Part 5

The fourth year is in some respects the most important for the work in composition. The ability to write good English fluently, acquired by most of the pupils from several years of constant practice; the maturity of the pupils; their larger stock of knowledge and wider experience; and the possibility of making practical application of their ability to write in preparing orations and debates, reporting for local newspapers, or editing the school publications; all tend to make composition a more attractive and significant subject in the fourth year than it seems to be at any other period of the course. The emphasis will naturally be shifted from the mechanical details of expression which necessarily occupy the greater portion of the time in the earlier years of the course, to the larger and more interesting problems of expression. The study of the principles of exposition and argumentation, and of the development of the theme, as they appear in the plan and outline of the essay, take on new significance when their application to the writing of a debate or a commencement oration is made clear. The pupil discovers that the periodic sentence, parallel construction, climax, and other rhetorical devices, are effective means that he may use to accomplish his ends. For those with literary inclinations the study of plot, characterization, and poetic form and expression furnishes new inspiration for their own work. The teacher who fails to take advantage of this new interest in writing for practical purposes, by correlating it closely with all the English work of the fourth year, is losing the best opportunity of the course to teach the art of effective expression.

The amount of written work should be about the same as in the third year; that is, a weekly theme of about 250 words, or a fortnightly one of from 400 to 500 words; and a long theme of from 800 to 1200 words at intervals of six weeks. The subjects chosen for both long and short themes, in the course of the year should give practice in all the forms of discourse, narration, description, exposition, and argumentation, especially in combinations as they are found in the literature that is read in and out of the class room. The writing of a short story or of a chapter of a novel proves an interesting form of composition when fiction is being studied. The consideration of problems of character in the novels and dramas read and studied, permits pupils to express their opinions in essay form, while debates on questions growing out of class room discussions will give practice in argumentation. The preparation of commencement essays and orations, as has already been suggested, can readily be made a part of theme writing during the second semester.

8. Writing of Verse

The writing of verse has frequently been tried in the fourth year, and has generally proved an interesting and valuable exercise. The reading of poetry in the third and fourth years makes necessary some study of metre and verse forms, and with the information thus obtained as a basis, many pupils, it has been found, can write creditable verse. Exercises beginning with blank verse, octosyllabic and heroic couplets, and continuing with the quatrain, the triolet, the rondeau, the Spenserian stanza, and possibly the sonnet, can be given from time to time in place of weekly themes and will usually arouse considerable interest. Efforts to write verse, whether entirely successful or not, give the pupils a keener feeling for rhyme and rhythm, a better understanding of metrical forms, and of the nature of poetical composition; and to that extent should heighten their appreciation of poetry.

IX OUTLINE OF HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH

The following outline is designed to show in general the amount and character of each part of the English work to be considered in each year of the course. The order in which the details are arranged in each year is not intended to be the order in which these parts of the subject are to be taken up in the class room.

First Year

A. COMPOSITION (one-half of the time).

I. Grammar, Punctuation, Capitalization.

1. Work based on errors in pupils’ written work.

2. Occasional review of general principles.

II. Sentence.

1. Grammatical construction.

2. Unity.

3. Coherence.

III. Paragraph.

1. Length.

2. Unity (topic, selection of material).

3. Coherence (order, connection).

IV. Forms of Discourse.

1. Narration.

2. Description.

V. Theme Writing.

At least one and not more than two, one-paragraph themes of from 150–200 words, every week; to be carefully corrected by teacher and to be rewritten by pupil.

B. READING (one-half of the time).

Short stories and descriptive sketches.

Second Year

A. COMPOSITION (one-half of the time).

I. Sentence.

1. Length (long, medium, short).

2. Rhetorical form (loose, periodic, balanced).

3. Unity.

4. Coherence.

5. Emphasis.

II. Paragraph.

1. Unity.

2. Coherence (subtopics, order, and connection).

3. Emphasis (selection, proportion, position).

4. Methods of developing topic.

III. Whole Composition—Unity, Coherence, Emphasis.

IV. Words.

V. Figures of Speech.

VI. Forms of Discourse.

1. Narration.

2. Description.

3. Exposition.

VII. Theme Writing.

At least one and not more than two, one-paragraph themes of from 150–200 words, every week; and one four or five paragraph theme of from 600–800 words, every six weeks; both long and short themes to be carefully corrected by teacher and to be revised or rewritten by pupil.

