ii. 234

Wizards gather baleful herbs on the Eve of St. John, ii. 47; gather purple loosestrife at Midsummer, 65; animal familiars of, 196 _sq._, 201 _sq._

Woden, Odin, or Othin, the father of Balder, i. 101, 102, 103 _n._ 1

Wolf, Brotherhood of the Green, at Jumièges in Normandy, i. 185 _sq._, ii. 15 _n._, 25

—— clan in North-Western America, ii. 270, 271, 272 _n._ 1

—— masks worn by members of a Wolf secret society, ii. 270 _sq._

—— society among the Nootka Indians, rite of initiation into the, ii. 270 _sq._

Wolf’s hide, strap of, used by were-wolves, i. 310_ n._ 1

Wolfeck, in Austria, leaf-clad mummer on Midsummer Day at, ii. 25 _sq._

Wolfenbüttel, need-fire near, i. 277

Wolves and witches, the two great foes dreaded by herdsmen in Europe, i. 343

Woman burnt alive as a witch in Ireland in 1895, i. 323 _sq._

Women in hard labour, charm to help, i. 14; after childbirth tabooed, 20; who do not menstruate supposed to make gardens barren, 24; impregnated by the sun, 74 _sq._; impregnated by the moon, 75 _sq._; at menstruation painted red, 78; leap over Midsummer bonfires to ensure an easy delivery, 194, 339; fertilized by tree-spirits, ii. 22; barren, hope to conceive through fertilizing influence of vegetables, 51; creep through a rifted rock to obtain an easy delivery, 189; not allowed to see bull-roarers, 234, 235, 242. _See also_ Menstruous women

Wonghi or Wonghibon tribe of New South Wales, ritual of death and resurrection at initiation among the, ii. 227

Wood, the King of the, at Nemi, i. 2, 285, 286, 295, 302, 309

Woodbine, sick children passed through a wreath of, ii. 184

Woodpecker brings the mythical springwort, ii. 70 _sq._

Wootton-Wawen, in Warwickshire, the Yule log at, i. 257

“Working for need-fire,” a proverb, i. 287 _sq._

Worms, popular cure for, i. 17

Wormwood (_Artemisia absinthium_), ii. 58 _n._ 3; burnt to stupefy witches, i. 345; superstitions concerning, ii. 61_ n._ 1

Worship of ancestors in Fiji, ii. 243 _sq._; of the oak explained by the frequency with which oaks are struck by lightning, 298 _sqq._

Worth, R. N., on burnt sacrifices in Devonshire, i. 302

Worthen, in Shropshire, the Yule log at, i. 257

Wotjobaluk, of South-Eastern Australia, sex totems among the, ii. 215 _sq._

Wounding were-wolves in order to compel them to resume their human shape, i. 308 _sqq._

Wounds, St. John’s wort a balm for, ii. 55

Wreath of woodbine, sick children passed through a, ii. 184

Wreaths of flowers thrown across the Midsummer fires, i. 174; superstitious uses made of the singed wreaths, 174; hung over doors and windows at Midsummer, 201

Wurtemberg, Midsummer fires in, i. 166; leaf-clad mummer at Midsummer in, ii. 26

Würzburg, Midsummer fires at, i. 165

Yabim, the, of New Guinea, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 35; use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 232; rites of initiation among the, 239 _sqq._

Yaguas, Indians of the Amazon, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 59

Yakut shamans keep their external souls in animals, ii. 196

Yakuts leap over fire after a burial, ii. 18

Yam, island of Torres Strait, treatment of girls at puberty in, i. 41

Yap, seclusion of girls at puberty in the island of, i. 36

Yaraikanna, the, of Northern Queensland, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 37 _sq._

Yarn, divination by, i. 235, 240, 241, 243; sick children passed through a ring of, ii. 185

Yarra river in Victoria, i. 92 _n._ 1

Year called a fire, i. 137

Yellow Day of Beltane, i. 293

—— snow, the year of the, i. 294

Yibai, tribal subdivision of the Coast Murring tribe, ii. 236

Yoke, purification by passing under a, ii. 193 _sqq._; ancient Italian practice of passing conquered enemies under a, 93 _sq._

York, custom formerly observed at Christmas in the cathedral at, ii. 291 _n._ 2

Yorkshire, belief as to menstruous women in, i. 96 _n._ 2; Beal-fires on Midsummer Eve in, 198; the Yule log in, 256 _sq._; need-fire in, 286 _sqq._; witch as hare in, 317, ii. 197

Yoruba-speaking negroes of the Slave Coast, use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 229 _n._

Young, Hugh W., on the rampart of Burghead, i. 268 _n._ 1

Young, Issobell, buries ox and cat alive, i. 325

Ypres, wicker giants at, ii. 35

Yucatan, fire-walk among the Indians of, ii. 13 _sq._, 16

Yuin, the, of South-Eastern Australia, their sex totems, ii. 216; totem names kept secret among, 225 _n._

Yukon, the Lower, i. 55

Yule cake, i. 257, 259, 261

—— candle, i. 255, 256, 260

—— log, i. 247 _sqq._; in Germany, 247 _sqq._; made of oak-wood, 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263, 264 _sq._, ii. 92; a protection against conflagration, i. 248 _sq._, 250, 255, 256, 258; a protection against thunder and lightning, 248, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254, 258, 264; in Switzerland, 249; in Belgium, 249; in France, 249 _sqq._; helps cows to calve, 250, 338; in England, 255 _sq._; in Wales, 258; among the Servians, 258 _sqq._; a protection against witches, 258; in Albania, 264; privacy of the ceremonial of the, 328; explained as a sun-charm, 332; made of fir, beech, holly, yew, crab-tree, or olive, ii. 92 _n._ 2

Yule Night in Sweden, customs observed on, i. 20 _sq._

Yuracares of Bolivia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 57 _sq._

_Zadrooga,_ Servian house-community, i. 259

Zambesi, the Barotse of the, i. 28

Zapotecs, supreme pontiff of the, not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 2; the sun not allowed to shine on him, i. 19; their belief that their lives were bound up with those of animals, ii. 212

Zemmur, the, of Morocco, their Midsummer custom, i. 215

Zerdusht and Isfendiyar, i. 104

Zeus and his sacred oak at Dodona, ii. 49 _sq._; wood of white poplar used at Olympia in sacrificing to, 90 _n._ 1, 91 _n._ 7

—— and Danae, i. 74

—— and Hephaestus, i. 136

Zimbales, a province of the Philippines, superstition as to a parasitic plant in, ii. 282 _n._ 1

Zoroaster, on the uncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 95

Zoznegg, in Baden, Easter fires at, i. 145

Zulus, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 22, 30; fumigate their gardens with medicated smoke, 337; their custom of fumigating sick cattle, ii. 13; their belief as to ancestral spirits incarnate in serpents, 211

Zülz, in Silesia, Midsummer fires at, i. 170

Zuñi Indians of New Mexico, their new fires at the solstices, i. 132 _sq._; use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 230 _n._, 231

Zurich, effigies burnt at, i. 120

FOOTNOTES

M1 Bonfires at the Pongol festival in Southern India.

1 Ch. E. Gover, “The Pongol Festival in Southern India,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S., v. (1870) pp. 96 _sq._

M2 Bonfires at the Holi festival in Northern India. The village priest expected to pass through the fire. Leaping over the ashes of the fire to get rid of disease.

2 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 314 _sqq._; Captain G. R. Hearn, “Passing through the Fire at Phalon,” _Man_, v. (1905) pp. 154 _sq._ On the custom of walking through fire, or rather over a furnace, see Andrew Lang, _Modern Mythology_ (London, 1897), pp. 148-175; _id._, in _Athenaeum_, 26th August and 14th October, 1899; _id._, in _Folk-lore_, xii. (1901) pp. 452-455; _id._, in _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 87-89. Mr. Lang was the first to call attention to the wide prevalence of the rite in many parts of the world.

3 Pandit Janardan Joshi, in _North Indian Notes and Queries_, iii. pp. 92 _sq._, § 199 (September, 1893); W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 318 _sq._

4 E. T. Atkinson, “Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalayas of the N.W. Provinces,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, liii. Part i. (Calcutta, 1884) p. 60. Compare W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 313 _sq._

M3 Vernal festival of fire in China. Ceremony to ensure an abundant year. Walking through the fire. Ashes of the fire mixed with the fodder of the cattle.

5 See above, vol. i. pp. 136 _sq._

6 G. Schlegel, _Uranographie Chinoise_ (The Hague and Leyden, 1875), pp. 143 _sq._; _id._, “La fête de fouler le feu célébrée en Chine et par les Chinois à Java,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ix. (1896) pp. 193-195. Compare J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 1292 _sq._ According to Professor Schlegel, the connexion between this festival and the old custom of solemnly extinguishing and relighting the fire in spring is unquestionable.

M4 Passage of the image of the deity through the fire. Passage of inspired men through the fire in India.

_ 7 The Dying God_, p. 262.

8 (Sir) H. H. Risley, _Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Ethnographic Glossary_ (Calcutta, 1891-1892), i. 255 _sq._ Compare W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 19; _id._, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), ii. 355. According to Sir Herbert Risley, the trench filled with smouldering ashes is so narrow (only a span and a quarter wide) “that very little dexterity would enable a man to walk with his feet on either edge, so as not to touch the smouldering ashes at the bottom.”

9 W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_, ii. 82.

10 M. J. Walhouse, “Passing through the Fire,” _Indian Antiquary_, vii. (1878) pp. 126 _sq._ Compare J. A. Dubois, _Mœurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l’Inde_ (Paris, 1825), ii. 373; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), pp. 471-486; G. F. D’Penha, in _Indian Antiquary_, xxxi. (1902) p. 392; “Fire-walking in Ganjam,” _Madras Government Museum Bulletin_, vol. iv. No. 3 (Madras, 1903), pp. 214-216. At Akka timanhully, one of the many villages which help to make up the town of Bangalore in Southern India, one woman at least from every house is expected to walk through the fire at the village festival. Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie witnessed the ceremony in 1873. A trench, four feet long by two feet wide, was filled with live embers. The priest walked through it thrice, and the women afterwards passed through it in batches. Capt. Mackenzie remarks: “From the description one reads of walking through fire, I expected something sensational. Nothing could be more tame than the ceremony we saw performed; in which there never was nor ever could be the slightest danger to life. Some young girl, whose soles were tender, might next morning find that she had a blister, but this would be the extent of harm she could receive.” See Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie, “The Village Feast,” _Indian Antiquary_, iii. (1874) pp. 6-9. But to fall on the hot embers might result in injuries which would prove fatal, and such an accident is known to have occurred at a village in Bengal. See H. J. Stokes, “Walking through Fire,” _Indian Antiquary_, ii. (1873) pp. 190 _sq._ At Afkanbour, five days’ march from Delhi, the Arab traveller Ibn Batutah saw a troop of fakirs dancing and even rolling on the glowing embers of a wood fire. See _Voyages d’Ibn Batoutah_ (Paris, 1853-1858), ii. 6 _sq._, iii. 439.

