Part iv. _Anthropology_ (London and Melbourne, 1896), pp. 180 _sq._;

B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 523 _sq._; _id._, _Across Australia_ (London, 1912), ii. 335.

M183 Notable features in the initiation of Australian medicine-men.

628 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 487, 488; _id._, _Across Australia_, ii. 481 _sq._

M184 Rites of initiation in some tribes of German New Guinea. The novices thought to be swallowed and disgorged by a monster, whose voice is heard in the hum of the bull-roarers. M185 The return of the novices after initiation.

629 As to the initiatory rites among the Yabim, see K. Vetter, in _Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel_, 1897, pp. 92 _sq._; _id._, in _Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xi. (1892) p. 105; _id._, _Komm herüber und hilf uns!_ ii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 18; _id._, cited by M. Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, preface dated 1899), pp. 167-170; O. Schellong, “Das Barlum-fest der Gegend Finschhafens,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) pp. 145-162; H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), iii. 296-298. As to the initiatory rites among the Bukaua, see S. Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. 402-410; among the Kai, see Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Kai-Leute,” _ibid._ pp. 34-40; among the Tami, see G. Bamler, “Tami,” _ibid._ pp. 493-507. I have described the rites of the various tribes more in detail in _The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead_, i. 250-255, 260 _sq._, 290 _sq._, 301 _sq._ In the Bukaua and Tami tribes the initiation ceremonies are performed not in the forest but in a special house built for the purpose in the village, which the women are obliged to vacate till the rites are over.

M186 The monster who is supposed to swallow the novices is apparently conceived as a ghost or ancestral spirit.

_ 630 The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead_, i. 250, 251, 255, 261, 290 _sq._, 301. Among the Bukaua not only does the bull-roarer bear the general name for a ghost (_balum_), but each particular bull-roarer bears in addition the name of a particular dead man, and varies in dignity and importance with the dignity and importance of the deceased person whom it represents. And besides the big bull-roarers with gruff voices there are little bull-roarers with shrill voices, which represent the shrill-voiced wives of the ancient heroes. See S. Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. 410-412.

631 R. Pöch, “Vierter Bericht über meine Reise nach Neu-Guinea,” _Sitzungsberichte der mathematischen-naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften_ (Vienna), cxv. (1906) Abteilung i. pp. 901, 902.

M187 The drama of death and resurrection used to be enacted before young men at initiation in some parts of Fiji.

632 Rev. Lorimer Fison, “The _Nanga_ or Sacred Stone Enclosure of Wainimala, Fiji,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) p. 27. The _Nanga_ or sacred enclosure of stones, with its sacred rites, was known only to certain tribes of Fiji (the Nuyaloa, Vatusila, Mbatiwai, and Mdavutukia), who inhabited a comparatively small area, barely a third, of the island of Viti Levu. As to the institution in general, see Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ pp. 14-31; A. B. Joske, “The Nanga of Viti-levu,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) pp. 254-266; Basil Thomson, _The Fijians_ (London, 1908), pp. 146-157. Compare _The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead_, i. 427-438.

633 Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ p. 26; Basil Thomson, _op. cit._ 147.

634 Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ pp. 27 _sq._ The phrase “the ancestral gods” is used by Mr. Fison, one of our best authorities on Fijian religion. Mr. Basil Thomson (_op. cit._ p. 157) questions the accuracy of Mr. Fison’s account of this vicarious sacrifice on the ground that every youth was regularly circumcised as a matter of course. But there seems to be no inconsistency between the two statements. While custom required that every youth should be circumcised, the exact time for performing the ceremony need not have been rigidly prescribed; and if a saving or atoning virtue was attributed to the sacrifice of foreskins, it might be thought desirable in cases of emergency, such as serious illness, to anticipate it for the benefit of the sufferer.

635 According to Mr. Fison, the enclosure was divided into three compartments; Mr. Basil Thomson describes only two, though by speaking of one of them as the “Middle Nanga” he seems to imply that there were three. The structure was a rough parallelogram lying east and west, about a hundred feet long by fifty feet broad, enclosed by walls or rows of stone slabs embedded endwise in the earth. See Basil Thomson, _op. cit._ pp. 147 _sq._

M188 Description of the rite. The mimic death. The mimic resurrection. The sacramental meal. The intention of the rite.

