung, in the Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Akademie, Berlin, 1894.

_Otto Hirschfeld_, a distinguished German historian and epigraphist, was born March 16, 1843, at Königsberg, Prussia. After pursuing philological and historical studies at the universities of Bonn and Berlin, he was engaged in epigraphical and historical research in Italy from 1865 to 1867. He was successively professor at Prague, Vienna, and Berlin, and has for many years been director of the Institute of Archæology at Berlin. In addition to several important historical works of his own production, he has collaborated with Mommsen in the _Ephemeris epigraphica_, and has contributed largely to the _Corpus inscriptionum latinarum_ and the _Inscriptiones Gallicæ Narbonensis latinæ_.

=Hodgkin=, Thomas, Vandals, article in the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica; The Dynasty of Theodosius, Oxford, 1889; Italy and her Invaders, Oxford, 1880-1889, 7 vols.; 1899, 8 vols.; Life of Theodoric, Oxford, 1891; Charles the Great, London, 1899.--=Hœck=, K., Römische Geschichte vom Verfall der Republik bis zur Vollendung der Monarchie unter Constantin, Göttingen, 1841.--=How=, W. W. (in collaboration with H. D. Leigh), A History of Rome to the Death of Cæsar, London.--=Howorth=, H. H., The Westerly Drifting of Nomads, article in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. V, London, 1874.--=Hullman=, K. D., Geschichte des byzantinischen Handels, Frankfort, 1808.

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=Ihne=, W., Römische Geschichte, Leipsic, 1868-1890, 8 vols.; English translation by the author, The History of Rome, London, 1871-1882, 5 vols.; Rome: to its Capture by the Gauls, London, 1878.

_Wilhelm Ihne_, German philologist and classical historian, was born February 2nd, 1821, at Fürth. He spent several years in England as a teacher and has, since 1863, been professor at Heidelberg. Ihne’s history deals with the early period of Rome up to the time when Augustus became sole ruler. It is addressed to a general audience, and consequently the author attempts to establish his position in a generally comprehensible manner. He succeeds better in his undertaking when he reaches the ground of more reliable tradition where he is not obliged to clothe difficult critical analysis in popular garb. The author takes a wholly unprejudiced stand, examining all evidence, separating fact from conjecture, and leaving the reader to form his own judgment. The work is marked by sound common sense.

=Ihne=, W. R., Society in Rome under the Cæsars, London, 1888. (A good popular account of the daily life of the period.)

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=Jacobi=, R., Die Quellen der Langobardengeschichte des Paulus Diaconus, Halle, 1877; =Jaffé=, Philip, Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Lothar dem Sachsen, Berlin, 1843; (see also classical section).--=Jäger=, O., Geschichte der Römer, Gütersloh, 1861.--=Jahn=, A., Die Geschichte der Burgundionen, und Burgundiens, 1874, 2 vols.--=Jay=, B., Synopsis of Roman History, London, 1894.--=Jonson=, Ben, Tragedy of Catiline, London, 1611.--=Jordan=, H., Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum, Berlin, 1871, 1878, 1885, 2 vols.--=Jung=, J., Geographie und politische Geschichte des klassischen Altertums, in Ivan Müller’s Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 3, Nördlingen 1889.

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=Kärst=, F., Kritische Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des zweiten Samniten-krieges, in Neues Jahrbuch für Philologie, Luppe, vol. 13.--=Kaufmann=, G. H., Deutsche Geschichte bis auf Karl den Grossen, Leipsic, 1880-1881, 2 vols.--=Keightley=, Thomas, The History of Rome to the End of the Republic, London, 1842.--=Kiepert=, H., Handbuch der alten Geographie, Berlin, 1878.--=Kingsley=, Charles, The Roman and the Teuton, London, 1875; 1889.--=Klein=, J., Die Verwaltungsbeamten der Provinzen des römischen Reiches, Berlin, 1878.--=Köpke=, Der Anfang des Königthums bei den Gothen, Berlin, 1854.--=Kornemann=, E., Zur Stadtentstehung in den ehemals keltischen und germanischen Gebieten des Römerreiches, Giessen, 1898.--=Körte=, G., Ein Wandgemälde von Vulci als Dokument der römischen Königsgeschichte.--=Kraschenimkow=, M., Die Augustalen und das Sacral-magisterium, St. Petersburg, 1895.--=Krumbacher=, K., Byzantinische Zeitschrift, Leipsic, 1892 (in collaboration with A. Ehrhard and H. Gerzer); Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, in I. Müller’s Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumswissenschaften, vol. 9, Munich, 1897.--=Kuhn=, E., Verfassung der Städte des römischen Reiches, Leipsic, 1864.