M5 Hindoo fire-festival in honour of Darma Rajah and Draupadi. Worshippers walking through the fire.

11 Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes orientales et à la Chine_ (Paris, 1782), i. 247 _sq._

_ 12 Madras Government Museum, Bulletin_, vol. iv. No. 1 (Madras, 1901), pp. 55-59; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), pp. 471-474. One of the places where the fire-festival in honour of Draupadi takes place annually is the Allandur Temple, at St. Thomas’s Mount, near Madras. Compare “Fire-walking Ceremony at the Dharmaraja Festival,” _The Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society_, vol. ii. No. 1 (October, 1910), pp. 29-32.

M6 Fire-festival of the Badagas in Southern India. Sacred fire made by friction. Walking through the fire. Cattle driven over the hot embers. The fire-walk preceded by a libation of milk and followed by ploughing and sowing.

13 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), i. 98 _sq._; _id._, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), pp. 476 _sq._

14 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), i. 100 _sq._

15 F. Metz, _The Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills_, Second Edition (Mangalore, 1864), p. 55.

M7 The fire-walk in Japan.

16 “A Japanese Fire-walk,” _American Anthropologist_, New Series, v. (1903) pp. 377-380. The ceremony has been described to me by two eye-witnesses, Mr. Ernest Foxwell of St. John’s College, Cambridge, and Miss E. P. Hughes, formerly Principal of the Teachers’ Training College, Cambridge. Mr. Foxwell examined the feet of the performers both before and after their passage through the fire and found no hurt. The heat was so great that the sweat ran down him as he stood near the bed of glowing charcoal. He cannot explain the immunity of the performers. He informs me that the American writer Percival Lowell walked in the fire and was burned so severely that he was laid up in bed for three weeks; while on the other hand a Scotch engineer named Hillhouse passed over the hot charcoal unscathed. Several of Miss Hughes’s Japanese pupils also went through the ordeal with impunity, but one of them burned a toe. Both before and after walking through the fire the people dipped their feet in a white stuff which Miss Hughes was told was salt. Compare W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 348: “At the present day plunging the hand into boiling water, walking barefoot over a bed of live coals, and climbing a ladder formed of sword-blades set edge upwards are practised, not by way of ordeal, but to excite the awe and stimulate the piety of the ignorant spectators.”

M8 The fire-walk in Fiji, Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands, and Trinidad.

17 Basil Thomson, _South Sea Yarns_ (Edinburgh and London, 1894), pp. 195-207. Compare F. Arthur Jackson, “A Fijian Legend of the Origin of the _Vilavilairevo_ or Fire Ceremony,” _Journal of the Polynesian Society_, vol. iii. No. 2 (June, 1894), pp. 72-75; R. Fulton, “An Account of the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony, or _Vilavilairevo_, with a probable explanation of the mystery,” _Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute_, xxxv. (1902) pp. 187-201; Lieutenant Vernon H. Haggard, in _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 88 _sq._

18 S. P. Langley, “The Fire-walk Ceremony in Tahiti,” _Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1901_ (Washington, 1902), pp. 539-544; _id._, in _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1901) pp. 446-452; “More about Fire-walking,” _Journal of the Polynesian Society_, vol. x. No. 1 (March, 1901), pp. 53 _sq._ In his _Modern Mythology_ (pp. 162-165) Andrew Lang quotes from _The Polynesian Society’s Journal_, vol. ii. No. 2, pp. 105-108, an account of the fire-walk by Miss Tenira Henry, which seems to refer to Raiatea, one of the Tahitian group of islands.

_ 19 Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, lxix. (1897) pp. 130-133. But in the ceremony here described the chief performer was a native of Huahine, one of the Tahitian group of islands. The wood burned in the furnace was hibiscus and native chestnut (_Inocarpus edulis_). Before stepping on the hot stones the principal performer beat the edge of the furnace twice or thrice with _ti_ leaves (dracaena).

_ 20 Les Missions Catholiques_, x. (1878) pp. 141 _sq._; A. Lang, _Modern Mythology_, p. 167, quoting Mr. Henry R. St. Clair.

M9 Hottentot custom of driving their sheep through fire and smoke.

21 Peter Kolben, _The Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_, Second Edition (London, 1738), i. 129-133.

M10 Fire applied to sick cattle by the Nandi and Zulus.

22 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 45 _sq._

23 Rev. Joseph Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 35.

M11 Indians of Yucatan walk over hot embers in order to avert calamities.

24 Diego de Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), pp. 231, 233.

M12 The fire-walk in antiquity, at Castabala in Cappadocia and at Mount Soracte near Rome.

25 Strabo, xii. 2. 7, p. 537. Compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 89, 134 _sqq._

26 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 19; Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 784 _sqq._ with the comment of Servius; Strabo, v. 2. 9, p. 226; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ iii. 32. From a reference to the custom in Silius Italicus (v. 175 _sqq._) it seems that the men passed thrice through the furnace holding the entrails of the sacrificial victims in their hands. The learned but sceptical Varro attributed their immunity in the fire to a drug with which they took care to anoint the soles of their feet before they planted them in the furnace. See Varro, cited by Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 787. The whole subject has been treated by W. Mannhardt (_Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, Berlin, 1877, pp. 327 _sqq._), who compares the rites of these “Soranian Wolves” with the ceremonies performed by the brotherhood of the Green Wolf at Jumièges in Normandy. See above, vol. i. pp. 185 _sq._

27 L. Preller (_Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 268), following G. Curtius, would connect the first syllable of Soranus and Soracte with the Latin _sol_, “sun.” However, this etymology appears to be at the best very doubtful. My friend Prof. J. H. Moulton doubts whether _Soranus_ can be connected with _sol_; he tells me that the interchange of _l_ and _r_ is rare. He would rather connect _Soracte_ with the Greek ὕραξ, “a shrew-mouse.” In that case Apollo Soranus might be the equivalent of the Greek Apollo Smintheus, “the Mouse Apollo.” Professor R. S. Conway also writes to me (11th November 1902) that _Soranus_ and _Soracte_ “have nothing to do with _sol_; _r_ and _l_ are not confused in Italic.”

28 Livy, xxvi. 11. About this time the Carthaginian army encamped only three miles from Rome, and Hannibal in person, at the head of two thousand cavalry, rode close up to the walls and leisurely reconnoitered them. See Livy, xxvi. 10; Polybius, ix. 5-7.

M13 Little evidence to shew that the fire-walk is a sun-charm.

29 Above, p. 1.

30 Above, p. 15.

31 Above, pp. 13 _sq._

M14 On the other hand there is much to be said for the view that the fire-walk is a form of purification, the flames being thought either to burn up or repel the powers of evil. Custom of stepping over fire for the purpose of getting rid of a ghost. Widows fumigated to free them from their husbands’ ghosts.

32 Above, p. 8, compare p. 3.

33 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, i. (Leyden, 1892), p. 355; _id._ vi. (Leyden, 1910) p. 942.

34 Rev. J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), i. 287, 305; J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ i. 32, vi. 942.

35 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ i. 137, vi. 942.

36 J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_ (Göttingen, 1751-1752), i. 333.

37 W. L. Priklonski, “Ueber das Schamenthum bei den Jakuten,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 219. Compare Vasilij Priklonski, “Todtengebräuche der Jakuten,” _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 85.

38 J. A. H. Louis, _The Gates of Thibet_ (Calcutta, 1894), p. 116.

39 E. Allegret, “Les Idées religieuses des Fañ (Afrique Occidentale),” _Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, l. (1904) p. 220.

40 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 160.

M15 Hence it seems probable that the chief use of the fire in the fire-festivals of Europe was to destroy or repel the witches, to whose maleficent arts the people ascribed most of their troubles.

41 Above, pp. 162, 163, 211, 212, 214, 215, 217.

42 See the references above, vol. i. p. 342 note 2.

43 See the references above, vol. i. p. 342 note 3.

44 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 52 _sqq._, 127; _The Scapegoat_, pp. 157 _sqq._ Compare R. Kühnau, _Schlesische Sagen_ (Berlin, 1910-1913), iii. p. 69, No. 1428: “In the county of Glatz the people believe that on Walpurgis Night (the Eve of May Day) the witches under cover of the darkness seek to harm men in all sorts of ways. To guard themselves against them the people set small birch trees in front of the house-door on the previous day, and are of opinion that the witches must count all the leaves on these little trees before they can get into the house. While they are still at this laborious task, the day dawns and the dreaded guests must retire to their own realm”; _id._, iii. p. 39, No. 1394: “On St. John’s Night (between the 23rd and 24th of June) the witches again busily bestir themselves to force their way into the houses of men and the stalls of cattle. People stick small twigs of oak in the windows and doors of the houses and cattle-stalls to keep out the witches. This is done in the neighbourhood of Patschkau and generally in the districts of Frankenstein, Münsterberg, Grottkau, and Neisse. In the same regions they hang garlands, composed of oak leaves intertwined with flowers, at the windows. The garland must be woven in the house itself and may not be carried over any threshold; it must be hung out of the window on a nail, which is inserted there.” Similar evidence might be multiplied almost indefinitely.

M16 The effigies burnt in the fires probably represent witches. M17 Possibly some of the effigies burnt in the fires represent tree-spirits or spirits of vegetation.

_ 45 The Golden Bough_, Second Edition (London, 1900), ii. 314-316.

_ 46 The Dying God_, pp. 249 _sqq._

47 Above, vol. i. p. 117, compare pp. 143, 144.

48 See above, vol. i. p. 120.

_ 49 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 56 _sqq._

50 Above, vol. i. pp. 120, 167.

51 Above, vol. i. pp. 115 _sq._, 116, 142, 173 _sq._, 185, 191, 192, 193, 209.

52 Above, vol. i. p. 120.

53 Above, vol. i. p. 116. But the effigy is called the Witch.

M18 Reasons for burning effigies of the spirit of vegetation or for passing them through the fire.

