Chapter 16

The first schooner ever constructed is said to have been built in Gloucester, Massachusetts, about the year 1713, by a Captain Andrew Robinson, and to have received its name from the following trivial circumstance: When the vessel went off the stocks into the water, a bystander cried out,"O, how she scoons!" Robinson replied, " A scooner let her be;" and, from that time, vessels thus masted and rigged have gone by this name. The word scoon is popularly used in some parts of New England to denote the act of making stones skip along the surface of water. The Scottish scon means the same thing. Both words are probably allied to the Icel. skunda, skynda, to make haste, hurry, AS. scunian to avoid, shun, Prov. E. scun. In the New England records, the word appears to have been originally written scooner. Babson, in his "History of Gloucester," gives the following extract from a letter written in that place Sept. 25, 1721, by Dr. Moses Prince, brother of the Rev. Thomas Prince, the annalist of New England: "This gentleman (Captain Robinson) was first contriver of schooners, and built the first of that sort about eight years since."

Schoon"er, n. [D.] A large goblet or drinking glass, -- used for lager beer or ale. [U.S.]

Schorl (shôrl), n. [G. schörl; cf. Sw. skörl.] (Min.) Black tourmaline. [Written also shorl.]

Schor*la"ceous (?), a. Partaking of the nature and character of schorl; resembling schorl.

Schorl"ous (?), a. Schorlaceous.

Schorl"y> (&?;), a. Pertaining to, or containing, schorl; as, schorly granite.

{ Schot"tish, Schot"tische }, (&?;), n. [F. schottish, schotisch from G. schottisch Scottish, Scotch.] A Scotch round dance in 2-4 time, similar to the polka, only slower; also, the music for such a dance; -- not to be confounded with the Écossaise.

Schrei"bers*ite (?), n. [Named after Carl von Schreibers, of Vienna.] (Min.) A mineral occurring in steel-gray flexible folia. It contains iron, nickel, and phosphorus, and is found only in meteoric iron.

Schrode (?), n. See Scrod.

Schwann's" sheath` (?). [So called from Theodor Schwann, a German anatomist of the 19th century.] (Anat.) The neurilemma.

Schwann's white" sub"stance (?). (Anat.) The substance of the medullary sheath.

Schwan"pan` (?), n. Chinese abacus.

||Schweit"zer*kä"se (?), n. [G. schweizerkäse Swiss cheese.] Gruyère ||cheese.

{ Schwenk"feld`er (?), Schwenk"feld`i*an (?) }, n. A member of a religious sect founded by Kaspar von Schwenkfeld, a Silesian reformer who disagreed with Luther, especially on the deification of the body of Christ.

Sci*æ"noid (?), a. [L. sciæna a kind of fish (fr. Gr. &?;) + -oid.] (Zoöl.) Of or pertaining to the Sciænidæ, a family of marine fishes which includes the meagre, the squeteague, and the kingfish.

Sci"a*graph (?), n. [See Sciagraphy.] 1. (Arch.) An old term for a vertical section of a building; -- called also sciagraphy. See Vertical section, under Section.

2. (Phys.) A radiograph. [Written also skiagraph.]

Sci`a*graph"ic*al (?), a. [Cf. F. sciagraphique, Gr. &?;.] Pertaining to sciagraphy. - - Sci`a*graph"ic*al*ly, adv.

Sci*ag"ra*phy (?), n. [Gr. &?;, fr. &?; drawing in light and shade; &?; a shadow + &?; to delineate, describe: cf. F. sciagraphie.] 1. The art or science of projecting or delineating shadows as they fall in nature. Gwilt.

2. (Arch.) Same as Sciagraph.

Sci*am"a*chy (?), n. See Sciomachy.

{ Sci`a*ther"ic (?), Sci`a*ther"ic*al (?) }, a. [Gr. &?;, fr. &?; a sundial; &?; a shadow + &?; to hunt, to catch.] Belonging to a sundial. [Obs.] Sir T. Browne.

-- Sci`a*ther"ic*al*ly, adv. [Obs.] J. Gregory.

Sci*at"ic (?), a. [F. sciatique, LL. sciaticus, from L. ischiadicus, Gr. &?;. See Ischiadic.] (Anat.) Of or pertaining to the hip; in the region of, or affecting, the hip; ischial; ischiatic; as, the sciatic nerve, sciatic pains.