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=La Barte=, J., History of the Arts of the Middle Ages, London, 1855.--=Lanciani=, Rodolfo, Le Acque e gli acquedotti di Roma antica, Rome, 1880; Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, London, 1889; Pagan and Christian Rome, London and Boston, 1892; Forma urbis Romæ, Milan and New York, 1893-1901; A Manual of Roman Antiquities, London, 1894; New Tales of Old Rome, Boston, 1901.--=Lange=, L., Römische Alterthümer, Berlin, 1876-1879, 2 vols.--=Lau=, G. J. T., Gregor I der Grosse, nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre geschildert, Leipsic, 1845.--=Laurent=, F., Études sur l’histoire de l’humanité, Paris, 1880.--=Lavisse=, E. (in collaboration with Alfred Rambaud), Histoire générale du IVᵐᵉ siècle à nos jours, Paris, 1893, etc., 8 vols. in progress.--=Le Beau=, Charles, Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin, Paris, 1757-1779, 22 vols.--=Lecky=, W. E. H., History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne, London, 1870.--=Lecointe=, Charles, Annales ecclésiastiques de la France, Paris, 1665-1680, 8 vols.--=Lehmann=, C. F., Beiträge zur alten Geschichte, 1902.--=Leighton=, R. F., A History of Rome, New York, 1880.--=Lemonnier=, H., Étude historique sur la condition privée des Affranchis, Paris, 1887.--=Lenormant=, F., La grande Grèce, Paris, 1881-1884, 3 vols.; (a biographical notice of this writer is given in vol. I, p. 588).--=Lewis=, George Cornewall, An Inquiry into the Credibility of the Early Roman History, London, 1855, 2 vols.

_George Cornewall Lewis_, a statesman and man of letters, was born in London, April 21, 1806. Educated at Eton and Oxford, he was called to the bar in 1831. Although almost constantly engaged in public life, he devoted much attention to literature, writing numerous essays and contributions to reviews, besides publishing several translations from the German. All of his writings are distinguished for clear, sober, and original thought. He died in April, 1863. In his inquiry into the credibility of early Roman history Lewis submits early Roman history to the same tests that are applied in determining credibility in judicial investigation. In applying these tests to Niebuhr’s positions he decides that many of them are based on insufficient foundations, and comes to the conclusion that all efforts to clear up early Roman history are thrown away since there is no contemporary evidence.

=Lézardière=, Marie Pauline de, Théorie des lois politiques de la monarchie française, Paris, 1844, 4 vols.--=Liddell=, H. G., A History of Rome from the earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire, London and New York, 1865.

_Henry George Liddell_ was born at Binchester, February 6th, 1811. Educated at Oxford, he became a college tutor and in 1846 was made head-master of Westminster School. In 1834, he began, in collaboration with Robert Scott, the preparation of the _Greek-English Lexicon_, which was his life-work. In 1855 he was appointed dean of Christ Church, Oxford, which position he retained until 1891. Liddell’s history is a most valuable work, being as Mr. Adams says of it, “a storehouse of accurate information.”

=Liebenau=, W., Städteverwaltung im römischen Kaiserreich, Leipsic, 1900.--=Lilly=, W. S., Ancient Religion and Modern Thought, London, 1884.--=Lindner=, Theodor, Die sogenannten Schenkungen Pippins, Karls des Grossen und Ottos I, Stuttgart, 1896.--=Lippert=, Julius, Die Religionen der europäischen Kulturvölker, Berlin, 1881.--=Lockhart=, J. G., Velerius, a Roman Story, Edinburgh, 1821.--=Long=, G., The Decline of the Roman Republic, London, 1864-1874, 5 vols. This book covers the period from the destruction of Carthage to the death of Julius Cæsar.--=Lorenz=, F., Karls des Grossen Privat- und Hofleben, in Von Raumer’s Historisches Taschenbuch, Leipsic, 1832.