54 The chapter has since been expanded into the four volumes of _The Dying God_, _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, and _The Scapegoat_.

_ 55 The Dying God_, p. 262.

M19 The custom of passing images of gods or their living representatives through the fires may be simply a form of purification.

56 Above, pp. 9, 10, 14.

57 Among the Klings of Southern India the ceremony of walking over a bed of red-hot ashes is performed by a few chosen individuals, who are prepared for the rite by a devil-doctor or medicine-man. The eye-witness who describes the ceremony adds: “As I understood it, they took on themselves and expiated the sins of the Kling community for the past year.” See the letter of Stephen Ponder, quoted by Andrew Lang, _Modern Mythology_ (London, 1897), p. 160.

M20 Yet at some of the fire-festivals the pretence of burning live persons in the fires points to a former custom of human sacrifice.

_ 58 The Dying God_, pp. 205 _sqq._; _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 216 _sqq._

59 Above, vol. i. p. 120.

60 Above, vol. i. p. 186.

61 Above, vol. i. p. 148.

62 Above, vol. i. p. 233.

63 Above, vol. i. p. 194.

64 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 524.

_ 65 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), iii. 956; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 524. In the neighbourhood of Breitenbrunn the lad who collects fuel at this season has his face blackened and is called “the Charcoal Man” (_Bavaria_, etc., ii. 261).

66 A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 121 _sq._, § 146; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 524 _sq._

M21 In pagan Europe the water as well as the fire seems to have claimed its human victim on Midsummer Day. Custom of throwing a man and a tree into the water on St. John’s Day.

67 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 428 _sq._, §§ 120, 122; O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 194; J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 176; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 49, § 311; W. J. A. Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ost-preussens, Litthauens und West-preussens_ (Berlin, 1837), pp. 277 _sq._; K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. 48; R. Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_ (Gera, 1871), p. 31, Nr. 62.

68 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 34.

69 E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 163.

70 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 507.

71 J. A. E. Köhler, _loc. cit._ Tacitus tells us that the image of the goddess Nerthus, her vestments, and chariot were washed in a certain lake, and that immediately afterwards the slaves who ministered to the goddess were swallowed by the lake (_Germania_, 40). The statement may perhaps be understood to mean that the slaves were drowned as a sacrifice to the deity. Certainly we know from Tacitus (_Germania_, 9 and 39) that the ancient Germans offered human sacrifices.

M22 Loaves and flowers thrown into the water on St. John’s Day, perhaps as substitutes for human beings.

72 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 429, § 121.

73 O. Frh. von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.), p. 311.

74 Karl Lynker, _Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen_2 (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), pp. 253, 254, §§ 335, 336.

M23 Midsummer Day deemed unlucky and dangerous.

75 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 506.

76 Giuseppe Pitrè, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo, 1881), p. 313.

M24 In Europe people used to bathe on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day, because water was thought to acquire wonderful medicinal virtues at that time.

77 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 489 _sq._, iii. 487; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 77 § 92; O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 193; F. J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Chur, 1862), p. 133; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 143 § 161; Karl Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. 248, No. 303; F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 415; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 261 _sq._; Paul Sébillot, _Le Folk-lore de France_ (Paris, 1904-1907), ii. 160 _sq._; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp. 322 _sq._, 329 _sq._ For more evidence, see above, vol. i. pp. 193, 194, 205 _sq._, 208, 210, 216; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 204 _sqq._

78 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 420 _sq._; E. Monseur, _Le Folklore Wallon_ (Brussels, N.D.), p. 130; P. Sébillot, _Le Folk-lore de France_, ii. 374 _sq._

79 E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 163. See above, p. 27.

M25 Similar customs and beliefs as to water at Midsummer in Morocco.

80 E. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 31 _sq._; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 84-86; E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 567 _sq._ See also above, vol. i. p. 216.

81 See above, vol. i. pp. 213-219.

82 E. Westermarck, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 94 _sq._

83 This has been rightly pointed out by Dr. Edward Westermarck (“Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 46).

M26 Human sacrifices by fire among the ancient Gauls. Men and animals enclosed in great wicker-work images and burnt alive.

84 Caesar, _Bell. Gall._ vi. 15; Strabo, iv. 4. 5, p. 198; Diodorus Siculus, v. 32. See W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 525 _sqq._

85 Strabo, iv. 4. 4, p. 197: τὰς δὲ φονικὰς δίκας μάλιστα τούτοις [_i.e._ the Druids] ἐπετέτραπτο δικάζειν, ὅταν τε φορὰ τούτων ᾖ, φορὰν καὶ τῆς χώρας νομίζουσιν ὑπάρχειν. On this passage see W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 529 _sqq._; and below, pp. 42 _sq._

M27 As the fertility of the land was supposed to depend on these sacrifices, Mannhardt interpreted the victims as representatives of tree-spirits or spirits of vegetation.

_ 86 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 80 _sqq._

M28 Wicker-work giants at popular festivals in modern Europe. The giant at Douay on July the seventh. The giants at Dunkirk on Midsummer Day.

87 Madame Clément, _Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses du département du Nord_2 (Cambrai, 1836), pp. 193-200; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 323 _sq._; F. W. Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the Giants in Guildhall, their real and legendary History_ (London, 1859), pp. 78-87; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 523, note. It is said that the giantess made her first appearance in 1665, and that the children were not added to the show till the end of the seventeenth century. In the eighteenth century the procession took place on the third Sunday in June, which must always have been within about a week of Midsummer Day (H. Gaidoz, “Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,” _Revue Archéologique_, iii. série iv. 32 _sq._).

_ 88 The Gentleman’s Magazine_, xxix. (1759), pp. 263-265; Madame Clément, _Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses du département du Nord_,2 pp. 169-175; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, pp. 328-332. Compare John Milner, _The History, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Antiquities of Winchester_ (Winchester, N.D.), i. 8 _sq._ note 6; John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 325 _sq._; James Logan, _The Scottish Gael or Celtic Manners_, edited by Rev. Alex. Stewart (Inverness, N.D.), ii. 358. According to the writer in _The Gentleman’s Magazine_ the name of the procession was the Cor-mass.

M29 Wicker-work giants in Brabant and Flanders.

89 Madame Clément, _Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses_, etc., _de la Belgique méridionale_, etc. (Avesnes, 1846), p. 252; Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 123-126. We may conjecture that the Flemish _Reuze_, like the _Reuss_ of Dunkirk, is only another form of the German _Riese_, “giant.”

90 F. W. Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the Giants in Guildhall, their real and legendary History_ (London, 1859), pp. 64-78. For the loan of this work and of the one cited in the next note I have to thank Mrs. Wherry, of St. Peter’s Terrace, Cambridge.

91 E. Fourdin, “La foire d’Ath,” _Annales du Cercle Archéologique de Mons_, ix. (Mons, 1869) pp. 7, 8, 12, 36 _sq._ The history of the festival has been carefully investigated, with the help of documents by M. Fourdin. According to him, the procession was religious in its origin and took its rise from a pestilence which desolated Hainaut in 1215 (_op. cit._ pp. 1 _sqq._). He thinks that the effigies of giants were not introduced into the procession till between 1450 and 1460 (_op. cit._ p. 8).

M30 Midsummer giants in England.

92 George Puttenham, _The Arte of English Poesie_ (London, 1811, reprint of the original edition of London, 1589), book iii. chapter vi. p. 128. On the history of the English giants and their relation to those of the continent, see F. W. Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the Giants in Guildhall, their real and legendary History_ (London, 1859).

93 Joseph Strutt, _The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England_, New Edition, by W. Hone (London, 1834), pp. xliii.-xlv.; F. W. Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the Giants in Guildhall_ (London, 1859), pp. 52-59.

94 F. W. Fairholt, _op. cit._ pp. 59-61.

95 F. W. Fairholt, _op. cit._ pp. 61-63.

M31 Wicker-work giants burnt at or near Midsummer.

96 Felix Liebrecht, _Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia_ (Hanover, 1856), pp. 212 _sq._; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France_, pp. 354 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 514.

97 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 514, 523.

M32 Animals burnt in the Midsummer bonfires. Serpents formerly burnt in the Midsummer fire at Luchon. Cats formerly burnt in the Midsummer, Easter, and Lenten bonfires.

_ 98 Athenaeum_, 24th July 1869, p. 115; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 515 _sq._ From a later account we learn that about the year 1890 the custom of lighting a bonfire and dancing round it was still observed at Bagnères de Luchon on Midsummer Eve, but the practice of burning live serpents in it had been discontinued. The fire was kindled by a priest. See _Folk-lore_, xii. (1901) pp. 315-317.

99 A. Breuil, “Du culte de St.-Jean Baptiste,” _Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) pp. 187 _sq._; Collin de Plancy, _Dictionnaire Infernal_ (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 40; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, pp. 355 _sq._; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Göttingen and Leipsic, 1852-1857), ii. 388; E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 213 _sq._; Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875), i. 82; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515.

100 Tessier, in _Mémoires et Dissertations publiés par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, v. (1823) p. 388; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515.

101 Alexandre Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), p. 407.

102 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 519; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515.

103 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfesten, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 34.

104 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515.

105 A. Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes, et Contes des Ardenness_ (Charleville, 1890), p. 68.

106 Above, vol. i. p. 142.

M33 Thus the sacrificial rites of the ancient Gauls have their counterparts in the popular festivals of modern Europe. M34 The men, women, and animals burnt at these festivals were perhaps thought to be witches or wizards in disguise.

107 Strabo, iv. 4. 5, p. 198, καὶ ἄλλα δὲ ἀνθρωποθυσιῶν εἴδη λέγεται; καὶ γὰρ κατετόξευόν τινας καὶ ἀνεσταύρουν ἐν τοῖς ἱεροῖς καὶ κατασκευάσαντες κολοσσὸν χόρτου καὶ ξύλων, ἐμβαλόντες εἰς τοῦτον βοσκήματα καὶ θηρία παντοῖα καὶ ἀνθρώπους ὡλοκαύτουν.

108 Above, p. 39.

109 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), pp. 214, 301 _sq._; Ulrich Jahn, _Hexenwesen und Zauberei in Pommern_ (Breslau, 1886), p. 7; _id._, _Volkssagen aus Pommern und Rügen_ (Stettin, 1886), p. 353, No. 446.

