Part 11

The distortions of the solar lines indicate that the wind at the surface of the sun often blows with a velocity of _from one hundred to three hundred miles a second_. The most violent wind known on the earth has velocity of a hundred miles an hour.

III. THE PHOTOSPHERE AND SUN SPOTS.

The Photosphere.

172. _The Granulation of the Photosphere._--When the surface of the sun is examined with a good telescope under favorable atmospheric conditions, it is seen to be composed of minute grains of intense brilliancy and of irregular form, floating in a darker medium, and arranged in streaks and groups, as shown in Fig. 190. With a rather low power, the general effect of the surface is much like that of rough drawing-paper, or of curdled milk seen from a little distance. With a high power and excellent atmospheric conditions, the _grains_ are seen to be irregular, rounded masses, some hundreds of miles in diameter, sprinkled upon a less brilliant background, and appearing somewhat like snow-flakes sparsely scattered over a grayish cloth. Fig. 191 is a representation of these grains according to Secchi.

With a very powerful telescope and the very best atmospheric conditions, the grains themselves are resolved into _granules_, or little luminous dots, not more than a hundred miles or so in diameter, which, by their aggregation, make up the grains, just as they, in their turn, make up the coarser masses of the solar surface. Professor Langley estimates that these granules constitute about one-fifth of the sun's surface, while they emit at least three-fourths of its light.

173. _Shape of the Grains._--The grains differ considerably in shape at different times and on different parts of the sun's surface. Nasmyth, in 1861, described them as _willow-leaves_ in shape, several thousand miles in length, but narrow and with pointed ends. He figured the surface of the sun as a sort of basket-work formed by the interweaving of such filaments. To others they have appeared to have the form of _rice-grains_. On portions of the sun's disk the elementary structure is often composed of long, narrow, blunt-ended filaments, not so much like willow-leaves as like bits of straw lying roughly parallel to each other,--a _thatch-straw_ formation, as it has been called. This is specially common in the immediate neighborhood of the spots.

174. _Nature of the Grains._--The grains are, undoubtedly, incandescent _clouds_ floating in the sun's atmosphere, and composed of partially condensed metallic vapors, just as the clouds of our atmosphere are composed of partially condensed aqueous vapor. Rain on the sun is composed of white-hot drops of molten iron and other metals; and these drops are often driven with the wind with a velocity of over a hundred miles a second.

As to the forms of the grains, Professor Young says, "If one were to speculate as to the explanation of the grains and thatch-straws, it might be that the grains are the upper ends of long filaments of luminous cloud, which, over most of the sun's surface, stand approximately vertical, but in the neighborhood of a spot are inclined so as to lie nearly horizontal. This is not certain, though: it may be that the cloud-masses over the more quiet portions of the solar surface are really, as they seem, nearly globular, while near the spots they are drawn out into filamentary forms by atmospheric currents."

175. _Faculæ._--The _faculæ_ are irregular streaks of greater brightness than the general surface, looking much like the flecks of foam on the surface of a stream below a waterfall. They are sometimes from five to twenty thousand miles in length, covering areas immensely larger than a terrestrial continent.

These faculæ are _elevated regions_ of the solar surface, ridges and crests of luminous matter, which rise above the general level of the sun's surface, and protrude through the denser portions of the solar atmosphere. When one of these passes over the edge of the sun's disk, it can be seen to project, like a little tooth. Any elevation on the sun to be perceptible at all must measure at least half a second of an arc, or two hundred and twenty-five miles.

The faculæ are most numerous in the neighborhood of the spots, and much more conspicuous near the limb of the sun than near the centre of the disk. Fig. 192 gives the general appearance of the faculæ, and the darkening of the limb of the sun. Near the spots, the faculæ often undergo very rapid change of form, while elsewhere on the disk they change rather slowly, sometimes undergoing little apparent alteration for several days.

176. _Why the Faculæ are most Conspicuous near the Limb of the Sun._--The reason why the faculæ are most conspicuous near the limb of the sun is this: The luminous surface of the sun is covered with an atmosphere, which, though not very thick compared with the diameter of the sun, is still sufficient to absorb a good deal of light. Light coming from the centre of the sun's disk penetrates this atmosphere under the most favorable conditions, and is but slightly reduced in amount. The edges of the disk, on the other hand, are seen through a much greater thickness of atmosphere; and the light is reduced by absorption some seventy-five per cent. Suppose, now, a facula were sufficiently elevated to penetrate quite through this atmosphere. Its light would be undimmed by absorption on any part of the sun's disk; but at the centre of the disk it would be seen against a background nearly as bright as itself, while at the margin it would be seen against one only a quarter as bright. It is evident that the light of any facula, owing to the elevation, would be reduced less rapidly as we approach the edge of the disk than that of the general surface of the sun, which lies at a lower level.