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=Macaulay=, T. B., Lays of Ancient Rome, London, 1812.--=Macdermot=, T. B., Outline of Roman History, Dublin, 1892.--=Mackenzie=, Lord, Studies of the Roman Law, with Comparative Views of the Laws of France, England, and Scotland, 5th edition, edited by John Kirkpatrick, London, 1880.--=Maclear=, G. F., Apostles of Mediæval Europe, London, 1868.--=Madvig=, J. N., Die Verfassung und Verwaltung des römischen Staats, Leipsic, 1881-1882, 2 vols.--=Mahaffy=, J. P., The Greek World under Roman Sway, London, 1890.--=Mahon=, Philip Henry Stanhope, Life of Belisarius, London, 1848.--=Manso=, J. K. F., Geschichte des ostgothischen Reiches in Italien, Breslau, 1824.--=Marioni=, G., I Papiri Diplomatici, Rome, 1805 (a collection of documents, papal bulls, legal documents of transactions between Byzantine merchants, officials, clergy, etc.).--=Marlot=, E., Précis des institutions politiques de Rome, Paris, 1886.--=Marquardt=, K. J., vols. 3 to 5 of Becker’s Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1849-1868; second edition of complete work (in collaboration with Th. Mommsen), Leipsic, 1881-1886, 7 vols.; Römische Staatsverwaltung, forming vols. 4 to 6 of Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1873-1878; 1881-1885; Privatleben der Römer, forming vol. 7 of Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1879-1882; 2nd edition, 1886.--=Marrast=, A., Esquisses Byzantines, Paris, 1874.--=Martens=, W., Politische Geschichte des Langobardenreiches unter König Luitbrand, Heidelberg, 1880.--=Martin=, H., Histoire de France, Paris, 1838-1853; 1855-1860, 18 vols.--=Marx=, F., Die Beziehungen der klassischen Völker des Altertums zu dem keltisch-germanischen Norden, Beilage der Allgemeinen Zeitung, 1897, No. 162, 163.--=Mascov=, J. J., Geschichte der Deutschen bis zum Abgang der merovingischen Könige, Leipsic, 1726-1737, 2 vols.--=Masom=, W. F., The Struggle for Empire, 287-202 B.C., London, 1894 (in collaboration with F. G. Plaistowe); Synopsis of Roman History, London, 1891.--=Mason=, A. J., The Persecution of Diocletian, Cambridge, 1876.--=Mayor=, J. E. B., Bibliographie Clue to Latin Literature, London, 1875.--=Meitzen=, A., Siedelung und Agrarwesen der Westgermanen und Ostgermanen, der Kelten, Römer, Finnen und Slaven, Berlin, 1895, 3 vols.--=Meltzer=, O., Geschichte der Karthager, Berlin, 2 vols.--=Menzel=, W., Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung von der ältesten bis auf die neueste Zeit, Leipsic, 1875, 2nd edition, 3 vols.; English translation by Horrocks, History of Germany from the Earliest Period to the Present Time, London, 1848, 3 vols.--=Merivale=, Charles, A History of the Romans under the Empire, London, 1850-1862, 7 vols.; The Fall of the Roman Republic, London, 1853; A General History of Rome, London, 1875; The Roman Triumvirates, London, 1876.

_Charles Merivale_ was born March 8th, 1808, and educated at Harrow, Haileybury, and Cambridge. In 1833 he was elected fellow of St. Johns. In addition to gaining distinction as a student he was prominent in athletic sports, rowing in the first inter-university boat-race in 1829. He was ordained in 1833, appointed chaplain to the speaker of the House of Commons in 1863, and in 1869 became dean of Ely. He died December 27th, 1893. Merivale’s _History of the Romans under the Empire_ did much to foster the study of Roman history during the empire. Beginning with Sulla’s death, it follows the intellectual and social life of the period, up to the death of Marcus Aurelius, with a certain degree of completeness, although the author does not touch any of the deeper problems in connection with the history of the imperial period.

=Meyer=, Edward, Geschichte des Alterthums, Stuttgart, 1884-1893, 2 vols.; Untersuchungen über die Schlacht im Teutoburger Walde, Berlin, 1895; Über den Ursprung des Tribunats, in Hermes, vol. 30, 1895. A biographical notice of this author appears in vol. I, p. 302. The second volume of Meyer’s history, which is the last that has appeared, brings us down to the Persian wars. In keeping with its general character it gives a survey of the whole Occident, including the beginnings of Italian history and the establishment of Etruscan power in Italy. But while dealing with Italy as a whole, new light is thrown upon the history of Rome in particular, as upon Etruscan dominion in Latium, the character of patrician rule, the system of land ownership, etc. The oldest Italic and Etruscan civilisation is also well portrayed. =Meyer=, K., Sprache und Sprachdenkmäler der Langobarden, Paderborn, 1877.--=Michaud=, J. F., L’histoire des croisades, Paris, 1841, 6 vols.; English translation by W. Robson, London, 1852, 3 vols.--=Michelet=, J., Histoire romaine, Paris, 1831, 2 vols.; English translation by W. Hazlitt, History of the Roman Republic, London, 1847.--=Middleton=, J. H., Ancient Rome in 1888, London, 1888; Article on Rome in the Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition; The Remains of Ancient Rome, London, 1892, 2 vols.--=Milman=, H. H., History of Christianity from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism, London, 1867.--=Mispoulet=, Y. B., Les institutions politiques des romains, Paris, 1882-1883, 2 vols.--=Mommsen=, Theodor, Corpus inscriptionum neapolitanarum, Leipsic, 1851; Römische Geschichte, Berlin, 1853-1856, 3 vols.; 8th edition, 1888, 5 vols.; Die Rechtsfrage zwischen Cæsar und dem Senat, Breslau, 1857; Die römische Chronologie bis auf Cæsar, Berlin, 1858-1859; Geschichte des römischen Münzwesens, Breslau, 1860; Verzeichniss der römischen Provinzen um 297, Berlin, 1862; Römische Forschungen, Berlin, 1865-1879, 2 vols.; translated into English by W. P. Dickson, History of Rome to Time of Augustus, London, 1868-1875, 4 vols.; Römisches Staatsrecht, Leipsic, 1871-1888, 3 vols. (in collaboration with K. J. Marquardt); the second edition of the Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1881-1886, 7 vols.; translated into English by W. P. Dickson, The Roman Provinces, London, 1887, 2 vols.; History of the Roman Republic (abridged by C. Bryans and F. J. P. Hendrick), London, 1888; Abriss des römischen Staatsrechts, Leipsic, 1893.