Sci*at"ic, n. [Cf. F. sciatique.] (Med.) Sciatica.

Sci*at"i*ca (?), n. [NL.] (Med.) Neuralgia of the sciatic nerve, an affection characterized by paroxysmal attacks of pain in the buttock, back of the thigh, or in the leg or foot, following the course of the branches of the sciatic nerve. The name is also popularly applied to various painful affections of the hip and the parts adjoining it. See Ischiadic passion, under Ischiadic.

Sci*at"ic*al (?), a. (Anat.) Sciatic.

Sci*at"ic*al*ly, adv. With, or by means of, sciatica.

Scib"bo*leth (?), n. Shibboleth. [Obs.]

Sci"ence (?), n. [F., fr. L. scientia, fr. sciens, -entis, p. pr. of scire to know. Cf. Conscience, Conscious, Nice.] 1. Knowledge; knowledge of principles and causes; ascertained truth of facts.

If we conceive God's sight or science, before the creation, to be extended to all and every part of the world, seeing everything as it is, . . . his science or sight from all eternity lays no necessity on anything to come to pass.

Hammond.

Shakespeare's deep and accurate science in mental philosophy.

Coleridge.

2. Accumulated and established knowledge, which has been systematized and formulated with reference to the discovery of general truths or the operation of general laws; knowledge classified and made available in work, life, or the search for truth; comprehensive, profound, or philosophical knowledge.

All this new science that men lere [teach].

Chaucer.

Science is . . . a complement of cognitions, having, in point of form, the character of logical perfection, and in point of matter, the character of real truth.

Sir W. Hamilton.

3. Especially, such knowledge when it relates to the physical world and its phenomena, the nature, constitution, and forces of matter, the qualities and functions of living tissues, etc.; -- called also natural science, and physical science.

Voltaire hardly left a single corner of the field entirely unexplored in science, poetry, history, philosophy.

J. Morley.

4. Any branch or department of systematized knowledge considered as a distinct field of investigation or object of study; as, the science of astronomy, of chemistry, or of mind.

The ancients reckoned seven sciences, namely, grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy; -- the first three being included in the Trivium, the remaining four in the Quadrivium.

Good sense, which only is the gift of Heaven, And though no science, fairly worth the seven.

Pope.

5. Art, skill, or expertness, regarded as the result of knowledge of laws and principles.

His science, coolness, and great strength.

G. A. Lawrence.

Science is applied or pure. Applied science is a knowledge of facts, events, or phenomena, as explained, accounted for, or produced, by means of powers, causes, or laws. Pure science is the knowledge of these powers, causes, or laws, considered apart, or as pure from all applications. Both these terms have a similar and special signification when applied to the science of quantity; as, the applied and pure mathematics. Exact science is knowledge so systematized that prediction and verification, by measurement, experiment, observation, etc., are possible. The mathematical and physical sciences are called the exact sciences.

Comparative sciences, Inductive sciences. See under Comparative, and Inductive.

Syn. -- Literature; art; knowledge. -- Science, Literature, Art. Science is literally knowledge, but more usually denotes a systematic and orderly arrangement of knowledge. In a more distinctive sense, science embraces those branches of knowledge of which the subject-matter is either ultimate principles, or facts as explained by principles or laws thus arranged in natural order. The term literature sometimes denotes all compositions not embraced under science, but usually confined to the belles-lettres. [See Literature.] Art is that which depends on practice and skill in performance. "In science, scimus ut sciamus; in art, scimus ut producamus. And, therefore, science and art may be said to be investigations of truth; but one, science, inquires for the sake of knowledge; the other, art, for the sake of production; and hence science is more concerned with the higher truths, art with the lower; and science never is engaged, as art is, in productive application. And the most perfect state of science, therefore, will be the most high and accurate inquiry; the perfection of art will be the most apt and efficient system of rules; art always throwing itself into the form of rules." Karslake.

Sci"ence, v. t. To cause to become versed in science; to make skilled; to instruct. [R.] Francis.

Sci"ent (?), a. [L. sciens, - entis, p. pr.] Knowing; skillful. [Obs.] Cockeram.

||Sci*en"ter (?), adv. [L.] (Law) Knowingly; willfully. Bouvier.