Sun-Spots.

177. _General Appearance of Sun-Spots._--The general appearance of a well-formed sun-spot is shown in Fig. 193. The spot consists of a very dark central portion of irregular shape, called the _umbra_, which is surrounded by a less dark fringe, called the _penumbra_. The penumbra is made up, for the most part, of filaments directed radially inward.

There is great variety in the details of form in different sun-spots; but they are generally nearly circular during the middle period of their existence. During the period of their development and of their disappearance they are much more irregular in form.

There is nothing like a gradual shading-off of the penumbra, either towards the umbra on the one side, or towards the photosphere on the other. The penumbra is separated from both the umbra and the photosphere by a sharp line of demarcation. The umbra is much brighter on the inner than on the outer edge, and frequently the photosphere is excessively bright at the margin of the penumbra. The brightness of the inner penumbra seems to be due to the crowding together of the penumbral filaments where they overhang the edge of the umbra.

There is a general antithesis between the irregularities of the outer and inner edges of the penumbra. Where an angle of the penumbral matter crowds in upon the umbra, it is generally matched by a corresponding outward extension into the photosphere, and _vice versa_.

The umbra of the spot is far from being uniformly dark. Many of the penumbral filaments terminate in little detached grains of luminous matter; and there are also fainter veils of a substance less brilliant, but sometimes rose-colored, which seem to float above the umbra. The umbra itself is made up of masses of clouds which are really intensely brilliant, and which appear dark only by contrast with the intenser brightness of the solar surface. Among these clouds are often seen one or more minute circular spots much darker than the rest of the umbra. These darker portions are called _nuclei_. They seem to be the mouths of tubular orifices penetrating to unknown depths. The faint veils mentioned above continually melt away, and are replaced by others in some different position. The bright granules at the tips of the penumbral filaments seem to sink and dissolve, while fresh portions break off to replace them. There is a continual indraught of luminous matter over the whole extent of the penumbra.

At times, though very rarely, patches of intense brightness suddenly break out, remain visible for a few minutes, and move over the spot with velocities as great as a hundred miles _a second_.

The spots change their form and size quite perceptibly from day to day, and sometimes even from hour to hour.

178. _Duration of Sun-Spots._--The average life of a sun-spot is two or three months: the longest on record is that of a spot observed in 1840 and 1841, which lasted eighteen months. There are cases, however, where the disappearance of a spot is very soon followed by the appearance of another at the same point; and sometimes this alternate disappearance and re-appearance is several times repeated. While some spots are thus long-lived, others endure only a day or two, and sometimes only a few hours.

179. _Groups of Spots._--The spots usually appear not singly, but in groups. A large spot is often followed by a train of smaller ones to the east of it, many of which are apt to be irregular in form and very imperfect in structure, sometimes with no umbra at all, often with a penumbra only on one side. In such cases, when any considerable change of form or structure shows itself in the principal spot, it seems to rush westward over the solar surface, leaving its attendants trailing behind. When a large spot divides into two or more, as often happens, the parts usually seem to repel each other, and fly apart with great velocity.

180. _Size of the Spots._--The spots are sometimes of enormous size. Groups have often been observed covering areas of more than a hundred thousand miles square, and single spots occasionally measure from forty to fifty thousand miles in diameter, the umbra being twenty-five or thirty thousand miles across. A spot, however, measuring thirty thousand miles over all, may be considered a large one. Such a spot can easily be seen without a telescope when the brightness of the sun's surface is reduced by clouds or nearness to the horizon, or by the use of colored glass. During the years 1871 and 1872 spots were visible to the naked eye for a considerable portion of the time. The largest spot yet recorded was observed in 1858. It had a breadth of more than a hundred and forty-three thousand miles, or nearly eighteen times the diameter of the earth, and covered about a thirty-sixth of the whole surface of the sun.

Fig. 194 represents a group of sun-spots observed by Professor Langley, and drawn on the same scale as the small circle in the upper left-hand corner, which represents the surface of half of our globe.

181. _The Penumbral Filaments._--Not unfrequently the penumbral filaments are curved spirally, indicating a cyclonic action, as shown in Fig. 195. In such cases the whole spot usually turns slowly around, sometimes completing an entire revolution in a few days. More frequently, however, the spiral motion lasts but a short time; and occasionally, after continuing for a while in one direction, the motion is reversed. Very often in large spots we observe opposite spiral movements in different portions of the umbra, as shown in Figs. 196 and 197.

Neighboring spots show no tendency to rotate in the same direction. The number of spots in which a decided cyclonic motion (like that shown in Fig. 198) appears is comparatively small, not exceeding two or three per cent of the whole.