_Theodor Mommsen_, German historian and epigraphist, was of Danish origin, and was born at Garding in Schleswig, November 30th, 1817. Educated at Altona and Kiel, he spent the years from 1844 to 1847 in archæological exploration in Rome. Appointed in 1848 a professor at Leipsic, he lost his position by participating in the stirring politics of that year. In 1852 he became professor at Zurich and in 1858 at the university of Berlin. In 1874 he was made perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. From 1873 to 1882 he was a member of the Chamber of Deputies of Prussia. He declined an election to the Reichstag in 1881, protesting against the policy of Prince Bismarck, and particularly against the progress of socialism in the state. This criticism having roused the ire of the prince, Mommsen was, in 1882, prosecuted for defamation. The case gained great celebrity. Acquitted upon the first trial, the judgment was reversed upon appeal, and upon a second trial, in which he defended himself, he was again victorious.

Professor Mommsen’s work marks an important epoch in the field of Roman history. His history of Rome appeared first in 1854, in a series of volumes intended for a more general public, so that only results of his investigation were given. There is a marked departure in Mommsen’s style from the reserve of the classical historians. He by no means regards the events he describes in the light of an outsider, but takes sides for or against different parties and leading characters. He has a special antipathy, for example, against the Etruscans, also against Cicero. It is this personal element, perhaps, which seems to make the whole work live. Persons and things are introduced with the utmost vividness. The different characters, men like Gracchus, Sulla, and Cæsar seem to be actually living, breathing persons, and no mere words on a page. But not alone was the style new--wholly new material was brought forward, making a new chapter of Italic history, based on a study of the country itself, on the monuments of old time, especially on finds in tombs in Italy. Above everything else the different aspects of the national development--the economic, artistic, and literary--are brought together with a master hand. The book at once aroused new interest in classical study throughout the country. Also to special departments Mommsen has contributed invaluable productions--epigraphy, numismatics, above all the constitutional law of the Romans, all have received the stamp of his genius.

=Montalembert=, C. F. de T., Les moines d’Occident, Paris, 1860-1867, 7 vols.; English translation, The Monks of the West from S. Benedict to S. Bernard, Edinburgh and London, 1860-1870, 7 vols.--=Monticolo=, G., I Manuscritti e le fonti della Cronica del Diacono Giovanni, Rome, 1889; Cronache Veneziani Antichissime, Rome, 1890; Le Spedizioni di Luitprando nell’ Escarto e la Lettera di Gregorio III al Doge Orso, in Archivio della Società Romana di Storia Patria, 1892.--=Monumenta Germaniæ Historica=, Hanover, 1826; in progress.

Accurate texts of all the more important historical writers on Germany down to the year 1500, also laws, archives, and letters within this period. Edited by Pertz from 1826-1874, during which period 24 volumes were published. Since 1874 it has been continued by Waitz, Wattenbach, Dümmler, and others.

=Müller=, C., Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum, Paris, 1841-1870, 5 vols.; new edition, 1883.--=Müller=, I. von, Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, Nördlingen, 1885, in progress, 9 vols. (part 4 to vol. V appeared in 1902).--=Müller=, D., Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, Berlin, 1900.--=Müller=, F., Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Vienna, 1876-1888, 3 vols.--=Müller=, K. O., Etrusker, Breslau, 1828, 2 vols.; edited by W. Deecke, Stuttgart, 1877.--=Munk=, E., Geschichte der römischen Litteratur, London, 1858-1861, 3 vols.--=Muratori=, L. A., Rerum italicarum scriptores præcipui ab anno 500 ad annum 1500, Milan, 1723-1751, 29 vols.

_Muratori_ was born at Vignola in Modena in 1672. He was educated for the church but in the year 1700 was appointed librarian for the duke of Modena. Muratori was one of the most distinguished savants of the eighteenth century.

=Murphy=, A., English translation of Tacitus, London, 1793.--=Murray=, A. S., Terra-cotta Sarcophagi, Greek and Etruscan, London, 1898.

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=Napoleon III=, Histoire de Jules César, Paris, 1865-1866, 2 vols.; English translation, History of Julius Cæsar, London, 1865, 2 vols.

In this work the author declared that it was written to prove that when Providence raises up such men as Cæsar, Charlemagne, and Napoleon, it is to trace out to people the path they ought to follow; in effect it was an apology for the Napoleonic absolutism.