Sci*en"tial (?), a. [LL. scientialis, fr. L. scientia.] Pertaining to, or producing, science. [R.] Milton.

Sci`en*tif"ic (?), a. [F. scientifique; L. scientia science + facere to make.] 1. Of or pertaining to science; used in science; as, scientific principles; scientific apparatus; scientific observations.

2. Agreeing with, or depending on, the rules or principles of science; as, a scientific classification; a scientific arrangement of fossils.

3. Having a knowledge of science, or of a science; evincing science or systematic knowledge; as, a scientific chemist; a scientific reasoner; a scientific argument.

Bossuet is as scientific in the structure of his sentences.

Landor.

Scientific method, the method employed in exact science and consisting of: (a) Careful and abundant observation and experiment. (b) generalization of the results into formulated "Laws" and statements.

Sci`en*tif"ic*al (?), a. Scientific. Locke.

Sci`en*tif"ic*al*ly, adv. In a scientific manner; according to the rules or principles of science.

It is easier to believe than to be scientifically instructed.

Locke.

Sci"en*tist (?), n. One learned in science; a scientific investigator; one devoted to scientific study; a savant. [Recent]

Twenty years ago I ventured to propose one [a name for the class of men who give their lives to scientific study] which has been slowly finding its way to general adoption; and the word scientist, though scarcely euphonious, has gradually assumed its place in our vocabulary. B. A. Gould (Address, 1869).

Scil"i*cet (?), adv. [L., fr. scire licet you may know.] To wit; namely; videlicet; -- often abbreviated to sc., or ss.

Scil"la*in (?), n. (Chem.) A glucoside extracted from squill (Scilla) as a light porous substance.

Scil"li*tin (?), n. [Cf. F. scilitine.] (Chem.) A bitter principle extracted from the bulbs of the squill (Scilla), and probably consisting of a complex mixture of several substances.

{ Scim"i*ter , Scim"i*tar } (?), n. [F. cimeterre, cf. It. scimitarra, Sp. cimitarra; fr. Biscayan cimetarra with a sharp edge; or corrupted from Per. shimshr.] 1. A saber with a much curved blade having the edge on the convex side, -- in use among Mohammedans, esp., the Arabs and persians. [Written also cimeter, and scymetar.]

2. A long-handled billhook. See Billhook.

Scimiter pods (Bot.), the immense curved woody pods of a leguminous woody climbing plant (Entada scandens) growing in tropical India and America. They contain hard round flattish seeds two inches in diameter, which are made into boxes.

Scin"coid (?), a. [L. scincus a kind of lizard (fr. Gr. &?;) + -oid. Cf. Skink.] (Zoöl.) Of or pertaining to the family Scincidæ, or skinks. -- n. A scincoidian.

||Scin*coi"de*a (?), n. pl. [NL.] (Zoöl.) A tribe of lizards including ||the skinks. See Skink.

Scin*coid"i*an (?), n. (Zoöl.) Any one of numerous species of lizards of the family Scincidæ or tribe Scincoidea. The tongue is not extensile. The body and tail are covered with overlapping scales, and the toes are margined. See Illust. under Skink.

Scin"iph (?), n. [L. scinifes, cinifes, or ciniphes, pl., Gr. &?;.] Some kind of stinging or biting insect, as a flea, a gnat, a sandfly, or the like. Ex. viii. 17 (Douay version).

Scink (?), n. (Zoöl.) A skink.

Scink (?), n. A slunk calf. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.]

||Scin*til"la (?), n. [L.] A spark; the least particle; an iota; a ||tittle. R. North.

Scin"til*lant (?), a. [L. scintillans, p. pr. of scintillare to sparkle. See Scintillate.] Emitting sparks, or fine igneous particles; sparkling. M. Green.

Scin"til*late (?), v. i. [imp. & p. p. Scintillated (?); p. pr. & vb. n. Scintillating.] [L. scintillare, scintillatum, from scintilla a spark. Cf. Stencil.] 1. To emit sparks, or fine igneous particles.

As the electrical globe only scintillates when rubbed against its cushion.

Sir W. Scott.

2. To sparkle, as the fixed stars.

Scin`til*la"tion (?), n. [L. scintillatio: cf. F. scintillation.] 1. The act of scintillating.