Plate II. represents a typical sun-spot as delineated by Professor Langley. At the left-hand and upper portions of this great spot the filaments present the ordinary appearance, while at the lower edge, and upon the great overhanging branch, they are arranged very differently. The feathery brush below the branch, closely resembling a frost-crystal on a window-pane, is as rare as it is curious, and has not been satisfactorily explained.

182. _Birth and Decay of Sun-Spots._--The formation of a spot is sometimes gradual, requiring days or even weeks for its full development; and sometimes a single day suffices. Generally, for some time before its appearance, there is an evident disturbance of the solar surface, indicated especially by the presence of many brilliant faculæ, among which _pores_, or minute black dots, are scattered. These enlarge, and between them appear grayish patches, in which the photospheric structure is unusually evident, as if they were caused by a dark mass lying below a thin veil of luminous filaments. This veil seems to grow gradually thinner, and finally breaks open, giving us at last the complete spot with its penumbra. Some of the pores coalesce with the principal spot, some disappear, and others form the attendant train before described (179). The spot when once formed usually assumes a circular form, and remains without striking change until it disappears. As its end approaches, the surrounding photosphere seems to crowd in, and overwhelm the penumbra. Bridges of light (Fig. 199), often much brighter than the average of the solar surface, push across the umbra; the arrangement of the penumbra filaments becomes confused; and, as Secchi expresses it, the luminous matter of the photosphere seems to tumble pell-mell into the chasm, which disappears, and leaves a disturbed surface marked with faculæ, which, in their turn, gradually subside.

183. _Motion of Sun-Spots._--The spots have a regular motion across the disk of the sun from east to west, occupying about twelve days in the transit. A spot generally appears first on or near the east limb, and, after twelve or fourteen days, disappears at the west limb. At the end of another fourteen days, or more, it re-appears at the east limb, unless, in the mean time, it has vanished from sight entirely. This motion of the spots is indicated by the arrow in Fig. 200. The interval between two successive appearances of the same spot on the eastern edge of the sun is about twenty-seven days.

184. _The Rotation of the Sun._--The spots are evidently carried around by the rotation of the sun on its axis. It is evident, from Fig. 201, that the sun will need to make more than a complete rotation in order to bring a spot again upon the same part of the disk as seen from the earth. _S_ represents the sun, and _E_ the earth. The arrows indicate the direction of the sun's rotation. When the earth is at _E_, a spot at _a_ would be seen at the centre of the solar disk. While the sun is turning on its axis, the earth moves in its orbit from _E_ to _E'_: hence the sun must make a complete rotation, and turn from _a_ to _a'_ in addition, in order to bring the spot again to the centre of the disk. To carry the spot entirely around, and then on to _a'_, requires about twenty-seven days. From this _synodical period_ of the spot, as it might be called, it has been calculated that the sun must rotate on its axis in about twenty-five days.

185. _The Inclination of the Sun's Axis._--The paths described by sun-spots across the solar disk vary with the position of the earth in its orbit, as shown in Fig. 202. We therefore conclude that the sun's axis is not perpendicular to the plane of the earth's orbit. The sun rotates on its axis from west to east, and the axis leans about seven degrees from the perpendicular to the earth's orbit.

186. _The Proper Motion of the Spots._--When the period of the sun's rotation is deduced from the motion of spots in different solar latitudes, there is found to be considerable variation in the results obtained. Thus spots near the equator indicate that the sun rotates in about twenty-five days; while those in latitude 20° indicate a period about eighteen hours longer; and those in latitude 30° a period of twenty-seven days and a half. Strictly speaking, the sun, as a whole, has no single period of rotation; but different portions of its surface perform their revolutions in different times. The equatorial regions not only move more rapidly in miles per hour than the rest of the solar surface, but they _complete the entire rotation in shorter time_.

There appears to be a peculiar surface-drift in the equatorial regions of the sun, the cause of which is unknown, but which gives the spots a _proper_ motion; that is, a motion of their own, independent of the rotation of the sun.

187. _Distribution of the Sun-Spots._--The sun-spots are not distributed uniformly over the sun's surface, but occur mainly in two zones on each side of the equator, and between the latitudes of 10° and 30°, as shown in Fig. 203. On and near the equator itself they are comparatively rare. There are still fewer beyond 35° of latitude, and only a single spot has ever been recorded more than 45° from the solar equator.

Fig. 204 shows the distribution of the sun-spots observed by Carrington during a period of eight years. The irregular line on the left-hand side of the figure indicates by its height the comparative frequency with which the spots occurred in different latitudes. In Fig. 205 the same thing is indicated by different degrees of darkness in the shading of the belts.