636 A. B. Joske, “The Nanga of Vitilevu,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) p. 259; Basil Thomson, _The Fijians_, pp. 150 _sq._ According to Mr. Fison (_op. cit._ p. 19) the initiatory ceremonies were held as a rule only every second year; but he adds: “This period, however, is not necessarily restricted to two years. There are always a number of youths who are growing to the proper age, and the length of the interval depends upon the decision of the elders.” Perhaps the seeming discrepancy between our authorities on this point may be explained by Mr. Joske’s statement (p. 259) that the rites are held in alternate years by two different sets of men, the Kai Vesina and the Kai Rukuruku, both of whom claim to be descended from the original founders of the rites. The custom of dating the New Year by observation of the Pleiades was apparently universal among the Polynesians. See _The Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 312 _sq._

637 Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ pp. 20-23; A. B. Joske, _op. cit._ pp. 264 _sq._; Basil Thomson, _The Fijians_, pp. 150-153. The sacramental character of the meal is recognized by Mr. Fison, who says (p. 23) that after the performance of the rites the novices “are now _Vīlavóu_, accepted members of the _Nanga_, qualified to take their place among the men of the community, though still only on probation. As children—their childhood being indicated by their shaven heads—they were presented to the ancestors, and their acceptance was notified by what (looking at the matter from the natives’ standpoint) we might, without irreverance, almost call the _sacrament_ of food and water, too sacred even for the elders’ hands to touch.”

M189 Initiatory rite in the island of Rook: pretence that the novices are swallowed by the devil. Secret society of the Duk-duk in New Britain. Novices supposed to be killed. The new birth.

638 Paul Reina, “Ueber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_, N.F., iv. (1858) pp. 356 _sq._

639 R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1887), pp. 129-134; _id._ _Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 567 _sqq._; Rev. G. Brown, “Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain, and New Ireland,” _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, xlvii. (1878) pp. 148 _sq._; H. H. Romilly, “The Islands of the New Britain Group,” _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S., ix. (1887) pp. 11 _sq._; Rev. G. Brown, _ibid._ p. 17; _id._, _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), pp. 60 _sqq._; W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_ (London, 1883), pp. 60-66; C. Hager, _Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land und der Bismarck Archipel_ (Leipsic, N.D.), pp. 115-128; Hubner, quoted by W. H. Dall, “On masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal customs,” _Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p. 100; P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_ (Hiltrup bei Münster, N.D.), pp. 350 _sqq._; H. Schurtz, _Altersklassen und Männerbünde_ (Berlin, 1902), pp. 369-377. The inhabitants of these islands are divided into two exogamous classes, which in the Duke of York Island have two insects for their totems. One of the insects is the _mantis religiosus_; the other is an insect that mimics the leaf of the horse-chestnut tree very closely. See Rev. B. Danks, “Marriage Customs of the New Britain Group,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) pp. 281 _sq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 118 _sqq._

M190 Initiatory rite in Halmahera: pretence of begetting the novices anew.

640 J. G. F. Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) pp. 81 _sq._

M191 The Kakian association in Ceram. The rite of initiation: pretence of killing the novices.

641 The Kakian association and its initiatory ceremonies have often been described. See François Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_ (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 3 _sq._; Von Schmid, “Het Kakihansch Verbond op het eiland Ceram,” _Tijdschrift voor Neérlands Indië_ (Batavia, 1843), dl. ii. pp. 25-38; A. van Ekris, “Het Ceramsche Kakianverbond,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, ix. (1865) pp. 205-226 (repeated with slight changes in _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xvi. (1867) pp. 290-315); P. Fournier, “De Zuidkust van Ceram,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xvi. (1867) pp. 154-156; W. A. van Rees, _Die Pionniers der Beschaving in Neêrlands Indië_ (Arnheim, 1867), pp. 92-106; G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers_ (Dordrecht, 1875), pp. 153 _sqq._; Schulze, “Ueber Ceram und seine Bewohner,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_ (1877), p. 117; W. Joest, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Eingebornen der Insel Formosa und Ceram,” _ibid._ (1882) p. 64; H. von Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), p. 318; A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. (Berlin, 1884) pp. 145-148; J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 107-111; O. D. Tauern, “Ceram,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xlv. (1913) pp. 167 _sq._ The best accounts are those of Valentyn, Von Schmid, Van Ekris, Van Rees, and Riedel, which are accordingly followed in the text.

M192 The resurrection of the novices. M193 The secret society of _Ndembo_ in the valley of the Lowe Congo.