B. READING (one-half). Descriptive and expository essays.

Third Year

A. READING (four-fifths).

1. History of English Literature (one-fifth to one-tenth for ¾ of year).

2. History of American Literature (one-fifth to one-tenth for ¼ of year).

3. Study of selections from representative English and American authors (three-fifths to four-fifths).

B. COMPOSITION (one-fifth to one-tenth).

I. Exposition.

1. Kinds.

2. Methods.

II. Structure of Whole Composition.

1. Unity.

2. Coherence (transition, connection).

3. Emphasis (proportion, position).

III. Words, figures of speech, sentences, and paragraphs.

IV. Theme Writing.

One short theme not exceeding 500 words every week; and one long theme of from 700–1000 words every six weeks; to be carefully corrected by teacher and to be rewritten or revised by pupil.

Fourth Year

A. READING (four-fifths).

Study of typical examples of the novel, the drama, the lyric, and the essay.

B. COMPOSITION (one-fifth).

I. Narration, Description, and Exposition.

II. Argumentation.

Methods.

III. Words, figures of speech, sentences, paragraphs, and whole composition.

IV. Verse writing.

V. Theme writing.

One short theme not exceeding 500 words, every week; and one long theme of from 800–1200 words every eight weeks; to be carefully corrected by teacher and revised or rewritten by pupil.

X LIST OF READINGS FOR FOUR YEARS

The following list contains the college entrance requirements in English for the years 1906 to 1911, and other selections adapted for reading and study in high school English classes. The Roman numerals following the titles indicate the year or years of the course herein outlined, in which the books may most profitably be read:

Addison’s De Coverley Papers. II, III.

Addison and Steele’s Spectator. II, III.

Arnold’s Sohrab and Rustum. II.

Bacon’s Essays. III.

Blackmore’s Lorna Doone. IV.

Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress, Part One. I, III.

Byron’s The Prisoner of Chillon, and Mazeppa. III.

Browning’s Cavalier Tunes, The Lost Leader, How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix, Evelyn Hope, Home Thoughts From Abroad, Home Thoughts from the Sea, Incident of the French Camp, The Boy and the Angel, One Word More, Hervé Riel, Pheidippides. III.

Bryant’s Translation of the Iliad and Odyssey (selections). I, II.

Burrough’s Birds and Bees, Sharp Eyes, A Bunch of Herbs, etc. I, II.

Burke’s Conciliation With America. IV.

Carlyle’s Essay on Burns. III, IV.

Carlyle’s Heroes and Hero Worship. III, IV.

Chaucer’s Prologue. III.

Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner. II, III.

Cooper’s Last of the Mohicans. II, III.

De Quincey’s Joan of Arc, and The English Mail Coach. III, IV.

Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities. II, IV.

Dickens’ Christmas Carol. I.

Emerson’s Essays (selected). III, IV.

Franklin’s Autobiography. I, II, III.

Mrs. Gaskell’s Cranford. III, IV.

George Eliot’s Silas Marner. IV.

Goldsmith’s The Deserted Village. II, III.

Goldsmith’s The Vicar of Wakefield. II, III.

Hawthorne’s House of the Seven Gables. II, III.

Hawthorne’s Twice Told Tales. I.

Irving’s Life of Goldsmith. II, III.

Irving’s Tales of a Traveler. I, II.

Irving’s Alhambra. II.

Irving’s Sketch Book. I, II.

Lamb’s Essays of Elia. II, III.

Lincoln’s Gettysburg Speech, etc. II, IV.

Longfellow’s The Courtship of Miles Standish. I, II.

Lowell’s Vision of Sir Launfal. II.

Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome. II.

Macaulay’s Essay on Addison. III, IV.

Macaulay’s Lord Clive. II, IV.

Macaulay’s Life of Johnson. II, IV.

Milton’s Lycidas, Comus, L’Allegro, and II Penseroso. III, IV.

Palgrave’s Golden Treasury (First Series) Books II and III with special attention to Dryden, Collins, Gray, Cowper, and Burns. III, IV.