110 See above, vol. i. p. 315 _n._ 1.

111 The treatment of magic and witchcraft by the Christian Church is described by W. E. H. Lecky, _History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe_, New Edition (London, 1882), i. 1 _sqq._ Four hundred witches were burned at one time in the great square of Toulouse (W. E. H. Lecky, _op. cit._ ii. 38). Writing at the beginning of the eighteenth century Addison observes: “Before I leave Switzerland I cannot but observe, that the notion of witchcraft reigns very much in this country. I have often been tired with accounts of this nature from very sensible men, who are most of them furnished with matters of fact which have happened, as they pretend, within the compass of their own knowledge. It is certain there have been many executions on this account, as in the canton of Berne there were some put to death during my stay at Geneva. The people are so universally infatuated with the notion, that if a cow falls sick, it is ten to one but an old woman is clapt up in prison for it, and if the poor creature chance to think herself a witch, the whole country is for hanging her up without mercy.” See _The Works of Joseph Addison_, with notes by R. Hurd, D.D. (London, 1811), vol. ii., “Remarks on several Parts of Italy,” p. 196.

112 Strabo, iv. 4. 4, p. 197. See the passage quoted above, p. 32, note 2.

M35 Mannhardt thought that the men and animals whom the Druids burned in wickerwork images represented spirits of vegetation, and that the burning of them was a charm to secure a supply of sunshine for the crops.

113 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 532-534.

_ 114 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 270-305.

115 Some of the serpents worshipped by the old Prussians lived in hollow oaks, and as oaks were sacred among the Prussians, the serpents may possibly have been regarded as genii of the trees. See Simon Grunau, _Preussischer Chronik_, herausgegeben von Dr. M. Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 89; Christophor Hartknoch, _Alt und Neues Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684), pp. 143, 163. Serpents played an important part in the worship of Demeter, but we can hardly assume that they were regarded as embodiments of the goddess. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 17 _sq._

116 For example, in China the spirits of plants are thought to assume the form of snakes oftener than that of any other animal. Chinese literature abounds with stories illustrative of such transformations. See J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden, 1901) pp. 283-286. In Siam the spirit of the _takhien_ tree is said to appear sometimes in the shape of a serpent and sometimes in that of a woman. See Adolph Bastian, _Die Voelker des Oestlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) p. 251. The vipers that haunted the balsam trees in Arabia were regarded by the Arabs as sacred to the trees (Pausanias, ix. 28. 4); and once in Arabia, when a wood hitherto untouched by man was burned down to make room for the plough, certain white snakes flew out of it with loud lamentations. No doubt they were supposed to be the dispossessed spirits of the trees. See J. Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen Heidentums_2 (Berlin, 1897), pp. 108 _sq._

M36 It is a common belief in Europe that plants acquire certain magical, but transient, virtues on Midsummer Eve. Magical plants culled on Midsummer Eve (St. John’s Eve) or Midsummer Day (St. John’s Day) in France. St. John’s herb.

117 J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_ (Saintes, 1891), p. 71. Amongst the superstitious practices denounced by the French writer J. B. Thiers in the seventeenth century was “the gathering of certain herbs between the Eve of St. John and the Eve of St. Peter and keeping them in a bottle to heal certain maladies.” See J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), p. 321.

118 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 150 _sq._

119 Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 8, 244; Amélie Bosquet, _La Normandie romanesque et merveilleuse_ (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 294.

120 De la Loubere, _Du Royaume de Siam_ (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 202. The writer here mentions an Italian mode of divination practised on Midsummer Eve. People washed their feet in wine and threw the wine out of the window. After that, the first words they heard spoken by passers-by were deemed oracular.

121 Aubin-Louis Millin, _Voyage dans les Départements du Midi de la France_ (Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 344 _sq._

122 Alexandre Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), p. 124. In French the name of St. John’s herb (_herbe de la Saint-Jean_) is usually given to _millepertius_, that is, St. John’s wort, which is quite a different flower. See below, pp. 54 _sqq._ But “St. John’s herb” may well be a general term which in different places is applied to different plants.

123 Bruno Stehle, “Aberglauben, Sitten und Gebräuche in Lothringen,” _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 379.

124 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 168 _sq._

M37 Magical plants culled on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day in the Tyrol and Germany.

125 I. V. Zingerle, “Wald, Bäume, Kräuter,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) pp. 332 _sq._; _id._, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 158, §§ 1345, 1348.

126 Christian Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 237, § 24.

127 J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Bräuche, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 40.

128 J. H. Schmitz, _op. cit._ i. 42.

129 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 330.

130 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. p. 287, § 1436.

131 W. von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), p. 254.

132 M. Prätorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), pp. 24 _sq._ Kaupole is probably identical in name with Kupole or Kupalo, as to whom see _The Dying God_, pp. 261 _sq._

M38 Magical plants culled on Midsummer Eve (St. John’s Eve) or Midsummer Day in Austria and Russia.

133 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 86.

134 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), pp. 78, 90, 93, 105; _id._, “Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p. 256.

135 Dr. F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen und Mährer in Schlesien,” _Globus_, lxxviii. (1900) p. 340.

136 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 62.

137 P. Einhorn, “Wiederlegunge der Abgötterey: der ander (_sic_) Theil,” printed at Riga in 1627, and reprinted in _Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. 651 _sq._

138 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), ii. 26.

M39 Magical plants culled on St. John’s Eve or St. John’s Day among the South Slavs, in Macedonia, and Bolivia.

139 A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 348, 386.

140 F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_ (Münster i. W., 1890), p. 34.

141 G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folk-lore_ (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 54, 58.

142 H. A. Weddell, _Voyage dans le Nord de la Bolivie et dans les parties voisines du Pérou_ (Paris and London, 1853), p. 181.

M40 Magical plants culled at Midsummer among the Mohammedans of Morocco.

143 W. Westermarck, “Midsummer Customs in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 35; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 88 _sq._

M41 Seven different sorts of magical plants gathered at Midsummer. Nine different sorts of plants gathered at Midsummer. Dreams of love on flowers at Midsummer Eve. Love’s watery mirror at Midsummer Eve.

144 J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 9.

145 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1890), ii. 285.

146 J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 376.

147 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.), p. 312.

148 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _loc. cit._

149 M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 72.

M42 Garlands of flowers of nine sorts gathered at Midsummer and used in divination and medicine.

150 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _loc. cit._

151 J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch_, etc., _im Voigtlande_, p. 376.

152 C. Lemke, _Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 20.

153 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 144 _sq._

154 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 423.

155 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 252.

156 M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_,2 p. 72.

157 M. Töppen, _op. cit._ p. 71.

158 A. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1876), pp. 362 _sq._

159 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 267 _sq._

160 Willibald Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 264.

161 W. von Schulenburg, _Wendisches Volksthum_ (Berlin, 1882), p. 145.

M43 St. John’s wort (_Hypericum perforatum_) gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer. St. John’s blood on St. John’s Day.

162 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 145; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 100, § 134; I. V. Zingerle, “Wald, Bäume, Kräuter,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) p. 329; A. Schlossar, “Volksmeinung und Volksaberglaube aus der deutschen Steiermark,” _Germania_, N.R., xxiv. (1891) p. 387; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 428; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 307, 312; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _Folk-lore of Plants_ (London, 1889), pp. 62, 286; Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London, 1886), pp. 147, 149, 150, 540; G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp. 161 _sq._; G. Pitrè, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo, 1881), p. 309. One authority lays down the rule that you should gather the plant fasting and in silence (J. Brand, _op. cit._ p. 312). According to Sowerby, the _Hypericum perforatum_ flowers in England about July and August (_English Botany_, vol. v. London, 1796, p. 295). We should remember, however, that in the old calendar Midsummer Day fell twelve days later than at present. The reform of the calendar probably put many old floral superstitions out of joint.

163 Bingley, _Tour round North Wales_ (1800), ii. 237, quoted by T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 320. Compare Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 251: “St. John’s, or Midsummer Day, was an important festival. St. John’s wort, gathered at noon on that day, was considered good for several complaints. The old saying went that if anybody dug the devil’s bit at midnight on the eve of St. John, the roots were then good for driving the devil and witches away.” Apparently by “the devil’s bit” we are to understand St. John’s wort.

164 J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_ (Saintes, 1891), pp. 71 _sq._

165 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 84. They call the plant “witch’s herb” (_Hexenkraut_).

166 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. v. (London, 1796), p. 295.

167 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 35.

168 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _Folk-lore of Plants_ (London, 1889), p. 286; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_, ii. p. 291, § 1450_a_. The Germans of Bohemia ascribe wonderful virtues to the red juice extracted from the yellow flowers of St. John’s wort (W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_, Vienna and Olmütz, 1893, p. 264).

169 K. Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 286, § 1433. The blood is also a preservative against many diseases (_op. cit._ ii. p. 290, § 1444).

170 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 387, § 105.

_ 171 Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_5 (Chemnitz, 1759), pp. 246 _sq._; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfesten, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_, p. 147.

172 Berthold Seeman, _Viti, An Account of a Government Mission to the Vitian or Fijian Islands in the years 1860-61_ (Cambridge, 1862), p. 63.

M44 Mouse-ear hawkweed (_Hieracium pilosella_) gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.

173 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xvi. (London, 1803) p. 1093.

174 K. Seifart, _Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift Hildesheim_2 (Hildesheim, 1889), p. 177, § 12.

175 C. L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), i. 9.

176 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 98, § 681.

177 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 100, § 134.

M45 Mountain arnica gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.

178 J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 376. The belief and practice are similar at Grün, near Asch, in Western Bohemia. See Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 84.

179 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 299; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. (Munich, 1865), p. 342; I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 160, § 1363.

M46 Mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_) gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer. Mugwort in China and Japan.

180 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1013; A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), i. 189 _sq._; Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London, 1886), p. 75. In England mugwort is very common in waste ground, hedges, and the borders of fields. It flowers throughout August and later. The root is woody and perennial. The smooth stems, three or four feet high, are erect, branched, and leafy, and marked by many longitudinal purplish ribs. The pinnatified leaves alternate on the stalk; they are smooth and dark green above, cottony and very white below. The flowers are in simple leafy spikes or clusters; the florets are purplish, furnished with five stamens and five awl-shaped female flowers, which constitute the radius. The whole plant has a weak aromatic scent and a slightly bitter flavour. Its medical virtues are of no importance. See James Sowerby, _English Botany_, xiv. (London, 1802) p. 978. Altogether it is not easy to see why such an inconspicuous and insignificant flower should play so large a part in popular superstition. Mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_) is not to be confounded with wormwood (_Artemisia absinthium_), which is quite a different flower in appearance, though it belongs to the same genus. Wormwood is common in England, flowering about August. The flowers are in clusters, each of them broad, hemispherical, and drooping, with a buff-coloured disc. The whole plant is of a pale whitish green and clothed with a short silky down. It is remarkable for its intense bitterness united to a peculiar strong aromatic odour. It is often used to keep insects from clothes and furniture, and as a medicine is one of the most active bitters. See James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xviii. (London, 1804) p. 1230.