642 No reason is assigned for this curious choice of a president. Can it have been that, because negro children are born pale or nearly white, an albino was deemed a proper president for a society, all the initiated members of which claimed to have been born again? Speaking of the people of the Lower Congo the old English traveller Andrew Battel observes that “the children of this country are born white, but change their colour in two days’ time to a perfect black” (“Adventures of Andrew Battel,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. London, 1814, p. 331).

M194 Pretence of death as a preliminary to resurrection. M195 Seclusion of the novices. M196 Resurrection of the novices. Pretence of the novices that they have forgotten everything.

643 Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,” _Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) pp. 189-198; Rev. W. H. Bentley, _Life on the Congo_ (London, 1887), pp. 78 _sq._; _id._, _Pioneering on the Congo_ (London, 1900), i. 284-287. Mr. Weeks’s description of the institution is the fullest and I have followed it in the text. The custom was in vogue down to recent years, but seems to have been suppressed chiefly by the exertions of the missionaries. Besides the _ndembo_ guild there is, or was, in these regions another secret society known as the _nkimba_, which some writers have confused with the _ndembo_. The _nkimba_ was of a more harmless character than the other; indeed it seems even to have served some useful purposes, partly as a kind of freemasonry which encouraged mutual help among its members, partly as a system of police for the repression of crime, its professed object being to put down witchcraft and punish witches. Only males were admitted to it. Candidates for initiation were stupefied by a drug, but there was apparently no pretence of killing them and bringing them to life again. Members of the society had a home in the jungle away from the town, where the novices lived together for a period varying from six months to two years. They learned a secret language, and received new names; it was afterwards an offence to call a man by the name of his childhood. Instead of the red dye affected by members of the _ndembo_ guild, members of the _nkimba_ guild whitened their bodies with pipe clay and wore crinolines of palm frondlets. See Rev. W. H. Bentley, _Life on the Congo_, pp. 80-83; _id._, _Pioneering on the Congo_, i. 282-284; Rev. J. H. Weeks, _op. cit._ pp. 198-201; (Sir) H. H. Johnston, “A Visit to Mr. Stanley’s Stations on the River Congo,” _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N. S. v. (1883) pp. 572 _sq._; E. Delmar Morgan, “Notes on the Lower Congo,” _id._, N.S. vi. (1884) p. 193. As to these two secret societies on the Lower Congo, see further (Sir) H. H. Johnston, “On the Races of the Congo,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) pp. 472 sq.; É. Dupont, _Lettres sur le Congo_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 96-100; Herbert Ward, _Five Years with the Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1890), pp. 54 _sq._; _id._ “Ethnographical Notes relating to the Congo Tribes,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) pp. 288 _sq._; E. J. Glave, _Six Years of Adventure in Congo Land_ (London, 1893), pp. 80-83; L. Frobenius, _Die Masken und Geheimbünde Afrikas_ (Halle, 1898), pp. 43-54 (_Nova Acta. Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop. Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher_, vol. lxxiv. No. 1); H. Schurtz, _Altersklassen und Männerbünde_ (Berlin, 1902), pp. 433-437; _Notes Annalytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du Musée du Congo_ (Brussels, 1902-1906), pp. 199-206; Ed. de Jonghe, _Les Sociétés Secrètes au Bas-Congo_ (Brussels, 1907), pp. 15 _sqq._ (extract from the _Revue des Questions Scientifiques_, October 1907). Some of these writers do not discriminate between the two societies, the _ndembo_ and the _nkimba_. According to our best authorities (Messrs. Bentley and Weeks) the two societies are quite distinct and neither of them has anything to do with circumcision, which is, however, prevalent in the region. See Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,” _Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) pp. 304 _sqq._ A secret society of the Lower Congo which Adolf Bastian has described under the name of _quimba_ is probably identical with the _nkimba_. He speaks of a “Secret Order of those who have been born again,” and tells us that the candidates “are thrown into a death-like state and buried in the fetish house. When they are wakened to life again, they have (as in the Belliparo) lost their memory of everything that is past, even of their father and mother, and they can no longer remember their own name. Hence new names are given them according to the titles or ranks to which they are advanced.” See A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_ (Jena, 1874-1875), ii. 15 _sqq._

M197 Bastian’s account of the ritual of death and resurrection in West Africa.