Palgrave’s Golden Treasury (First Series) Book IV with special attention to Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley. III, IV.

Poe’s Poems. III, IV.

Poe’s Short Stories. II, III.

Pope’s The Rape of the Lock. III.

Pope’s Essay on Man and Essay on Criticism. III.

Ruskin’s Sesame and Lilies. II, III.

Scott’s Ivanhoe, Lady of the Lake, and Quentin Durward. II, III.

Shakespere’s Julius Caesar. II, III.

Shakespere’s Macbeth. IV.

Shakespere’s As You Like It, Henry V., Twelfth Night, and Midsummer Night’s Dream. III.

Shakespere’s Merchant of Venice. II, III.

Spenser’s Faerie Queene (selections). III.

Stevenson’s Treasure Island. I, II.

Thoreau’s Succession of Forest Trees. I, II.

Tennyson’s Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot and Elaine, The Passing of Arthur. II, III.

Thackeray’s Henry Esmond. IV.

Warner’s A-Hunting of the Deer. I.

Washington’s Farewell Address. II, IV.

Webster’s First Bunker Hill Oration. II, IV.

XI OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION AND STYLE

The following is a fairly complete outline of the essential elements of rhetorical theory as applied in composition work and in a study of structure and style. As such, it is designed primarily for the teacher who desires to review any part of the subject in preparation for teaching composition. Many portions may be used in the class room in a simplified form, to supplement or summarize parts of the text-books in rhetoric and composition. The books to which references are given are in general the most convenient and comprehensive manuals for the particular parts of the subject with which each deals.

The references as abbreviated in the outline are as follows:

(P), Pearson, Principles of Composition. Heath, Boston ($.50).

(W), Barrett Wendell, English Composition. Scribner, New York. ($1.50).

(M), Minto, Manual of English Prose Literature. Ginn, New York. ($1.50).

(C), Cairns, Forms of Discourse. Ginn, New York. ($1.15).

(BI, BII), Bain, English Composition and Rhetoric, 2 Vols. American Book Co., New York. ($1.20 a vol.).

1. Whole Composition

I. SUBJECT. 1. What is it? 2. Is it indicated by title? 3. Is it stated at the beginning? 4. Is it proportionate to the length of the composition? P. 11–12.

II. PURPOSE. 1. What is it? 2. Is it stated? 3. Is it accomplished?

III. INTEREST. 1. Is it an interesting subject? 2. Is it made interesting? 3. How is it made interesting?

IV. KIND OF COMPOSITION. 1. Narration, Description, Exposition, Argumentation, or Persuasion? 2. A combination of forms?

V. PLAN. 1. What are the main divisions of the composition? 2. How is the subject introduced? 3. What are the subdivisions in the body of the composition? 4. How is the composition concluded?

VI. TITLE. 1. Accurate? 2. Concise? 3. Attractive? P. 12–13.

A. UNITY. P. 15–25. W. 155–162.

1. Selection of Material.

_a._ Subject and Purpose?

_Violations of unity of selection._

(1) _False Introduction._ P. 18.

(2) _Tag Conclusion._ P. 42.

(3) _Digressions._ P. 20.

2. Unity of Expression.

_a._ Point of View? P. 25.

_a′._ Point of view evident? P. 25.

B. COHERENCE. P. 26–33. W. 162–178.

1. Arrangement. W. 162–166.

_a._ Order of parts of composition. P. 26.

_b._ Arrangement evident? P. 29.

_c._ Announcement. P. 31.

_d._ Summary. P. 30. cf. P. 44.

2. Connection. W. 173–178.

_a._ Devices for Transition and Connection.

(1) Transition words, phrases, and sentences.

(2) Transition paragraphs. P. 30.

(3) Repetition.

(4) Parallel construction. W. 174.

(5) Retrospective and prospective reference.

C. EMPHASIS. P. 34–45. W. 166–172.

1. Selection of Material. P. 34.

_a._ Important details chosen?

2. Proportion. P. 34.

_a._ Parts given space proportionate to their importance?

3. Arrangement. P. 38–43.

_a._ Important parts in emphatic positions?

_a′._ At end.