=Naudet=, J., Histoire de la monarchie des Goths en Italie, Paris, 1810.--=Neumann=, C., Weltstellung des byzantinischen Reiches, Heidelberg, 1894; Die Grundherrschaft der römischen Republik, Strassburg, 1900.--=Niccolini=, G., Fasti tribunorum plebis ab anno 269 ad annum 731, Studi storici, 1895.--=Nichols=, F. M., The Marvels of Rome, London, 1889 (an English translation from the Latin of the twelfth century guide-book).--=Niebuhr=, B. G., Römische Geschichte, Berlin, 1811-1832, 3 vols.; new edition, 1873; English translation by W. Smith, L. Schmitz, J. C. Hare, and C. Thirlwall, The History of Rome, London, 1859, 3 vols.; Lectures on the History of Rome from the First Punic War to the death of Constantine, edited by L. Schmitz from Niebuhr’s lectures, London, 1844, 2 vols.; Vorträge über die römische Geschichte, edited by Isler, Berlin, 1846-1848, 3 vols.; Vorträge über alte Geschichte, edited by M. Niebuhr, Berlin, 1847-1851, 3 vols.; English translation by L. Schmitz, Lectures on Ancient History, London, 1852; Vorträge über römische Altertümer, edited by Isler, Berlin, 1858; contributions to the Geschichte der Stadt Rom, compiled by Bunsen, Platner, and others, Stuttgart, 1830-1843, 3 vols.; Corpus Scriptorus Historiæ Byzantiæ, see Byzantine History.

_Berthold G. Niebuhr_ was born at Copenhagen, August 27th, 1776. In his early life he was secretary to the minister of finance of Denmark, and afterwards director of the Bank. In 1806 he removed to Berlin, where he was councillor of state in 1808, and upon the foundation of the University of Berlin in 1810 was named as professor of history. From 1816 to 1824 he resided in Rome as ambassador of Prussia, profiting by his sojourn in the opportunity to make important researches in Roman history and philology. On his return he accepted a professorship at the University of Bonn, where he remained until his death, January 2nd, 1831. The critical methods of Niebuhr began a new era in the whole science of history; or, as Macaulay says, in the “history of European intelligence.” His Roman history appeared first in 1811, being made up primarily from lectures delivered at the University of Berlin during the winter of the same year. Various causes worked together to make Niebuhr’s achievement possible, his broad scholarship, his experience in political, judicial, economic, and even military questions--his acquaintance with Rome, its land and its people, his knowledge of persons gained through his travels and diplomatic positions, and above all his rare gift of combination and his comprehensive outlook. Niebuhr’s work stands for all time as an example of true historical criticism; his object can best be made plain in his own words: “We must strive to single out fable and falsification, and train our glance to recognise the outlines of truth freed from every gloss. The identification of fable and the refutation of deceit may be enough for the critic; he desires only to expose misleading accounts. The historian needs something positive; he must at least discover the connection of facts with some probability and discover a more probable narrative in place of that which is sacrificed to his convictions.”

=Niese=, B., Grundriss der römischen Geschichte nebst Quellenkunde, 1896, 2nd edition; De annalibus Romanis, 2 programme, Marburg.--=Nisard=, D., Les quatre grands historiens latins, Paris, 1874.--=Nitzsch=, K. W., Die römische Annalistik, von ihren ersten Aufängen bis zu Valerius Antias, Berlin, 1873; Die Geschichte der römischen Republik, edited by Thouret, Berlin, 1884-1885, 2 vols.

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=Oberhammer=, E., Bericht über Landes- und Völkerkunde.--=Œlsner=, Zur Chronologie der italienischen Ereignisse, in his Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reiches unter König Pippin, Leipsic, 1871.--=Oman=, C. W. C., The Byzantine Empire (Story of the Nations), London, 1892; A History of Europe from 476-918, London, 1893.--=Ozanam=, A. F., La Civilisation au Vᵐᵉ siècle, Paris, 1855; English translation, History of Civilisation in the Fifth Century, London and Philadelphia, 1867, 2 vols.

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=Pabst=, H., Geschichte des Langobardenherzogtums, in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, 1862, 2 vols.--=Pagi=, Antoine, Critica historico-chronologica, Geneva, 1689-1705, 4 vols.--=Pais=, Ettore, Storia di Roma, forming Part II of his Storia d’Italia dei tempi più antichi, Turin, 1894-1899.--=Pallmann=, R., Geschichte der Völkerwanderung, Berlin, 1863-1864, 2 vols.

_R. Pallmann_, German geographer, historian, and publicist, born at Spremberg, June 14th, 1835. In his _Völkerwanderung_ he attempts to prove that the migration of the nations who destroyed the Roman Empire was much less than has been supposed, and makes a very careful examination of the ancient authorities.