644 A. Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_ (Bremen, 1859), pp. 82 _sq._

M198 Acquisition of a patron animal or guardian spirit in a dream.

645 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, ii. 183. Elsewhere Bastian says that about San Salvador lads at puberty are secluded in the forest and circumcised, and during their seclusion “each of them is mystically united to the fetish by which his life is henceforth determined, as the Brahman whispers the secret charm in the ear of him who has been born again.” See A. Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_ (Bremen, 1859), pp. 85 _sq._

646 H. Trilles, _Le Totémisme chez les Fâṅ_ (Münster i. W., 1912), pp. 479 _sq._ The writer speaks of the guardian spirit as the individual totem of the young warrior.

M199 Dapper’s account of the ritual of death and resurrection in the Belli-Paaro society.

647 O. Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), pp. 268 _sq._ Dapper’s account has been abridged in the text.

M200 Miss Kingsley on the rites of initiation into secret societies in West Africa.

648 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1867), p. 531. Perhaps the smearing with clay may be intended to indicate that the novices have undergone the new birth; for the negro child, though born reddish-brown, soon turns slaty-grey (E. B. Tylor, _Anthropology_, London, 1881, p. 67), which would answer well enough to the hue of the clay-bedaubed novices.

M201 The _purra_ or _poro_, a secret society of Sierra Leone. The new birth. The _semo_, a secret society of Senegambia. Death and resurrection at initiation.

649 Thomas Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), pp. 135 _sq._ Compare John Matthews, _A Voyage to the River Sierra-Leone_ (London, 1791), pp. 82-85; J. B. L. Durand, _Voyage au Sénégal_ (Paris, 1802), pp. 183 _sq._ (whose account is copied without acknowledgment from Matthews). The _purra_ or _poro_ society also exists among the Timmes of Sierra Leone; in this tribe the novices are sometimes secluded from their families for ten years in the wood, they are tattooed on their backs and arms, and they learn a language which consists chiefly of names of plants and animals used in special senses. Women are not admitted to the society. See Zweifel et Moustier, “Voyage aux sources du Niger,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), VI. Série, xv. (1878) pp. 108 _sq._

650 T. J. Alldridge, _The Sherbro and its Hinterland_ (London, 1901), p. 130. This work contains a comparatively full account of the _purra_ or _poro_ society (pp. 124-131) and of the other secret societies of the country (pp. 131-149, 153-159). Compare L. Frobenius, _Die Masken und Geheimbünde Afrikas_ (Halle, 1898), pp. 138-144 (_Nova Acta, Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher_, vol. lxxiv. No. 1).

651 Thomas Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), pp. 137-139. As to the _semo_ or _simo_ society see further L. Frobenius, _op. cit._ pp. 130-138.

M202 Ritual of the new birth among the Akikuyu of British East Africa.

652 Extract from a letter of Mr. A. C. Hollis to me. Mr. Hollis’s authority is Dr. T. W. W. Crawford of the Kenia Medical Mission.

653 W. Scoresby Routledge and Katherine Routledge, _With a Prehistoric People, the Akikuyu of British East Africa_ (London, 1910), p. 152. Compare C. W. Hobley, “Kikuyu Customs and Beliefs,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) p. 441.

654 Mr. A. W. McGregor, of the Church Missionary Society, quoted by W. S. Routledge and K. Routledge, _With a Prehistoric People_, p. 151, note. 1. Mr. McGregor “has resided amongst the Akikuyu since 1901. He has by his tact and kindness won the confidence of the natives, and is the greatest authority on their language” (_id._, p. xxi).

655 W. S. Routledge and K. Routledge, _op. cit._ p. 151.

M203 Rites of initiation among the Bondeis of East Africa. Rites of initiation among the Bushongo of the Congo. The first ordeal. The second ordeal. The last ordeal: the descent from the tree.

656 Rev. G. Dale, “An Account of the principal Customs and Habits of the Natives inhabiting the Bondei Country,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv. (1896) p. 189.

657 E. Torday et T. A. Joyce, _Les Bushongo_ (Brussels, 1910), pp. 82-85. As for the title “God on Earth,” applied to the principal chief or king, see _id._, p. 53.

M204 Rites of initiation among the Indians of Virginia: pretence of the novices that they have forgotten their former life.