_b′._ At beginning.

_c′._ Summary.

_d′._ Climax.

_e′._ Antithesis.

2. Paragraphs

P. 53–60. W. 114–149. M. 11; 53–55; 89–97; 152. BI, 91–134.

A. FORM.

1. Related Paragraph.

2. Independent Paragraph.

3. Transition Paragraph.

4. Paragraph in Conversation.

B. LENGTH. W. 121–126.

1. Short—100 words or less.

2. Medium—100–300 words.

3. Long—300 words or more.

C. UNITY. P. 53–60. W. 122–126.

I. Topic.

1. Definition of Topic (i. e. determination of its limits).

2. Division of Topic (i. e. subtopics).

3. Topic Sentence. P. 57. W. 124.

4. Do first and last sentences give substance of the paragraph? P. 71–75. W. 128.

II. Selection of Material.

1. Topic and subtopics?

2. Point of View?

_Violations of unity of selection._

(1) _False Beginning._ cf. P. 18.

(2) _Tag Conclusion._ cf. P. 42.

(3) _Digressions._ P. 56–57.

III. Unity of Expression (cf. Paragraph Coherence).

1. Uniformity of Construction.

_Violations._

(1) _Needless change of voice or tense of verbs._

(2) _Needless change of subject of sentences._

D. COHERENCE. P. 61–70. W. 133–146.

I. Arrangement. P. 61–65. BI, 114–120.

1. Order of Parts.

_a._ Related ideas brought together? W. 135.

2. Arrangement evident?

_a._ Subtopic and transition sentences.

II. Connection. P. 65–70. W. 142–146. BI, 94–108.

1. Devices for Coherence.

_a._ Connective words, phrases, and clauses.

_b._ Transition sentences.

_c._ Repetition.

_d._ Parallel construction. W. 137–142.

_e._ Retrospective and prospective reference.

2. Position of Connectives. W. 144.

_a._ At beginning of sentences.

_b._ Imbedded in midst of sentences.

E. EMPHASIS. P. 71. W. 126–133. BI, 121–134.

I. Selection of Material.

1. Most important parts chosen? cf. P. 34.

II. Proportion. W. 131. cf. P. 34.

1. Parts given space proportionate to their importance?

III. Arrangement. P. 71–78. W. 126–131.

1. Position of parts.

2. Position of important parts.

_a._ At end.

_b._ At beginning.

_c._ Climax.

_d._ Summary.

_e._ Antithesis.

F. VARIETY.

1. In sentence construction.

_a._ Grammatical.

_b._ Rhetorical.

2. In sentence beginnings.

3. In devices for coherence.

4. In devices for emphasis.

3. Sentences

P. 83–116. W. 76–113. M. 3–11; 50–53; 87–89; 149–152. BI, 55–90.

A. LENGTH. W. 84; 89–94. M. 7. BI, 84–85.

I. Short Sentence—15 words or less.

1. Use; _e. g._:—

_a._ Single short sentence.

_a′._ Topic sentence.

_b′._ Subtopic sentence.

_c′._ Conclusion.

_d′._ Transition sentence.

_e′._ For emphasis.

_b._ Series of short sentences; _e. g._:—

_a′._ Rapidity.

_b′._ Excitement and suspense.

_c′._ Abruptness; staccato effect.

II. Medium Sentence—15–30 words.

III. Long Sentence—30 words or more.

1. Use; _e. g._:—

_a._ To group minor details.

_b._ Climax.

_c._ Rhythmical effect.

B. CONSTRUCTION.

I. Grammatical.

1. Simple. 2. Complex. 3. Compound.

II. Rhetorical.

1. Loose Sentence. P. 86–89. W. 84–89. BI, 55–63.

_a._ Effect and use of loose sentence.

2. Periodic Sentence. P. 86; 106–112. W. 84–89. M. 4.

_a._ Means for securing periodic effect.

_a′._ Essential parts at end of sentence.

_b′._ Phrases and dependent clauses at beginning.

_c′._ Use of correlatives.

_b._ Effect and use of periodic sentences.

3. Balanced Sentence. P. 112. W. 95. M. 8. BI, 66–74.

_a._ Means for securing balanced effect.