=Papencerdt=, J., Geschichte der Stadt Rom, Paderborn, 1857.--=Papencordt=, Felix, Geschichte der Vandalen, Paderborn, 1837.--=Parker=, J. H., The Archeology of Rome, Oxford, 1874-1880, 16 vols.--=Paucker=, C., De Latinitate Scritorum Historiæ Augustæ malemata, Dorpat, 1870.--=Pelham=, H. F., Outlines of Roman History, London, 1893, 1895, 1903.--=Perrin=, R., Marche d’Annibal des Pyrenées au Po, Metz, 1887.--=Perry=, Walter C., The Franks from their First Appearance in History to the Death of King Pepin, London, 1857.--=Person=, E., Essai sur l’administration des provinces romaines sous la république, Paris, 1878.--=Pertz=, Georg Heinrich, Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Hanover, 1826-1874, 24 vols.--=Peter=, Carl Ludwig, Geschichte Roms, Halle, 1853, 3 vols., 4th edition 1881; Zur Kritik der Quellen der älteren römischen Geschichte, Halle, 1879.--=Peter=, Hermann, Historia Critica Scriptorum Historiæ Augustæ, Leipsic, 1860; Exercitationes Criticæ in Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ, Posen, 1863; Die Quellen Plutarchs in den Biographien der Römer, Halle, 1865; Die Geschichtliche Litteratur über die römische Kaiserzeit bis Theodosius, 2 vols.--=Peyre=, R., L’empire romain, Paris, 1894.--=Pierron=, A., Histoire de la littérature romaine, Paris, 1857.--=Plew=, J., Marius Maximus als Quelle der Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ, Strassburg, 1878.--=Pohlmann=, R., Die Anhänge der Socialismus in Europa.--=Pollard=, A., Historische Zeitschrift, 1879-1880; Stories from Roman History London, 1892.--=Potthast=, Aug., Bibliotheca historica Medii Ævi, 375-1500 A.D., Berlin, 1868.--=Pressensé=, E. de, Histoire des trois premiers siècles de l’Église chrétienne, Paris, 1887-1889, 3 vols.; English translation by A. Harewood Hohnden, The Early Years of Christianity, London and New York, 1879, 4 vols.--=Prévost-Paradol=, L. A., Essai, sur l’histoire universelle, Paris, 1890, 2 vols.

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=Quicheret=, J., Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire, Paris, 1885, 2 vols.--=Quidde=, F., Caligula, Leipsic, 1894.

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=Rambaud=, Alfred Nicolas (in collaboration with Ernest Lavisse), Histoire Générale du IVᵐᵉ siècle à nos jours, Paris, 1893, 8 vols. in progress.--=Ranke=, Leopold von, Weltgeschichte, Leipsic, 1880-1888, 9 vols. (vols. 7-9 edited by Dove, Wiedemann, and Winter); 2nd edition 1896, 4 vols.--=Rawlinson=, George, The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, London, 1876. Gives history of the wars between Persia and the empire. (A biographical notice of this author is given in vol. I, p. 571.)--=Reinhardt=, S., Der Perserkrieg des Kaisers Julian, Gotha, 1892.--=Renan=, Joseph Ernest, Histoire des origines de Christianisme, Paris, 1887. (A biographical notice of this writer has been given in vol. II, p. 235.)--=Reumont=, A. U., Geschichte der Stadt Rom, Berlin, 1867-1870, 3 vols.--=Reville=, J., La Religion à Rome sous les Sévères, Paris, 1886.--=Richter=, Gustav, Annalen der deutschen Geschichte im Mittelalter, Halle, 1873.--=Robinson=, W. S., First History of Rome, London, 1890.--=Rodocanachi=, E., Les corporations ouvrières à Rome depuis la chute de l’empire romaine, Paris, 1894, 2 vols.--=Rollin=, Charles, L’histoire romaine, Paris, 1738-1741, 5 vols.--=Rösler=, E., Robert, Romanische Studien, Untersuchungen zur alten Geschichte Romaniens, Leipsic, 1871.--=Roth=, Paul von, Geschichte des Beneficialwesen, Erlangen, 1850.