188. _The Periodicity of the Spots._--Careful observations of the solar spots indicate a period of about eleven years in the spot-producing activity of the sun. During two or three years the spots increase in number and in size; then they begin to diminish, and reach a minimum five or six years after the maximum. Another period of about six years brings the return of the maximum. The intervals are, however, somewhat irregular.

Fig. 206 gives a graphic representation of the periodicity of the sun-spots. The height of the curve shows the frequency of the sun-spots in the years given at the bottom of the figure. It appears, from an examination of this sun-spot curve, that the average interval from a minimum to the next following maximum is only about four years and a half, while that from a maximum to the next following minimum is six years and six-tenths. The disturbance which produces the sun-spots is developed suddenly, but dies away gradually.

189. _Connection between Sun-Spots and Terrestrial Magnetism._--The magnetic needle does not point steadily in the same direction, but is subject to various disturbances, some of which are regular, and others irregular.

(1) One of the most noticeable of the regular magnetic changes is the so-called _diurnal oscillation_. During the early part of the day the north pole of the needle moves toward the west in our latitude, returning to its mean position about ten P.M., and remaining nearly stationary during the night. The extent of this oscillation in the United States is about fifteen minutes of arc in summer, and not quite half as much in winter; but it differs very much in different localities and at different times, and the average diurnal oscillation in any locality increases and decreases pretty regularly during a period of about eleven years. The maximum and minimum of this period of magnetic disturbance are found to coincide with the maximum and minimum of the sun-spot period. This is shown in Fig. 206, in which the dotted lines indicate the variations in the intensity of the magnetic disturbance.

(2) Occasionally so-called _magnetic storms_ occur, during which the compass-needle is sometimes violently disturbed, oscillating five degrees, or even ten degrees, within an hour or two. These storms are generally accompanied by an aurora, and an aurora is _always_ accompanied by magnetic disturbance. A careful comparison of aurora observations with those of sun-spots shows an almost perfect parallelism between the curves of auroral and sun-spot frequency.

(3) A number of observations render it very probable that every intense disturbance of the solar surface is propagated to our terrestrial magnetism with the speed of light.

Fig. 207 shows certain of the solar lines as they were observed by Professor Young on Aug. 3, 1872. The contortions of the _F_ line indicated an intense disturbance in the atmosphere of the sun. There were three especially notable paroxysms in this distortion, occurring at a quarter of nine, half-past ten, and ten minutes of twelve, A.M.

Fig. 208 shows the curve of magnetic disturbance as traced at Greenwich on the same day. It will be seen from the curve that it was a day of general magnetic disturbance. At the times of the three paroxysms, which are given at the bottom of the figure, it will be observed that there is a peculiar shivering of the magnetic curve.

190. _The Spots are Depressions in the Photosphere._--This fact was first clearly brought out by Dr. Wilson of Glasgow, in 1769, from observations upon the penumbra of a spot in November of that year. He found, that when the spot appeared at the eastern limb, or edge of the sun, just moving into sight, the penumbra was well marked on the side of the spot nearest to the edge of the disk; while on the other edge of the spot, towards the centre of the sun, there was no penumbra visible at all, and the umbra itself was almost hidden, as if behind a bank. When the spot had moved a day's journey toward the centre of the disk, the whole of the umbra came into sight, and the penumbra on the inner edge of the spot began to be visible as a narrow line. After the spot was well advanced upon the disk, the penumbra was of the same width all around the spot. When the spot approached the sun's western limb, the same phenomena were repeated, but in the inverse order. The penumbra on the _inner_ edge of the spot narrowed much faster than that on the outer, disappeared entirely, and finally seemed to hide from sight much of the umbra nearly a whole day before the spot passed from view around the limb. This is precisely what would occur (as Fig. 209 clearly shows) if the spot were a saucer-shaped depression in the solar surface, the bottom of the saucer corresponding to the umbra, and the sloping sides to the penumbra.

191. _Sun-Spot Spectrum._--When the image of a sun-spot is thrown upon the slit of the spectroscope, the spectrum is seen to be crossed longitudinally by a continuous dark band, showing an increased general absorption in the region of the sun-spot. Many of the spectral lines are greatly thickened, as shown in Fig. 210. This thickening of the lines shows that the absorption is taking place at a greater depth. New lines and shadings often appear, which indicate, that, in the cooler nucleus of the spot, certain compound vapors exist, which are dissociated elsewhere on the sun's surface. These lines and shadings are shown in Fig. 211.

It often happens that certain of the spectral lines are reversed in the spectrum of the spot, a thin bright line appearing over the centre of a thick dark one, as shown in Fig. 212. These reversals are due to very bright vapors floating over the spot.