_a′._ Parallelism.

_b′._ Use of correlatives.

_b._ Effect and use of balanced sentences; e. g.:—

_a′._ Antithesis.

_b′._ Epigrammatic expression.

C. UNITY. P. 83–93. W. 96–99. M. 10. BI, 85–90.

I. Unity of Thought.

_Violations._

(1) _Digression._

(2) _Separation of parts of thought into independent sentences._ P. 89–92.

II. Unity of Expression. (cf. Sentence Coherence).

1. Relation of Parts.

_a._ Grammatical construction evident?

_b._ Parallelism of construction. P. 102–3.

_c._ Subordination in predication. P. 86. W. 108–9.

_d._ Implied predicate (no sentence).

D. COHERENCE. P. 94–104. W. 105–110.

I. Order. W. 105–106.

1. Collocation accurate? (i.e. words closely related in thought placed together).

_a._ Modifiers in accurate relation to modified elements?

_Violations._

(1) _Squinting construction._

(2) _Participle in false relation._

(3) _Misplaced adverbial modifier._

_b._ Reference exact? P. 94–96.

_Violations._

(1) _Ambiguous reference._

(2) _No antecedent._

(3) _Disagreement._

_c._ Correlatives properly placed? P. 100–101.

_d._ Collocation close?

_Violation._

(1) _Awkward separation of essential parts._

II. Construction (i. e. elements similar in significance similar in form). P. 102–104.

_a._ Balance.

_b._ Parallel construction.

_Violations._

(1) _Needless change of voice or tense of verbs._

(2) _Needless change of grammatical subject._

III. Connection. W. 108–110.

_a._ Accurate expression of relation of parts by connectives.

(1) Subordination indicated? (cf. subordination in predication under sentence unity. P. 86).

(2) Co-ordination accurately expressed?

E. EMPHASIS. P. 105–115. W. 99–103. BI, 74–84.

I. Arrangement of Parts.

1. Important parts in emphatic positions?

_a._ At beginning.

_b._ At end.

_c._ In other positions more emphatic.

2. Suspense—periodic effect.

3. Antithesis—balanced construction.

4. Climax. P. 113.

II. Subordination in Predication, (cf. Sentence Unity. P. 86.)

4. Words

P. 119–129. W. 50–75. M. 1–3; 49–50; 87; 147–149. BI, 27–54.

A. VOCABULARY.

I. Size.

1. Actual?

2. Relative? W. 50–52.

II. Range.

1. Narrow or wide? (cf. Kinds of words.)

III. Character.

1. General classes of words.

_a._ Long or short? W. 57–58.

_b._ Anglo-Saxon or classical? W. 52–57.

_c._ Common or learned?

_d._ General or specific? P. 121–129. W. 58–60.

_e._ Connotative or denotative? W. 71–75.

2. Kinds of words.

_a._ Literary.

_b._ Scientific.

_c._ Technical.

_d._ Colloquial.

_e._ Cant.

_f._ Slang.

_g._ Coined.

_h._ Archaic.

_i._ Foreign.

5. Figures of Speech

M. 11–14; 55–60; 97–104; 152–159. BI, 135–233.

(See Bradley, Classification of Rhetorical Figures, Modern Language Notes, Vol. I, pp. 280–284.)

A. TERM FIGURES (accentuated designation of object of thought).

I. Figure of Contrast.

1. Antithesis.

II. Figures of Resemblance.

1. Simile (resemblance affirmed).

2. Metaphor (resemblance assumed).

3. Personification (resemblance of inanimate to animate).

III. Figures of Contiguity and Association.

1. Synecdoche (part and whole, genus and species).

2. Antonomasia (individual with type of its class).

3. Metonymy (sign or symbol, cause and effect).

4. Transferred epithet (fancied sympathy or participation).

B. MODAL FIGURES (accentuated statement of proposition).

I. Interrogation.

II. Exclamation.

III. Apostrophe (absent addressed as if present).

IV. Vision (absent represented as if present).

V. Hyperbole (statement stronger than intent).

VI. Innuendo (statement weaker than intent).

VII. Irony (statement negatory to intent).

C. SENTENCE AND PARAGRAPH FIGURES (Co-ordination and gradation of terms or propositions):

I. Figures of Co-ordination.

1. Balance.

2. Parallelism.

II. Figures of Gradation.

1. Climax (ascending series).

2. Anticlimax (descending series).

6. Qualities of Style

A. INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES. M. 15–19; 60–68; 104–109; 159–161. W. 193–233. BI, 233–257.