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=Sartorius=, Georg, Versuch über die Regierung der Ostrogothen während ihrer Herrschaft in Italien, Hamburg, 1811.--=Saulcy=, F. J., Essai de classification des suites monétaires byzantines, Paris, 1836.--=Savigny=, Friedr. Karl von, Geschichte des römischen Rechts im Mittelalter, Heidelberg, 1834-1851, 7 vols.--=Sayous=, Pierre Andrée, Les origines et l’épopée païenne de l’histoire des Hongrois, Paris, 1874; Histoire générale des Hongrois, Paris, 1877, 2 vols.--=Schäfer=, Arnold, Abriss der Quellenkunde der griechischen und römischen Geschichte, Leipsic, vol. I, 4th edition, 1889; vol. II, 2nd edition, 1885.--=Schenk=, K., in Byzantische Zeitschrift, Leipsic, 1896.--=Schiller=, Johann Heinrich Karl Friedrich Hermann, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit bis auf Theodosius den Grossen, Gotha, 1886-1888, 2 vols. (in collaboration with M. Voigt), Die römischen Staats-, Kriegs- und Privataltertümer, in I. Müller’s Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaften, Nördlingen, 1887.--=Schlegel=, K. W. F. von, Lectures on the History of Literature, New York, 1841.--=Schlosser=, F. C., Geschichte der bilderstürmenden Kaiser des Oströmischen Reichs, Frankfort, 1812; Weltgeschichte für das deutsche Volk, Oberhausen and Leipsic, 1874-1875, 19 vols. (A biographical notice of this writer has been given in vol. IV, page 637.)--=Schmidt=, Ludwig, Zur Geschichte der Langobarden, Dresden, 1885.--=Schmidt=, O. E., in Spanier’s Illustrierte Weltgeschichte, vol. II, von Alexander dem Grossen bis zu Beginn der Volkswanderung, 3rd edition.--=Schmitz=, Leonard, A History of Rome from the Earliest Times to the Death of Commodus, London, n.d.--=Schmitz=, M., Quellenkunde der römischen Geschichte bis auf Paulus Diaconus, Gütersloh, 1881.--=Schneidewin=, M., Die antike Humanität.--=Schoener=, R., Rome, London, 1898.--=Schön=, G., Das capitolinische Verzeichniss der römischen Triumphe.--=Schroder=, W., De primordiis Artis Historici apud Græcos et Romanos, Jena, 1868.--=Schubert=, Hans von, Die Unterwerfung der Alamannen unter die Franken, Strassburg, 1884.--=Schuckburgh=, E. S., History of Rome to the Battle of Actium, London, 1894.--=Schwartz=, E., Die Berichte über die catilinarische Verschwörung, Hermes, vol. 32, p. 554.--=Schwegler=, Albert, Römische Geschichte, Tübingen, 1853-1858, 3 vols.

_Albert Schwegler_, German historian and theologian (1819-1857) was greatly influenced by the great changes which took place in Germany in the middle of the nineteenth century and the bitterness caused by the disappointment of patriotic hopes, had an effect on his writing, although this is not so noticeable in Schwegler’s reserved style, which addresses itself more to scholars, as in Mommsen’s, who speaks to wider circles. Schwegler’s history extends only to the Licinian Rogations, and the author did not live even to see the third volume published. His object was to lay bare critical investigation in the widest range and he has admirably succeeded, conducting the reader through the mazes of fable and tradition as well as through the conflicting statement of modern writers, with a wonderful security of touch. At the same time he weaves together the authenticated results into a comprehensive picture of the whole and describes developments with keen political discernment. In one important point only does he differ from Niebuhr, refusing to admit that the history of ancient Rome is a product of folk ballads, holding rather that it originated in the class of aetiologic fables which were so richly developed among the ancients. This work was cast into the shade soon after its appearance by Mommsen’s brilliant achievements.

=Seeck=, O., Die Schätzungsordnung Diocletians; Gedichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt, Berlin, 1897, 2nd edition.--=Seeley=, J. R., Roman Imperialism, in his Lectures and Essays, London, 1870.--=Seignobos=, C., Histoire narrative et descriptive du peuple romain, Paris, 1894.--=Sellar=, W. Y., The Roman Poets of the Republic, Oxford, 1881, 1889; The Roman Poets of the Augustan Age, Oxford, 1883, 1892, 1897.--=Sergeant=, L., The Franks (Stories of the Nations), London, 1888.--=Seyffert=, O., Lexicon der klassischen Alterthumskunde, Leipsic, 1882; Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, edited by Henry Nettleship and J. E. Sandys, London, 1901.--=Sheppard=, J. Y., The Fall of Rome, and the Rise of New Nationalities, London, 1874. (The author is opposed to the views of Gibbon, but bases his work on original authorities.)--=Shumway=, E. S., A Day in Ancient Rome, Boston, 1885.--=Sime=, J., article on Germany in the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.--=Smith=, R. Bosworth, Carthage and the Carthaginians, London, 1879; Rome and Carthage, London, 1881.--=Smith=, W., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London, 1864-1866, 3 vols.; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, London, 1866-1867, 2 vols.; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, London, 1869; A Concise Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, edited by F. Warre Cornish, London, 1898.--=Sohm=, R., Die altdeutsche Reichs- und Gerichtsverfassung, Weimar, 1871.--=Soltau=, W. J., Über Entstehung und Zusammensetzung der altrömischen Volksversammlungen, Berlin, 1880; Römische Chronologie, 1889; Zur Geschichte der römischen Annalistik, in Nord und Süd, 20th year (1896); Livius’ Geschichtswerk, seine Quellen und seine Komposition, 1877.--=Stamford=, T. V., Das Schlachtfeld im Teutoburger Walde, Cassel, 1892.--=Stoll=, H. W., Die Helden Roms in Krieg und Frieden, Leipsic, 1866; Geschichte der Römer bis zum Untergang der Republik, Hanover, 1869, 2 vols.--=Stolzenberg-Luttmersen=, von, Die Spuren der Langobarden vom Nordmeer bis zur Donau, Hanover, 1889.--=Stritter=, J. G., Memoriæ populorum olim ad Danubium, Pontum Euxinum, Paludem Mæotidem, Causasum, etc., incolentium, ex scriptoribus Byzantinis erutæ ac digestæ, 1771-1779.--=Stuckelberg=, E. A., Die Thronfolge von Augustus bis Konstantin.