181 Breuil, “Du culte de St.-Jean-Baptiste,” _Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) p. 224, note 1, quoting the curé of Manancourt, near Péronne.

182 L. Pineau, _Le folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), p. 499.

183 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), pp. 90 _sq._, §§ 635-637.

184 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 249, § 283; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1013; I. V. Zingerle, in _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) p. 331. and _ib._ iv. (1859) p. 42 (quoting a work of the seventeenth century); F. J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Chur, 1862), p. 133, note 1. See also above, vol. i. pp. 162, 163, 165, 174, 177.

185 A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie der Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), i. 190, quoting Du Cange.

186 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 262.

187 Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1886), ii. 8.

188 Joseph Train, _Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 120.

189 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 422.

190 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden, 1910) p. 1079, compare p. 947.

191 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 947.

192 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 946 _sq._

193 Rev. John Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 318, compare pp. 315 _sq._, 329, 370, 372.

_ 194 Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) p. 42; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste_, p. 141. The German name of mugwort (_Beifuss_) is said to be derived from this superstition.

195 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen, und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 290, § 1445.

196 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste_, p. 141.

197 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 334 _sq._, quoting Lupton, Thomas Hill, and Paul Barbette. A precisely similar belief is recorded with regard to wormwood (_armoise_) by the French writer J. B. Thiers, who adds that only small children and virgins could find the wonderful coal. See J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_5 (Paris, 1741), i. 300. In Annam people think that wormwood puts demons to flight; hence they hang up bunches of its leaves in their houses at the New Year. See Paul Giran, _Magie et Religion Annamites_ (Paris, 1912), p. 118, compare pp. 185, 256.

198 C. Lemke, _Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 21. As to mugwort (German _Beifuss_, French _armoise_), see further A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 16 _sqq._; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 356 _sq._

M47 Orpine (_Sedum telephium_) used in divination at Midsummer.

199 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xix. (London, 1804) p. 1319.

200 John Aubrey, _Remains of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881), pp. 25 _sq._; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 329 _sqq._; Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London, 1886), p. 136; D. H. Moutray Read, “Hampshire Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) p. 325. Compare J. Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xix. (London, 1804), p. 1319: “Like all succulent plants this is very tenacious of life, and will keep growing long after it has been torn from its native spot. The country people in Norfolk sometimes hang it up in their cottages, judging by its vigour of the health of some absent friend.” It seems that in England the course of love has sometimes been divined by means of sprigs of red sage placed in a basin of rose-water on Midsummer Eve (J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 333).

201 M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), pp. 71 _sq._; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 176, § 487; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 163. In Switzerland the species employed for this purpose on Midsummer day is _Sedum reflexum_. The custom is reported from the Emmenthal. In Germany a root of orpine, dug up on St. John’s morning and hung between the shoulders, is sometimes thought to be a cure for hemorrhoids (Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste_, p. 145). Perhaps the “oblong, tapering, fleshy, white lumps” of the roots (J. Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xix. London, 1804, p. 1319) are thought to bear some likeness to the hemorrhoids, and to heal them on the principle that the remedy should resemble the disease.

M48 Vervain gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer. Magical virtue of four-leaved clover on Midsummer Eve.

202 See above, vol. i. pp. 162, 163, 165. In England vervain (_Verbena officinalis_) grows not uncommonly by road sides, in dry sunny pastures, and in waste places about villages. It flowers in July. The flowers are small and sessile, the corolla of a very pale lilac hue, its tube enclosing the four short curved stamens. The root of the plant, worn by a string round the neck, is an old superstitious medicine for scrofulous disorders. See James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xi. (London, 1800) p. 767.

203 Dr. Otero Acevado, in _Le Temps_, September 1898. See above, vol. i. p. 208, note 1.

204 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 422.

205 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, p. 262; Amélie Bosquet, _La Normandie romanesque et merveilleuse_, p. 294; J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, i. 287, ii. 8. In Saintonge and Aunis the plant was gathered on Midsummer Eve for the purpose of evoking or exorcising spirits (J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_, p. 72).

206 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_, p. 207, § 1437.

207 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 177, citing Chambers, _Edinburgh Journal_, 2nd July 1842.

208 I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 107, § 919.

209 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875), i. 288.

210 J. L. M. Noguès, _Les mœurs d’autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_, pp. 71 _sq._

211 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_, i. 423.

M49 Camomile gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.

212 W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_2 (Marburg, 1888), p. 72; Sophus Bugge, _Studien über die Entstehung der nordischen Götter- und Heldensagen_ (Munich, 1889), pp. 35, 295 _sq._; Fr. Kauffmann, _Balder_ (Strasburg, 1902), pp. 45, 61. The flowers of common camomile (_Anthemis nobilis_) are white with a yellow disk, which in time becomes conical. The whole plant is intensely bitter, with a peculiar but agreeable smell. As a medicine it is useful for stomachic troubles. In England it does not generally grow wild. See James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xiv. (London, 1802) p. 980.

213 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 177, § 488.

214 M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 71.

M50 Mullein (_Verbascum_) gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.

215 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 289, § 139.

216 W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), p. 283.

217 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. vii. (London, 1798), p. 487. As to great mullein or high taper, see _id._, vol. viii. (London, 1799), p. 549.

218 Tettau und Temme, _loc. cit._ As to mullein at Midsummer, see also above, vol. i. pp. 190, 191.

M51 Seeds of fir-cones, wild thyme, elder-flowers, and purple loosestrife gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.

219 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_, p. 205, § 1426.

220 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 93, § 648.

221 J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 377.

222 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 84.

223 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich, 1857), p. 397.

224 C. Russwurm, “Aberglaube aus Russland,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) pp. 153 _sq._ The purple loosestrife is one of our most showy English wild plants. In July and August it may be seen flowering on the banks of rivers, ponds, and ditches. The separate flowers are in axillary whorls, which together form a loose spike of a reddish variable purple. See James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xv. (London, 1802) p. 1061.

M52 Magical properties attributed to fern seed at Midsummer.

225 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 314 _sqq._; Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London, 1886), pp. 60, 78, 150, 279-283; Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), p. 242; Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), pp. 89 _sq._; J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), p. 314; J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, i. 290; P. Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1886), p. 217; _id._, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882), ii. 336; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), pp. 94 _sq._, § 123; F. J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Chur, 1862), pp. 133 _sqq._; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfesten_, p. 144; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_, ii. 288, § 1437; M. Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_,2 p. 72; A. Schlossar, “Volksmeinung und Volksaberglaube aus der deutschen Steiermark,” _Germania_, N.R., xxiv. (1891) p. 387; Theodor Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), p. 309; J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich, 1857), pp. 407 _sq._; I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 103, § 882, p. 158, § 1350; Christian Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 237; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_, p. 97, §§ 673-677; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D.), pp. 311 _sq._; W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p. 265; R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), p. 106; _id._, “Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p. 275; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 142, § 159; G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), p. 161; C. Russwurm, “Aberglaube in Russland,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) pp. 152 _sq._; A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), ii. 144 _sqq._ The practice of gathering ferns or fern seed on the Eve of St. John was forbidden by the synod of Ferrara in 1612. See J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_5 (Paris, 1741), i. 299 _sq._ In a South Slavonian story we read how a cowherd understood the language of animals, because fern-seed accidentally fell into his shoe on Midsummer Day (F. S. Krauss, _Sagen und Märchen der Südslaven_, Leipsic, 1883-1884, ii. 424 _sqq._, No. 159). On this subject I may refer to my article, “The Language of Animals,” _The Archaeological Review_, i. (1888) pp. 164 _sqq._

226 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 97, §§ 673, 675.

_ 227 Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) pp. 152 _sq._; A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 146.

228 M. Longworth Dames and E. Seemann, “Folk-lore of the Azores,” _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 142 _sq._

229 August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 275, § 82.

M53 Branches of hazel cut at Midsummer to serve as divining-rods.

230 W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p. 265; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_, ii. p. 285, § 1431, p. 288, § 1439; J. Napier, _Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland_ (Paisley, 1879), p. 125.

231 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 330. As to the divining-rod in general, see A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 181 _sqq._; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 813 _sqq._; S. Baring-Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1884), pp. 55 _sqq._ Kuhn plausibly suggests that the forked shape of the divining-rod is a rude representation of the human form. He compares the shape and magic properties of mandragora.

232 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), i. 296 _sq._

233 E. Krause, “Abergläubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin und nächster Umgebung,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p. 89.

234 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich, 1857), p. 393.

235 Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855), p. 98. Some people in Swabia say that the hazel branch which is to serve as a divining-rod should be cut at midnight on Good Friday, and that it should be laid on the altar and mass said over it. If that is done, we are told that a Protestant can use it to quite as good effect as a Catholic. See E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 244 _sq._, No. 268. Some of the Wends of the Spreewald agree that the divining-rod should be made of hazel-wood, and they say that it ought to be wrapt in swaddling-bands, laid on a white plate, and baptized on Easter Saturday. Many of them, however, think that it should be made of “yellow willow.” See Wilibald von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), pp. 204 _sq._ A remarkable property of the hazel in the opinion of Bavarian peasants is that it is never struck by lightning; this immunity it has enjoyed ever since the day when it protected the Mother of God against a thunderstorm on her flight into Egypt. See _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. (Munich, 1860) p. 371.

M54 The divining-rod in Sweden obtained on Midsummer Eve.

236 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 289, referring to Dybeck’s _Runa_, 1844, p. 22, and 1845, p. 80.

237 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 266 _sq._

M55 The mythical springwort supposed to bloom on Midsummer Eve.

238 Heinrich Pröhle, _Harzsagen_ (Leipsic, 1859), i. 99, No. 23.

M56 Another way of catching the springwort. The white bloom of chicory.

239 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 812 _sq._, iii. 289; A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 188-193; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), pp. 174-178; J. F. L. Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_ (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 44; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 459, No. 444; Ernst Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 240 _sq._, No. 265; C. Russwurm, “Aberglaube in Russland,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (Göttingen, 1859) p. 153; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 88, No. 623; Paul Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 207 _sq._ In Swabia some people say that the bird which brings the springwort is not the woodpecker but the hoopoe (E. Meier, _op. cit._ p. 240). Others associate the springwort with other birds. See H. Pröhle, _Harzsagen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 116, No. 308; A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers_,2 p. 190. It is from its power of springing or bursting open all doors and locks that the springwort derives its name (German _Springwurzel_).