I. Simplicity. Relation to elements of style.

II. Clearness. Relation to elements of style.

1. Perspicuity (general clearness).

2. Precision (minute clearness).

B. EMOTIONAL QUALITIES. M. 19–23; 64–81; 109–115; 162–167. W. 234.

I. Strength. Relation to elements of style.

1. Animation, vivacity, liveliness, rapidity.

2. Nerve, vigor, force, energy, fervor.

3. Dignity, stateliness, splendor, grandeur, magnificence, loftiness, sublimity.

II. Pathos. M. 20.

III. The Ludicrous. M. 23. BII, 236–279.

1. Humor.

2. Wit.

3. Satire.

C. AESTHETIC QUALITIES. M. 23–26; 71–72; 115; 167–169. BII, 280–294. W. 272–307.

I. Melody (sound or modulation).

II. Harmony (sound expressive of sense).

III. Taste.

7. Forms of Discourse

A. NARRATION. C. 58–112.

I. Kind.

1. Narration without plot. C. 58–67.

2. Narration with plot. C. 67–93.

II. Form. C. 59; 78–88.

III. Purpose. C. 59; 68.

IV. Interest. C. 65–68; 69–71.

V. Methods.

1. Number and choice of details. C. 63–64; 89–90. 2. Order of details. C. 65; 88–89.

_a._ Beginning. C. 65; 86–88.

_b._ Development. C. 65–66; 74–78.

_c._ Culmination. C. 67.

3. Diction. C. 66–67; 91.

B. DESCRIPTION. C. 113–169.

I. Kind.

1. Circumstantial. C. 142.

2. Dynamic. C. 143.

3. Suggestive. C. 144.

4. Objective. C. 148.

5. Subjective. C. 149.

II. Subject. C. 123–142.

III. Purpose. C. 113; 147.

IV. Methods.

1. Point of view.

2. Number and choice of details. C. 147–149.

3. Arrangement of details. C. 151.

4. Diction. C. 153.

C. EXPOSITION. C. 170–226.

I. Kind.

1. Subject.

_a._ Scientific or technical.

_b._ Popular.

2. Treatment.

_a._ Scientific or technical.

_b._ Popular.

II. Form. C. 170; 194–207.

III. Purpose. C. 170–171.

IV. Methods for Term. C. 172.

1. Definition. C. 172–174.

_a._ Logical definition. C. 174–178.

(1) Complete logical definition.

(2) Incomplete logical definition. C. 182.

_b._ Incomplete definition. C. 178–186.

(1) Repetition (synonyms). C. 179.

(2) Exclusion (what not).

(3) Comparison. C. 180–182.

(4) Contrast. C. 180–182.

(5) Example. C. 179.

(6) Logical description (particulars and details). C. 185–186.

2. Division. C. 186–191.

_a._ Classification. C. 187–190.

_b._ Partition. C. 190–191.

V. Methods for Proposition. C. 191–194.

1. Exposition of terms (cf. Methods for term).

2. Repetition.

3. Obverse.

4. Example.

5. Analogy.

XII BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. The Teaching of English

A bibliography of some thirty pages consisting of all the important books, pamphlets, and magazine articles published before 1903, that treat of the different phases of English work in elementary and secondary schools is appended to Carpenter, Baker, and Scott’s “The Teaching of English”, and will be of great assistance to those who desire material on any part of the work since the references are classified under such heads as, rhetoric and composition, literature, grammar, spelling, college entrance requirements, etc. The volumes of the educational periodicals such as “Education”, “Educational Review”, “School Review”, etc., that have appeared since 1903, also contain many articles on English work. The following are the most important books on the teaching of English in the high school:

Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T., and Scott, F. N. The Teaching of English, Longmans, Green and Co., New York, 1903. ($1.50). The best discussion of every phase of English work in elementary and secondary schools, with excellent bibliographies.