2. A spark or flash emitted in scintillating.

These scintillations are . . . the inflammable effluences discharged from the bodies collided.

Sir T. Browne.

Scin"til*lous (?), a. Scintillant. [R.]

Scin"til*lous*ly, adv. In a scintillant manner. [R.]

Sci*og"ra*phy (?), n. See Sciagraphy.

Sci"o*lism (?), n. [See Sciolist.] The knowledge of a sciolist; superficial knowledge.

Sci"o*list (?), n. [L. sciolus. See Sciolous.] One who knows many things superficially; a pretender to science; a smatterer.

These passages in that book were enough to humble the presumption of our modern sciolists, if their pride were not as great as their ignorance.

Sir W. Temple.

A master were lauded and sciolists shent.

R. Browning.

Sci`o*lis"tic (?), a. Of or pertaining to sciolism, or a sciolist; partaking of sciolism; resembling a sciolist.

Sci"o*lous (?), a. [L. scilus, dim. of scius knowing, fr. scire to know. See Science.] Knowing superficially or imperfectly. Howell.

Sci*om"a*chy (?), n. [Gr. &?;, &?;; &?; a shadow + &?; battle: cf. F. sciomachie, sciamachie.] A fighting with a shadow; a mock contest; an imaginary or futile combat. [Written also scimachy.] Cowley.

Sci"o*man`cy (?), n. [Gr. &?; a shadow + -mancy: cf. F. sciomance, sciamancie.] Divination by means of shadows.

Sci"on (?), n. [OF. cion, F. scion, probably from scier to saw, fr. L. secare to cut. Cf. Section.] 1. (Bot.) (a) A shoot or sprout of a plant; a sucker. (b) A piece of a slender branch or twig cut for grafting. [Formerly written also cion, and cyon.]

2. Hence, a descendant; an heir; as, a scion of a royal stock.

Sci*op"tic (?), a. [Gr. &?; shadow + &?; belonging to sight: cf. F. scioptique. See Optic.] (Opt.) Of or pertaining to an optical arrangement for forming images in a darkened room, usually called scioptic ball.

Scioptic ball (Opt.), the lens of a camera obscura mounted in a wooden ball which fits a socket in a window shutter so as to be readily turned, like the eye, to different parts of the landscape.

Sci*op"ti*con (?), n. [NL. See Scioptic.] A kind of magic lantern.

Sci*op"tics (?), n. The art or process of exhibiting luminous images, especially those of external objects, in a darkened room, by arrangements of lenses or mirrors.

Sci*op"tric (?), a. (Opt.) Scioptic.

Sci"ot (?), a. Of or pertaining to the island Scio (Chio or Chios). -- n. A native or inhabitant of Scio. [Written also Chiot.]

Sci`o*ther"ic (?), a. [Cf. L. sciothericon a sundial. See Sciatheric.] Of or pertaining to a sundial.

Sciotheric telescope (Dialing), an instrument consisting of a horizontal dial, with a telescope attached to it, used for determining the time, whether of day or night.

Sci"ous (?), a. [L. scius.] Knowing; having knowledge. "Brutes may be and are scious." Coleridge.

||Sci`re fa"ci*as (s`r f"sh*s). [L., do you cause to know.] (Law) A ||judicial writ, founded upon some record, and requiring the party ||proceeded against to show cause why the party bringing it should not ||have advantage of such record, or (as in the case of scire facias to ||repeal letters patent) why the record should not be annulled or ||vacated. Wharton. Bouvier.

Scir"rhoid (skr"roid), a. [Scirrhus + -oid.] Resembling scirrhus. Dunglison.

Scir*rhos"i*ty (skr*rs"*t), n. (Med.) A morbid induration, as of a gland; state of being scirrhous.

Scir"rhous (skr"rs), a. [NL. scirrhosus.] (Med.) Proceeding from scirrhus; of the nature of scirrhus; indurated; knotty; as, scirrhous affections; scirrhous disease. [Written also skirrhous.]

Scir"rhus (?), n.; pl. L. Scirrhi (#), E. Scirrhuses (#). [NL., from L. scirros, Gr. &?;, &?;, fr. &?;, &?;, hard.] (Med.) (a) An indurated organ or part; especially, an indurated gland. [Obs.] (b) A cancerous tumor which is hard, translucent, of a gray or bluish color, and emits a creaking sound when incised. [Sometimes incorrectly written schirrus; written also skirrhus.]