240 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ x. 40.

241 Ernst Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 238 _sq._, No. 264.

M57 The magical virtues ascribed to plants at Midsummer may be thought to be derived from the sun, then at the height of his power and glory. Hence it is possible that the Midsummer bonfires stand in direct relation to the sun. M58 This consideration tends to bring us back to an intermediate position between the rival theories of Mannhardt and Westermarck.

242 See above, pp. 45, 46, 49, 54, 55, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67.

M59 Miscellaneous examples of the baleful activity of witches at Midsummer and of the precautions which it is necessary to take against them at that time. Witches in Voigtland. The witches’ Sabbath in Prussia on Walpurgis Night and Midsummer Eve. Midsummer Eve a witching time among the South Slavs.

243 Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 423 _sq._

244 Anton Birlinger, _Völksthumliches aus Schwaben_, Freiburg im Breisgau, (1861-1862), i. 278, § 437.

245 Robert Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_ (Gera, 1871), p. 210, Nr. 551.

246 W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), pp. 263 _sq._

247 F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_ (Münster i. W., 1890), p. 128.

M60 Relation of the fire-festivals to the myth of Balder. M61 Veneration of the Druids for the mistletoe.

248 Pliny derives the name Druid from the Greek _drus_, “oak.” He did not know that the Celtic word for oak was the same (_daur_), and that therefore Druid, in the sense of priest of the oak, might be genuine Celtic, not borrowed from the Greek. This etymology is accepted by some modern scholars. See G. Curtius, _Grundzüge der Griechischen Etymologie_5 (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 238 _sq._; A. Vaniček, _Griechisch-Lateinisch Etymologisches Wörterbuch_ (Leipsic, 1877), pp. 368 _sqq._; (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 221 _sqq._ However, this derivation is disputed by other scholars, who prefer to derive the name from a word meaning knowledge or wisdom, so that Druid would mean “wizard” or “magician.” See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 305; Otto Schrader, _Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 638 _sq._; H. D’Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les Dieux Celtiques à forme d’animaux_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 1, 11, 83 _sqq._ The last-mentioned scholar formerly held that the etymology of Druid was unknown. See his _Cours de Littérature Celtique_, i. (Paris, 1883) pp. 117-127.

249 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 249-251. In the first edition of this book I understood Pliny to say that the Druidical ceremony of cutting the mistletoe fell in the sixth month, that is, in June; and hence I argued that it probably formed part of the midsummer festival. But in accordance with Latin usage the words of Pliny (_sexta luna_, literally “sixth moon”) can only mean “the sixth day of the month.” I have to thank my friend Mr. W. Warde Fowler for courteously pointing out my mistake to me. Compare my note in the _Athenaeum_, November 21st, 1891, p. 687. I also misunderstood Pliny’s words, “_et saeculi post tricesimum annum, quia jam virium abunde habeat nec sit sui dimidia_,” applying them to the tree instead of to the moon, to which they really refer. After _saeculi_ we must understand _principium_ from the preceding _principia_. With the thirty years’ cycle of the Druids we may compare the sixty years’ cycle of the Boeotian festival of the Great Daedala (Pausanias, ix. 3. 5; see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 140 _sq._), which, like the Druidical rite in question, was essentially a worship, or perhaps rather a conjuration, of the sacred oak. Whether any deeper affinity, based on common Aryan descent, may be traced between the Boeotian and the Druidical ceremony, I do not pretend to determine. In India a cycle of sixty years, based on the sidereal revolution of Jupiter, has long been in use. The sidereal revolution of Jupiter is accomplished in approximately twelve solar years (more exactly 11 years and 315 days), so that five of its revolutions make a period of approximately sixty years. It seems, further, that in India a much older cycle of sixty lunar years was recognized. See Christian Lassen, _Indische Alter-thumskunde_, i.2 (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 988 _sqq._; Prof. F. Kielhorn (Göttingen), “The Sixty-year Cycle of Jupiter,” _The Indian Antiquary_, xviii. (1889) pp. 193-209; J. F. Fleet, “A New System of the Sixty-year Cycle of Jupiter,” _ibid._ pp. 221-224. In Tibet the use of a sixty-years’ cycle has been borrowed from India. See W. Woodville Rockhill, “Tibet,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1891_ (London, 1891), p. 207 note 1.

M62 Medical and magical virtues ascribed to mistletoe in ancient Italy.

250 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 11 _sq._

251 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiii. 94.

M63 Agreement between the Druids and the ancient Italians as to the valuable properties of mistletoe. M64 Similar beliefs as to mistletoe among the Ainos of Japan.

252 Rev. John Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 222.

M65 Similar beliefs as to mistletoe among the Torres Straits Islanders and the Walos of Senegambia. These beliefs perhaps originate in a notion that the mistletoe has fallen from heaven.

_ 253 Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 198 _sq._

254 M. le baron Roger (ancien Gouverneur de la Colonie française du Sénégal), “Notice sur le Gouvernement, les Mœurs, et les Superstitions des Nègres du pays de Walo,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_, viii. (Paris, 1827) pp. 357 _sq._

M66 Such a notion would explain the ritual used in cutting mistletoe and other parasites.

255 Above, p. 77.

256 Compare _The Times_, 2nd April, 1901, p. 9: “The Tunis correspondent of the _Temps_ reports that in the course of certain operations in the Belvedere Park in Tunis the workmen discovered a huge circle of enormous stumps of trees ranged round an immense square stone showing signs of artistic chisel work. In the neighbourhood were found a sort of bronze trough containing a gold sickle in perfect preservation, and a sarcophagus containing a skeleton. About the forehead of the skeleton was a gold band, having in the centre the image of the sun, accompanied by hieratic signs, which are provisionally interpreted as the monogram of Teutates. The discovery of such remains in North Africa has created a sensation.” As to the Celtic god Teutates and the human sacrifices offered to him, see Lucan, _Pharsalia_, i. 444 _sq._:

“_Et quibus immitis placatur sanguine diro_ _ Teutates horrensque feris altaribus Hesus._”

Compare (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 44 _sqq._, 232. Branches of the sacred olive at Olympia, which were to form the victors’ crowns, had to be cut with a golden sickle by a boy whose parents were both alive. See the Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 60, p. 102, ed. Aug. Boeck (Leipsic, 1819). In Assyrian ritual it was laid down that, before felling a sacred tamarisk to make magical images out of the wood, the magician should pray to the sun-god Shamash and touch the tree with a golden axe. See C. Fossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 132 _sq._ Some of the ancients thought that the root of the marsh-mallow, which was used in medicine, should be dug up with gold and then preserved from contact with the ground (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xx. 29). At the great horse-sacrifice in ancient India it was prescribed by ritual that the horse should be slain by a golden knife, because “gold is light” and “by means of the golden light the sacrificer also goes to the heavenly world.” See _The Satapatha-Brâhmana_, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part v. (Oxford, 1900) p. 303 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xliv.). It has been a rule of superstition both in ancient and modern times that certain plants, to which medical or magical virtues were attributed, should not be cut with iron. See the fragment of Sophocles’s _Root-cutters_, quoted by Macrobius, _Saturn_. v. 19. 9 _sq._; Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 513 _sq._; Ovid, _Metamorph._ vii. 227; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 68, 103, 176; and above, p. 65 (as to purple loosestrife in Russia). On the objection to the use of iron in such cases compare F. Liebrecht, _Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia_ (Hanover, 1856), pp. 102 _sq._; _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 225 _sqq._

257 Étienne Aymonier, “Notes sur les Coutumes et Croyances Superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” _Cochinchine Française, Excursions et Reconnaissance_ No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), p. 136.

258 See above, vol. i. pp. 2 _sqq._

M67 The ancient beliefs and practices concerning mistletoe have their analogies in modern European folk-lore.

259 Ernst Meier, “Über Pflanzen und Kräuter,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (Göttingen, 1853), pp. 443 _sq._ The sun enters the sign of Sagittarius about November 22nd.

260 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 533, referring to Dybeck, _Runa_, 1845, p. 80.

261 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 87.

M68 Medicinal virtues ascribed to mistletoe by ancients and moderns. Mistletoe as a cure for epilepsy.

262 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 250, “_Omnia sanantem appellantes suo vocabulo_.” See above, p. 77.

263 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1009: “_Sonst aber wird das welsche_ olhiach, _bretagn._ ollyiach, _ir._ uileiceach, _gal._ uileice, _d. i. allheiland_, _von_ ol, uile universalis, _als benennung des mistels angegeben_.” My lamented friend, the late R. A. Neil of Pembroke College, Cambridge, pointed out to me that in N. M’Alpine’s _Gaelic Dictionary_ (Seventh Edition, Edinburgh and London, 1877, p. 432) the Gaelic word for mistletoe is given as _an t’ uil_, which, Mr. Neil told me, means “all-healer.”

264 A. de Gubernatis, _La Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), ii. 73.

265 Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London, 1886), p. 378. Compare A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 206, referring to Keysler, _Antiq. Sept._ p. 308.

266 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 102 _sq._ The local name for mistletoe here is _besq_, which may be derived from the Latin _viscum_.

267 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 205; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), p. 186.

268 “Einige Notizen aus einem alten Kräuterbuche,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (Göttingen, 1859) pp. 41 _sq._

269 Francis Pérot, “Prières, Invocations, Formules Sacrées, Incantations en Bourbonnais,” _Revue des Traditions Populaires_, xviii. (1903) p. 299.

_ 270 County Folk-lore_, v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 120.

271 Prof. P. J. Veth, “De Leer der Signatuur, iii. De Mistel en de Riembloem,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 111. He names Ray in England (about 1700), Boerhaave in Holland (about 1720), and Van Swieten, a pupil of Boerhaave’s (about 1745).

_ 272 County Folk-lore_, vol. v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 120.

273 Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, quoted by Thomas Pennant in his “Tour in Scotland, 1769,” printed in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. (London, 1809) p. 136; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 151.

274 Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), p. 186.

M69 The medicinal virtues ascribed to mistletoe seem to be mythical, being fanciful inferences from the parasitic nature of the plant.