658 (Beverley’s) _History of Virginia_ (London, 1722), pp. 177 _sq._ Compare J. Bricknell, _The Natural History of North Carolina_ (Dublin, 1737), pp. 405 _sq._

M205 Ritual of death and resurrection at initiation into the secret societies of North America. The medicine-bag as an instrument of death and resurrection. Ritual of death and resurrection at initiation among the Dacotas.

659 J. Carver, _Travels through the Interior Parts of North America_, Third Edition (London, 1781), pp. 271-275. The thing thrown at the man and afterwards vomited by him was probably not a bean but a small white sea-shell (_Cypraea moneta_). See H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 287; J. G. Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_ (Bremen, 1859), i. 71; _Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), pp. 191, 215; _Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1896), p. 101.

660 J. Carver, _op. cit._ pp. 277 _sq._; H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_, iii. 287 (as to the Winnebagoes), v. 430 _sqq._ (as to the Chippeways and Sioux); J. G. Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_, i. 64-70 (as to the Ojebways). For a very detailed account of the Ojebway ceremonies, see W. J. Hoffman, “The Midewiwin or Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwa,” _Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), especially pp. 215 _sq._, 234 _sq._, 248, 265. For similar ceremonies among the Menomini, see _id._, “The Menomini Indians,” _Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1896), pp. 99-102; and among the Omahas, see J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp. 342-346. I have dealt more fully with the ritual in _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 462 _sqq._ Compare also P. Radin, “Ritual and Significance of the Winnebago Medicine Dance,” _Journal of American Folk-lore_, xxiv. (1911) pp. 149-208.

661 G. H. Pond, “Dakota superstitions,” _Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society for the year 1867_ (Saint Paul, 1867), pp. 35, 37-40. A similar but abridged account of the Dakota tradition and usage is given by S. R. Riggs in his _Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography_ (Washington, 1893), pp. 227-229 (_Contributions to North American Ethnology_, vol. ix.).

M206 Ritual of mimic death among the Indians of Nootka Sound.

_ 662 Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_ (Middletown, 1820), p. 119.

_ 663 Id._, p. 44. For the age of the prince, see _id._, p. 35.

664 H. J. Holmberg, “Ueber die Völker des russischen Amerika,” _Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae_, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 292 _sqq._, 328; Ivan Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries and Resources of Alaska_, pp. 165 _sq._; A. Krause, _Die Tlinkit-Indianer_ (Jena, 1885), p. 112; R. C. Mayne, _Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island_ (London, 1862), pp. 257 _sq._, 268; _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 264 _sqq._

M207 Rite of death and resurrection at initiation into the Nootka society of human wolves. Novice brought back by an artificial totemic animal among the Niska Indians.

665 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, pp. 47 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association_, Leeds meeting, 1890); _id._, “The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,” _Report of the United States National Museum for 1895_; (Washington, 1897), pp. 632 _sq._ But while the initiation described in the text was into a wolf society, not into a wolf clan, it is to be observed that the wolf is one of the regular totems of the Nootka Indians. See Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 32.

666 Fr. Boas, in _Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, pp. 49 _sq._, 58 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association_, Ipswich meeting, 1895). It is remarkable, however, that in this tribe persons who are being initiated into the secret societies, of which there are six, are not always or even generally brought back by an artificial animal which represents their own totem. Thus while men of the eagle totem are brought back by an eagle which rises from underground, men of the bear clan return on the back of an artificial killer-whale which is towed across the river by ropes. Again, members of the wolf clan are brought back by an artificial bear, and members of the raven clan by a frog. In former times the appearance of the artificial totem animal, or of the guardian spirit, was considered a matter of great importance, and any failure which disclosed the deception to the uninitiated was deemed a grave misfortune which could only be atoned for by the death of the persons concerned in the disclosure.

M208 In these initiatory rites the novice seems to be killed as a man and restored to life as an animal.

667 See above, p. 213.

668 This is the opinion of Dr. F. Boas, who writes: “The close similarity between the clan legends and those of the acquisition of spirits presiding over secret societies, as well as the intimate relation between these and the social organizations of the tribes, allow us to apply the same argument to the consideration of the growth of the secret societies, and lead us to the conclusion that the same psychical factor that molded the clans into their present shape molded the secret societies” (“The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,” _Report of the United States National Museum for 1895_, p. 662). Dr. Boas would see in the acquisition of a _manitoo_ or personal totem the origin both of the secret societies and of the totem clans; for according to him the totem of the clan is merely the _manitoo_ or personal totem of the ancestor transmitted by inheritance to his descendants. As to personal totems or guardian spirits (_manitoos_) among the North American Indians, see _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 370 _sqq._; as to their secret societies, see _id._, iii. 457 _sqq._; as to the theory that clan totems originated in personal or individual totems, see _id._, iv. 48 _sqq._

M209 Honorific totems among the Carrier Indians. Initiatory rites at the adoption of a honorific totem. Simulated transformation of a novice into a bear. Pretence of death and resurrection at initiation.