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=Taine=, H. A., Essai sur Tite-Live, Paris, 1856.--=Taylor=, T. M., Constitutional and Political History of Rome, from the earliest times to the reign of Domitian, London, 1899.--=Teuffel=, W. S., Geschichte der römischen Litteratur, Leipsic, 1868-1870, 5 vols.; English translation by W. Wagner, History of Roman Literature, London, 1873, 2 vols.--=Thalheimer=, M. E., Mediæval and Modern History, Cincinnati, 1872.--=Thiancourt=, C., Les causes et l’origine de la seconde guerre punique, Paris, 1890.--=Thierry=, Amedée, Histoire de la Gaule sous l’administration romaine, Paris, 1840, 3 vols.; Histoire d’Attila, Paris, 1856; Récits de l’histoire romaine au cinquième siècle, Paris, 1860; Tableau de l’empire romain depuis la fondation jusqu’à la fin du gouvernement, Paris, 1860; Trois ministres des fils de Théodose, Rufin, Eutrope, Stilicon, Paris, 1865.

_Amedée Thierry’s_ works on the ancient history of Gaul are of the greatest importance. The relations of Gaul to Rome and the mutual influences of civilisation and barbarism have perhaps nowhere else been so well described.

=Thierry=, Augustin, Récit des temps Mérovingiens, Paris, 1847.--=Thomas=, E., Rome et l’empire aux deux premiers siècles de notre ère.--=Thue=, Römische Geschichte.--=Tieffenbach=, R., Über die Örtlichkeit der Varusschlacht, Berlin, 1891.--=Tillemont=, S., le Nain de, Histoire des empereurs et des autres princes qui ont régné pendant les six premiers siècles de l’Église, Paris, 1691-1738, 6 vols.--=Tiraboschi=, J., Storia della letteratura italiana, Modena, 1772-1781, 13 vols.; English translation, Literary History of Italy, Edinburgh, 1835.--=Trollope=, Anthony, The Life of Cicero, London and New York, 1880-1881, 2 vols. (Trollope defends Cicero against the opinions of Froude, Merivale, and Mommsen.)--=Tromsdorff=, P., Quæstiones duæ ad historiam legionum Romanorum spectantes, dissertation, Leipsic.--=Troya=, C., Codice Diplomatico-Longobardo, Naples, 1852-1855.--=Tyrrell=, R. Y., Cicero in his Letters, London, 1891.

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=Ulrici=, H., Characteristik der alten Historiographie, Berlin, 1833.

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=Vendettini=, Del Senato Romano, Rome, 1782.--=Villehardouin=, Geoffrey de, Histoire de la conquête de Constantinople, Paris, 1657; new edition, 1838.

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=Wachsmuth=, Curt., Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte, Leipsic, 1895 (an almost indispensable work for the bibliography of ancient history).--=Waitz=, Georg, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, Kiel, 1843-1878, 8 vols.--=Wallon=, H. A., Histoire de l’esclavage dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1848, 3 vols.--=Waltzing=, F. P., Étude historique sur les corporations professionnelles chez les Romains.--=Wattenbach=, Wilhelm, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bis zur Mitte des 15. Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1858, 6th edition, 1893-1894.--=Weber=, Georg, Allgemeine Weltgeschichte, Leipsic, 1857-1880, 15 vols.--=Weise=, Julius, Die älteste Geschichte der Langobarden, Jena, 1877; Italien und die Langobardenherrscher von 568 bis 628, Halle, 1887.--=Westrum=, A., Die Langobarden und ihre Herzöge, Celle, 1886.--=Wiegandt=, L., Julius Cæsar und der tribunische Gewalt, Dresden, 1890.--=Wietersheim=, Eduard von, Geschichte der Völkerwanderung, Leipsic, 1880-1881, 2 vols.--=Wilhelm=, P., Le droit public romain, Louvain, 1883.--=Williams=, H. S., The History of the Art of Writing, New York and London, 1903.--=Wirth=, Johann G. A., Geschichte der deutschen Staaten, Stuttgart, 1843-1845, 4 vols.--=Wolfsgruber=, C., Gregor der Grosse, Saulgau, 1890.--=Wrightson=, R. H., The Sancta Republica Romana, London, 1890.

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=Zachariæ von Lingenthal=, Karl Salomo, L. Cornelius Sulla, genannt der Glückliche als Ordner des römischen Freystaates, Heidelberg, 1834.--=Zeuss=, Johann Kaspar, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme, Munich, 1837.--=Zielinski=, Th., Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte, Leipsic.