275 On this point Prof. P. J. Veth (“De Leer der Signatuur,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 112) quotes Cauvet, _Eléments d’Histoire naturelle medicale_, ii. 290: “_La famille des Loranthacées ne nous offre aucun intéret._”

M70 The belief that mistletoe extinguishes fire seems based on a fancy that it falls on the tree in a flash of lightning.

276 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886), p. 205, referring to Dybeck, _Runa_, 1845, p. 80.

277 A. Kuhn, _op. cit._ p. 204, referring to Rochholz, _Schweizersagen aus d. Aargau_, ii. 202.

278 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 153.

279 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 37, § 218. In Upper Bavaria the mistletoe is burned for this purpose along with the so-called palm-branches which were consecrated on Palm Sunday. See _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. (Munich, 1860), p. 371.

M71 Other wonderful properties ascribed to mistletoe; in particular it is thought to be a protection against witchcraft.

280 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_,2 p. 206, referring to Albertus Magnus, p. 155; Prof. P. J. Veth, “De Leer der Signatuur,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1904) p. 111.

281 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich, 1857), p. 398.

282 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 97, § 128; Prof. P. J. Veth, “De Leer der Signatuur,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 111.

283 A. Wuttke, _op. cit._ p. 267, § 419.

284 W. Henderson, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England and the Borders_ (London, 1879), p. 114.

285 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 88.

286 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 269.

M72 A favourite time for gathering mistletoe is Midsummer Eve.

287 Above, pp. 77, 78.

288 Above, pp. 82, 84.

289 Above, pp. 83, 86.

290 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 353, referring to Dybeck, _Runa_, 1844, p. 22.

291 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 88.

M73 The two main incidents of Balder’s myth, namely the pulling of the mistletoe and the lighting of the bonfire, are reproduced in the great Midsummer celebration of Scandinavia.

292 See above, p. 86.

293 G. Wahlenberg, _Flora Suecica_ (Upsala, 1824-1826), ii. No. 1143 _Viscum album_, pp. 649 _sq._: “_Hab. in sylvarum densiorum et humidiorum arboribus frondosis, ut Pyris, Quercu, Fago etc. per Sueciam temperatiorem passim_.”

294 Above, vol. i. pp. 171 _sq._

295 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 259.

296 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 78, who adds, “_Mahnen die Johannisfeuer an Baldrs Leichenbrand?_” This pregnant hint perhaps contains in germ the solution of the whole myth.

M74 Hence the myth of Balder was probably the explanation given of a similar rite.

297 Above, vol. i. p. 148.

298 Above, vol. i. p. 186.

299 Above, p. 26.

M75 If a human representative of a tree-spirit was burned in the bonfires, what kind of tree did he represent? The oak the principal sacred tree of the Aryans.

300 As to the worship of the oak in Europe, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 349 _sqq._ Compare P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, in two parts (Wurzen, N.D., and Berlin, 1891).

301 Strabo, xii. 5.1, p. 567. The name is a compound of _dryu_, “oak,” and _nemed_, “temple” (H. F. Tozer, _Selections from Strabo_, Oxford, 1893, p. 284). We know from Jerome (_Commentar. in Epist. ad Galat._ book ii. praef.) that the Galatians retained their native Celtic speech as late as the fourth century of our era.

_ 302 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 365.

303 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 55 _sq._, 58 _sq._, ii. 542, iii. 187 _sq._; P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 40 _sqq._; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 363 _sqq._, 371.

304 L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 108.

305 Livy, i. 10. Compare C. Bötticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_ (Berlin, 1856), pp. 133 _sq._

306 C. Bötticher, _op. cit._ pp. 111 _sqq._; L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_,4 ed. C. Robert, i. (Berlin, 1894) pp. 122 _sqq._; P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 2 _sqq._ It is noteworthy that at Olympia the only wood that might be used in sacrificing to Zeus was the white poplar (Pausanias, v. 14. 2). But it is probable that herein Zeus, who was an intruder at Olympia, merely accepted an old local custom which, long before his arrival, had been observed in the worship of Pelops (Pausanias, v. 13. 3).

307 Without hazarding an opinion on the vexed question of the cradle of the Aryans, I may observe that in various parts of Europe the oak seems to have been formerly more common than it is now. See the evidence collected in _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 349 _sqq._

M76 Hence the tree represented by the human victim who was burnt at the fire-festivals was probably the oak.

308 However, some exceptions to the rule are recorded. See above, vol. i. pp. 169, 278 (oak and fir), 220 (plane and birch), 281, 283, 286 (limewood), 282 (poplar and fir), 286 (cornel-tree), 291 (birch or other hard wood), 278, 280 (nine kinds of wood). According to Montanus, the need-fire, Easter, and Midsummer fires were kindled by the friction of oak and limewood. See Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 159. But elsewhere (pp. 33 _sq._, 127) the same writer says that the need-fire and Midsummer fires were produced by the friction of oak and fir-wood.

309 Above, vol. i. p. 177.

310 M. Prätorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_, herausgegeben von Dr. William Pierson (Berlin, 1871), pp. 19 _sq._ W. R. S. Ralston says (on what authority I do not know) that if the fire maintained in honour of the Lithuanian god Perkunas went out, it was rekindled by sparks struck from a stone which the image of the god held in his hand (_Songs of the Russian People_, London, 1872, p. 88).

311 See above, vol. i. pp. 148, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276, 281, 289, 294.

312 Above, vol. i. pp. 148, 155.

_ 313 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 186.

_ 314 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 366. However, sacred fires of other wood than oak are not unknown among Aryan peoples. Thus at Olympia white poplar was the wood burnt in sacrifices to Zeus (above, p. 90 _n._1); at Delphi the perpetual fire was fed with pinewood (Plutarch, _De EI apud Delphos_, 2), and it was over the glowing embers of pinewood that the Soranian Wolves walked at Soracte (above, p. 14).

315 Montanus, _Diedeutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 127, 159. The log is called in German _Sckarholz_. The custom appears to have prevailed particularly in Westphalia, about Sieg and Lahn. Compare Montanus, _op. cit._ p. 12, as to the similar custom at Christmas. The use of the _Scharholz_ is reported to be found also in Niederlausitz and among the neighbouring Saxons. See Paul Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 86 _sq._

316 Above, vol. i. pp. 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 260, 263. Elsewhere the Yule log has been made of fir, beech, holly, yew, crab-tree, or olive. See above, vol. i. pp. 249, 257, 263.

_ 317 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 140 _sq._

318 A curious use of an oak-wood fire to detect a criminal is reported from Germany. If a man has been found murdered and his murderer is unknown, you are recommended to proceed as follows. You kindle a fire of dry oak-wood, you pour some of the blood from the wounds on the fire, and you change the poor man’s shoes, putting the right shoe on the left foot, and _vice versa_. As soon as that is done, the murderer is struck blind and mad, so that he fancies he is riding up to the throat in water; labouring under this delusion he returns to the corpse, when you can apprehend him and deliver him up to the arm of justice with the greatest ease. See Montanus, _op. cit._ pp. 159 _sq._

M77 If the human victims burnt at the fire-festival represented the oak, the reason for pulling the mistletoe may have been a belief that the life of the oak was in the mistletoe, and that the tree could not perish either by fire or water so long as the mistletoe remained intact among its boughs. M78 Ancient Italian belief that mistletoe could not be destroyed by fire or water.

319 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xiii. 119: “_Alexander Cornelius arborem leonem appellavit ex qua facta esset Argo, similem robori viscum ferenti, quae neque aqua neque igni possit corrumpi, sicuti nec viscum, nulli alii cognitam, quod equidem sciam._” Here the tree out of which the ship Argo was made is said to have been destructible neither by fire nor water; and as the tree is compared to a mistletoe-bearing oak, and the mistletoe itself is said to be indestructible by fire and water, it seems to follow that the same indestructibility may have been believed to attach to the oak which bore the mistletoe, so long at least as the mistletoe remained rooted on the boughs.

M79 Conception of a being whose life is outside himself. M80 Belief that a man’s soul may be deposited for safety in a secure place outside his body, and that so long as it remains there intact he himself is invulnerable and immortal.

_ 320 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 26 _sqq._

M81 This belief is illustrated by folk-tales told by many peoples.

321 A number of the following examples were collected by Mr. E. Clodd in his paper, “The Philosophy of Punchkin,” _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (1884) pp. 288-303; and again in his _Myths and Dreams_ (London, 1885), pp. 188-198. The subject of the external soul, both in folk-tales and in custom, has been well handled by G. A. Wilken in his two papers, “De betrekking tusschen menschen- dieren- en plantenleven naar het volksgeloof,” _De Indische Gids_, November 1884, pp. 595-612, and “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5. In “De Simsonsage” Wilken has reproduced, to a great extent in the same words, most of the evidence cited by him in “De betrekking,” yet without referring to that paper. When I wrote this book in 1889-1890 I was unacquainted with “De betrekking,” but used with advantage “De Simsonsage,” a copy of it having been kindly sent me by the author. I am the more anxious to express my obligations to “De Simsonsage,” because I have had little occasion to refer to it, most of the original authorities cited by the author being either in my own library or easily accessible to me in Cambridge. It would be a convenience to anthropologists if Wilken’s valuable papers, dispersed as they are in various Dutch periodicals which are seldom to be met with in England, were collected and published together. After the appearance of my first anthropological essay in 1885, Professor Wilken entered into correspondence with me, and thenceforward sent me copies of his papers as they appeared; but of his papers published before that date I have not a complete set. (Note to the Second Edition.) The wish expressed in the foregoing note has now been happily fulfilled. Wilken’s many scattered papers have been collected and published in a form which leaves nothing to be desired (_De verspreide Geschriften van Prof. Dr. G. A. Wilken_, verzameld door Mr. F. D. E. van Ossenbruggen, in four volumes, The Hague, 1912). The two papers “De betrekking” and “De Simsonsage” are reprinted in the third volume, pp. 289-309 and pp. 551-579. The subject of the external soul in relation to Balder has been fully illustrated and discussed by Professor F. Kauffmann in his _Balder, Mythus und Sage_ (Strasburg, 1902), pp. 136 _sqq._ Amongst the first to collect examples of the external soul in folk-tales was the learned Dr. Reinhold Köhler (in _Orient und Occident_, ii., Göttingen, 1864, pp. 100-103; reprinted with additional references in the writer’s _Kleinere Schriften_, i., Weimar, 1898, pp. 158-161). Many versions of the tale were also cited by W. R. S. Ralston (_Russian Folk-tales_, London, 1873, pp. 109 _sqq._). (Note to the Third Edition.)