Scis`ci*ta"tion (?), n. [L. sciscitatio, fr. sciscitari to inquire, from sciscere to seek to know, v. incho. from scire to know.] The act of inquiring; inquiry; demand. [Obs.] Bp. Hall.

Scise (?), v. i. [L. scindere, scissum, to cut, split.] To cut; to penetrate. [Obs.]

The wicked steel scised deep in his right side.

Fairfax.

Scis"sel (?), n. [Cf. Scissile.] 1. The clippings of metals made in various mechanical operations.

2. The slips or plates of metal out of which circular blanks have been cut for the purpose of coinage.

Scis"si*ble (?), a. [L. scindere, scissum, to split.] Capable of being cut or divided by a sharp instrument. [R.] Bacon.

Scis"sil (?), n. See Scissel.

Scis"sile (?), a. [L. scissilis, fr. scindere, scissum, to cut, to split: cf. F. scissile. See Schism.] Capable of being cut smoothly; scissible. [R.] Arbuthnot.

Scis"sion (?), n. [L. scissio, fr. scindere, scissum, to cut, to split: cf. F. scission.] The act of dividing with an instrument having a sharp edge. Wiseman.

Scis`si*par"i*ty (?), n. [L. scissus (p. p. of scindere to split) + parere to bring forth: cf. F. scissiparité.] (Biol.) Reproduction by fission.

Scis"sor (?), v. t. To cut with scissors or shears; to prepare with the aid of scissors. Massinger.

Scis"sors (?), n. pl. [OE. sisoures, OF. cisoires (cf. F. ciseaux), probably fr. LL. cisorium a cutting instrument, fr. L. caedere to cut. Cf. Chisel, Concise. The modern spelling is due to a mistaken derivation from L. scissor one who cleaves or divides, fr. scindere, scissum, to cut, split.] A cutting instrument resembling shears, but smaller, consisting of two cutting blades with handles, movable on a pin in the center, by which they are held together. Often called a pair of scissors. [Formerly written also cisors, cizars, and scissars.]

Scissors grinder (Zoöl.), the European goatsucker. [Prov. Eng.]

Scis"sors*bill` (?), n. (Zoöl.) See Skimmer.

Scis"sors*tail` (?), n. (Zoöl.) A tyrant flycatcher (Milvulus forficatus) of the Southern United States and Mexico, which has a deeply forked tail. It is light gray above, white beneath, salmon on the flanks, and fiery red at the base of the crown feathers.

Scis"sors-tailed` (?), a. (Zoöl.) Having the outer feathers much the longest, the others decreasing regularly to the median ones.

Scis"sure (?), n. [L. scissura, from scindere, scissum, to cut, split.] A longitudinal opening in a body, made by cutting; a cleft; a fissure. Hammond.

Scit`a*min"e*ous (?; 277), a. [NL. scitamineosus, fr. Scitamineae, fr. L. scitamentum a delicacy, dainty.] (Bot.) Of or pertaining to a natural order of plants (Scitamineæ), mostly tropical herbs, including the ginger, Indian shot, banana, and the plants producing turmeric and arrowroot.

Sci"u*rine (?; 277), a. [Cf. F. sciurien. See Sciurus.] (Zoöl.) Of or pertaining to the Squirrel family. -- n. A rodent of the Squirrel family.

Sci"u*roid (?), a. [Sciurus + -oid.] (Bot.) Resembling the tail of a squirrel; -- generally said of branches which are close and dense, or of spikes of grass like barley.

||Sci`u*ro*mor"pha (?), n. pl. [NL., fr. L. sciurus squirrel + Gr. ||morfh` form.] (Zoöl.) A tribe of rodents containing the squirrels and ||allied animals, such as the gophers, woodchucks, beavers, and others.

||Sci*u"rus (?), n. [L., a squirrel, Gr. &?;. See Squirrel.] (Zoöl.) A ||genus of rodents comprising the common squirrels.

Sclaun"dre (?), n. Slander. [Obs.] Chaucer.

{ Sclav (?), Sclave }, n. Same as Slav.

Sclav"ic (?), a. Same as Slavic.

Sclav"ism (?), n. Same as Slavism.