669 A. G. Morice, “Notes, archaeological, industrial, and sociological, on the Western Dénés,” _Transactions of the Canadian Institute_, iv. (1892-93) pp. 203-206. The honorific totems of the Carrier Indians may perhaps correspond in some measure to the sub-totems or multiplex totems of the Australians. As to these latter see _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 78 _sqq._, 133 _sqq._

M210 Significance of these initiatory rites. Supposed invulnerability of men who have weapons for their guardian spirits.

670 See above, pp. 153 _sq._

671 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 357 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April, 1900). Among the Shuswap of British Columbia, when a young man has obtained his personal totem or guardian spirit, he is supposed to become proof against bullets and arrows (Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report of the Committee on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 93, separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association_, Leeds meeting, 1890).

M211 Initiatory rite of the Toukaway Indians.

672 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 683. In a letter dated 16th Dec. 1887, Mr. A. S. Gatschet, formerly of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, wrote to me: “Among the Toukawe whom in 1884 I found at Fort Griffin [?], Texas, I noticed that they never kill the big or grey wolf, _hatchukunän_, which has a mythological signification, ‘holding the earth’ (_hatch_). He forms one of their totem clans, and they have had a dance in his honor, danced by the males only, who carried sticks.”

M212 Traces of the rite of death and resurrection among more advanced peoples.

_ 673 The Laws of Manu_, ii. 169, translated by G. Bühler (Oxford, 1886), p. 61 (_The Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxv.); J. A. Dubois, _Mœurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l’Inde_ (Paris, 1825), i. 125; Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in India_ (London, 1883), pp. 360 _sq._, 396 _sq._; H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 466 _sqq._

674 Lampridius, _Commodus_, 9; C. W. King, _The Gnostics and their Remains_, Second Edition (London, 1887), pp. 127, 129. Compare Fr. Cumont, _Textes et Monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra_, i. (Brussels, 1899) pp. 69 _sq._, 321 _sq._; E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 400 n. 1; A. Dieterich, _Eine Mithrasliturgie_ (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 91, 157 _sqq._

M213 The motive for attempting to deposit the soul in a safe place outside of the body at puberty may have been a fear of the dangers which, according to primitive notions, attend the union of the sexes. M214 Balder’s life or death in the mistletoe.

675 Above, p. 110; compare pp. 107, 120 _sq._, 132, 133.

676 Above, p. 120.

677 Above, p. 106.

678 Above, p. 145. In the myth the throwing of the weapons and of the mistletoe at Balder and the blindness of Hother who slew him remind us of the custom of the Irish reapers who kill the corn-spirit in the last sheaf by throwing their sickles blindfold at it. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 144. In Mecklenburg a cock is sometimes buried in the ground and a man who is blindfolded strikes at it with a flail. If he misses it, another tries, and so on till the cock is killed. See K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 280. In England on Shrove Tuesday a hen used to be tied upon a man’s back, and other men blindfolded struck at it with branches till they killed it. See T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 68. W. Mannhardt (_Die Korndämonen_, Berlin, 1868, pp. 16 _sq._) has made it probable that such sports are directly derived from the custom of killing a cock upon the harvest-field as a representative of the corn-spirit. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 277 _sq._ These customs, therefore, combined with the blindness of Hother in the myth, suggest that the man who killed the human representative of the oak-spirit was blindfolded, and threw his weapon or the mistletoe from a little distance. After the Lapps had killed a bear—which was the occasion of many superstitious ceremonies—the bear’s skin was hung on a post, and the women, blindfolded, shot arrows at it. See J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), p. 240.

M215 The view that the mistletoe contained the life of the oak may have been suggested by the position of the parasite among the boughs. Indian parallel to Balder and the mistletoe.

679 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 12; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1010. Compare below, p. 282.

_ 680 The Satapatha Brahmana_, xii. 7. 3. 1-3, translated by J. Eggeling,