Scla*vo"nian (?), a. & n. Same as Slavonian.

Scla*von"ic (?), a. Same as Slavonic.

Sclen"der (?), a. Slender. [Obs.] Chaucer.

Scler"a*go`gy (?), n. [Gr. &?;; &?; hard + &?; a leading or training.] Severe discipline. [Obs.] Bp. Hacket.

||Scle*re"ma (?), n. [NL., fr. Gr. sklhro`s hard.] (Med.) Induration of ||the cellular tissue.

Sclerema of adults. See Scleroderma. -- ||Sclerema neonatorum (&?;) [NL., of the newborn], an affection characterized by a peculiar hardening and rigidity of the cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues in the newly born. It is usually fatal. Called also skinbound disease.

Scle*ren"chy*ma (?), n. [NL., from Gr. sklhro`s hard + -enchyma as in parenchyma.] 1. (Bot.) Vegetable tissue composed of short cells with thickened or hardened walls, as in nutshells and the gritty parts of a pear. See Sclerotic.

By recent German writers and their English translators, this term is used for liber cells. Goodale.

2. (Zoöl.) The hard calcareous deposit in the tissues of Anthozoa, constituting the stony corals.

Scler`en*chym"a*tous (?), a. (Bot. & Zoöl.) Pertaining to, or composed of, sclerenchyma.

Scle*ren"chyme (?), n. Sclerenchyma.

||Scle*ri"a*sis (?), n. [NL., fr. Gr. &?;.] (Med.) (a) A morbid ||induration of the edge of the eyelid. (b) Induration of any part, ||including scleroderma.

Scle"rite (skl"rt), n. (Zoöl.) A hard chitinous or calcareous process or corpuscle, especially a spicule of the Alcyonaria.

||Scle*ri"tis (skl*r"ts), n. [NL.] See Sclerotitis.

Scler"o*base (? or ?), n. [Gr. sklhro`s hard + ba`sis base.] (Zoöl.) The calcareous or hornlike coral forming the central stem or axis of most compound alcyonarians; -- called also foot secretion. See Illust. under Gorgoniacea, and Cœnenchyma. -- Scler`o*ba"sic (#), a.

Scler"o*derm (? or ?; 277), n. [Gr. sklhro`s hard + de`rma skin: cf. F. scléroderme.] (a) (Zoöl.) One of a tribe of plectognath fishes (Sclerodermi) having the skin covered with hard scales, or plates, as the cowfish and the trunkfish. (b) One of the Sclerodermata. (c) Hardened, or bony, integument of various animals.

||Scler`o*der"ma (?), n. [NL.] (Med.) A disease of adults, ||characterized by a diffuse rigidity and hardness of the skin.

||Scler`o*der"ma*ta (?), n. pl. [NL.] (Zoöl.) The stony corals; the ||Madreporaria.

{ Scler`o*der"mic (?), Scler`o*der"mous (?) }, (Zoöl.) (a) Having the integument, or skin, hard, or covered with hard plates. (b) Of or pertaining to the Sclerodermata.

Scler`o*der"mite (?), n. (Zoöl.) (a) The hard integument of Crustacea. (b) Sclerenchyma.

Scler"o*gen (? or ?), n. [Gr. sklhro`s hard + -gen.] (Bot.) The thickening matter of woody cells; lignin.

Scle*rog"e*nous (?), a. [Gr. sklhro`s hard + -genous.] (Anat.) Making or secreting a hard substance; becoming hard.

Scle"roid (?), a. [Gr. &?;; sklhro`s hard + &?; form.] (Bot.) Having a hard texture, as nutshells.

||Scle*ro"ma (?), n. [NL., fr. Gr. sklhro`s hard + -oma.] (Med.) ||Induration of the tissues. See Sclerema, Scleroderma, and Sclerosis.

Scle*rom"e*ter (?), n. [Gr. sklhro`s hard + -meter.] An instrument for determining with accuracy the degree of hardness of a mineral.

Scle*rosed" (?), a. Affected with sclerosis.

||Scle*ro"sis (?), n. [NL., fr. Gr. (&?;&?;, fr. sklhro`s hard.] 1. ||(Med.) Induration; hardening; especially, that form of induration ||produced in an organ by increase of its interstitial connective ||tissue.

2. (Bot.) Hardening of the cell wall by lignification.