M82 Stories of an external soul common among Aryan peoples. The external soul in Hindoo stories. Punchkin and the parrot. The ogre whose soul was in a bird.

322 Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp. 12-16.

323 Maive Stokes, _Indian Fairy Tales_ (London, 1880), pp. 58-60. For similar Hindoo stories, see _id._, pp. 187 _sq._; Lai Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_ (London, 1883), pp. 121 _sq._; F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_ (Bombay and London, 1884), pp. 58-60.

M83 The princess whose soul was in a golden necklace. The prince whose soul was in a fish.

324 Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, pp. 239 _sqq._

325 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, pp. 1 _sqq._ For similar stories of necklaces, see Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, pp. 233 _sq._; F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_, pp. 83 _sqq._

M84 Cashmeer stories of ogres whose lives were in cocks, a pigeon, a starling, a spinning-wheel, and a pillar. Cashmeer and Bengalee stories of ogres whose lives were in bees.

326 J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales of Kashmir_, Second Edition (London, 1893), pp. 49 _sq._

327 J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ p. 134.

328 J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ pp. 382 _sqq._

329 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, pp. 85 _sq._; compare _id._, pp. 253 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872) p. 117. For an Indian story in which a giant’s life is in five black bees, see W. A. Clouston, _Popular Tales and Fictions_ (Edinburgh and London, 1887), i. 350.

_ 330 Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872), p. 171.

M85 The external soul in a Siamese or Cambodian story. Indian stories of a tree and a barley plant that were life-tokens.

331 A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, iv. (Jena, 1868) pp. 304 _sq._

332 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, p. 189.

333 F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_ (Bombay and London, 1884), pp. 52, 64. In the Indian _Jataka_ there is a tale (book ii. No. 208) which relates how Buddha in the form of a monkey deceived a crocodile by pretending that monkeys kept their hearts in figs growing on a tree. See _The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha’s former Births_ translated from the Pali by various hands, vol. ii. translated by W. H. D. Rouse (Cambridge, 1895), pp. 111 _sq._

334 G. W. Leitner, _The Languages and Races of Dardistan_, Third Edition (Lahore, 1878), p. 9.

M86 The external soul in Greek stories. Meleager and the firebrand. Nisus and his purple or golden hair. Pterelaus and his golden hair. Modern Greek parallels. The external soul in doves.

335 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 8; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 34; Pausanias, x. 31. 4; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 604 _sqq._; Antoninus Liberalis, _Transform._ ii.; Dio Chrysostom, _Or._ lxvii. vol. ii. p. 231, ed. L. Dindorf (Leipsic, 1857); Hyginus, _Fab._ 171, 174; Ovid, _Metam._ viii. 445 _sqq._ In his play on this theme Euripides made the life of Meleager to depend on an olive-leaf which his mother had given birth to along with the babe. See J. Malalas, _Chronographia_, vi. pp. 165 _sq._ ed. L. Dindorf (Bonn, 1831); J. Tzetzes, _Scholia on Lycophron_, 492 _sq._ (vol. ii. pp. 646 _sq._, ed. Chr. G. Müller, Leipsic, 1811); G. Knaack, “Zur Meleagersage,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. xlix. (1894) pp. 310-313.

336 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 15. 8; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 612 _sqq._; Pausanias, i. 19. 4; _Ciris_, 116 _sqq._; Ovid, _Metam._ viii. 8 _sqq._ According to J. Tzetzes (_Schol. on Lycophron_, 650) not the life but the strength of Nisus was in his golden hair; when it was pulled out, he became weak and was slain by Minos. According to Hyginus (_Fab._ 198) Nisus was destined to reign only so long as he kept the purple lock on his head.

337 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 4. 5 and 7.

338 J. G. von Hahn, _Griechische und albanesische Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1864), i. 217; a similar story, _ibid._ ii. 282.

339 B. Schmidt, _Griechische Märchen, Sagen und Volkslieder_ (Leipsic, 1877), pp. 91 _sq._ The same writer found in the island of Zacynthus a belief that the whole strength of the ancient Greeks resided in three hairs on their breasts, and that it vanished whenever these hairs were cut; but if the hairs were allowed to grow again, their strength returned (B. Schmidt, _Das Volksleben der Neugriechen_, Leipsic, 1871, p. 206). The Biblical story of Samson and Delilah (Judges xvi.) implies a belief of the same sort, as G. A. Wilken abundantly shewed in his paper, “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5 (reprinted in his _Verspreide Geschriften_, The Hague, 1912, vol. iii. pp. 551-579).

340 J. G. von Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. 215 _sq._

_ 341 Ibid._ ii. 275 _sq._ Similar stories, _ibid._ ii. 204, 294 _sq._ In an Albanian story a monster’s strength is in three pigeons, which are in a hare, which is in the silver tusk of a wild boar. When the boar is killed, the monster feels ill; when the hare is cut open, he can hardly stand on his feet; when the three pigeons are killed, he expires. See Aug. Dozon, _Contes albanais_ (Paris, 1881), pp. 132 _sq._

342 J. G. von Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. 260 _sqq._

_ 343 Ibid._ i. 187.

_ 344 Ibid._ ii. 23 _sq._

345 Émile Legrand, _Contes populaires grecs_ (Paris, 1881), pp. 191 _sqq._

M87 The external soul in Italian stories. Silvia’s son. The dragon twin. The soul in a gem.

346 Plutarch, _Parallela_, 26. In both the Greek and Italian stories the subject of quarrel between nephew and uncles is the skin of a boar, which the nephew presented to his lady-love and which his uncles took from her.

347 G. Basile, _Pentamerone_, übertragen von Felix Liebrecht (Breslau, 1846), ii. 60 _sq._

348 R. H. Busk, _Folk-lore of Rome_ (London, 1874), pp. 164 _sqq._

M88 Italian story of a wicked fairy whose death was in an egg. A sorcerer Body-without-Soul whose death was in an egg.

349 T. F. Crane, _Italian Popular Tales_ (London, 1885), pp. 31-34. The hero had acquired the power of turning himself into an eagle, a lion, and an ant from three creatures of these sorts whose quarrel about their shares in a dead ass he had composed. This incident occurs in other tales of the same type. See below, note 2 and pp. 120 with note 2, 132, 133 with note 1.

350 J. B. Andrews, _Contes Ligures_ (Paris, 1892), No. 46, pp. 213 _sqq._ In a parallel Sicilian story the hero Beppino slays a sorcerer in the same manner after he had received from an eagle, a lion, and an ant the same gift of transformation in return for the same service. See G. Pitrè, _Fiabe, Novelle e Racconti popolari Siciliani_, ii. (Palermo, 1875) p. 215; and for another Sicilian parallel, Laura Gonzenbach, _Sicilianische Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1870), No. 6, pp. 34-38.

M89 The external soul in Slavonic stories. Russian story of Koshchei the Deathless, whose death was in an egg.

351 Anton Dietrich, _Russian Popular Tales_ (London, 1857), pp. 21-24.

M90 Other versions of the story of Koshchei the Deathless. Death in the blue rose-tree.

352 Jeremiah Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of the Russians, Western Slavs, and Magyars_ (London, 1891), pp. 119-122. Compare W. R. S. Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_ (London, 1873), pp. 100-105.

353 W. R. S. Ralston, _op. cit._ p. 109.

354 W. R. S. Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, pp. 113 _sq._

_ 355 Id._, p. 114.

M91 The external soul in Bohemian and Servian stories. True Steel, whose strength was in a bird.

_ 356 Id._, p. 110.

357 Madam Csedomille Mijatovies, _Serbian Folk-lore_, edited by the Rev. W. Denton (London, 1874), pp. 167-172; F. S. Krauss, _Sagen und Märchen der Südslaven_ (Leipsic, 1883-1884), i. 164-169.

M92 Servian story of the dragon of the water-mill whose strength was in a pigeon. The fight with the dragon.

358 A. H. Wratislaw, _Sixty Folk-tales from exclusively Slavonic Sources_ (London, 1889), pp. 224-231.

M93 The external soul in a Lithuanian story. The Soulless King whose soul was in a duck’s egg. The Soulless King. The water of life. The soul in the duck’s egg.

359 A. Leskien und K. Brugmann, _Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen_ (Strasburg, 1882), pp. 423-430; compare _id._, pp. 569-571.

M94 The external soul in Teutonic stories. Transylvanian story of a witch whose life was in a light. German story of Soulless the cannibal, whose soul was in a box. The helpful animals.

360 Josef Haltrich, _Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen_4 (Vienna, 1885), No. 34 (No. 33 of the first edition), pp. 149 _sq._

361 J. W. Wolf, _Deutsche Märchen und Sagen_ (Leipsic, 1845), No. 20, pp. 87-93.

M95 German story of flowers that were life-tokens.

362 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 306-308, § 622. In this story the flowers are rather life-tokens than external souls. The life-token has been carefully studied by Mr. E. S. Hartland in the second volume of his learned work _The Legend of Perseus_ (London, 1895).

M96 The warlock in the wood, whose heart was in a bird.

363 K. Müllenhoff, _Sagen, Märchen und Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig Holstein und Lauenburg_ (Kiel, 1845), pp. 404 _sqq._

M97 The external soul in Norse stories. The giant whose heart was in a duck’s egg.

364 P. Chr. Asbjörnsen og J. Moe, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_ (Christiania, N.D.), No. 36, pp. 174-180; G. W. Dasent, _Popular Tales from the Norse_ (Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 55 _sqq._

365 P. Chr. Asbjörnsen, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_, Ny Samling (Christiania, 1871), No. 70, pp. 35-40; G. W. Dasent, _Tales from the Fjeld_ (London, 1874), pp. 223-230 (“Boots and the Beasts”). As in other tales of this type, it is said that the hero found three animals (a lion, a falcon, and an ant) quarrelling over a dead horse, and received from them the power of transforming himself into animals of these species as a reward for dividing the carcase fairly among them.

M98 The external soul in Danish stories. The warlock whose heart was in a duck’s egg. The helpful animals.

366 Svend Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_, übersetzt von A. Strodtmann, Zweite Sammlung (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 194-218.

M99 Danish story of the magician whose heart was in a fish. The magician’s heart.

367 Svend Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_, übersetzt von Willibald Leo (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 29-45.

M100 The external soul in Icelandic stories. The king’s son in the cave of the giantesses whose life was in an egg. The swans’ song. The life-egg. An Icelandic parallel to Meleager.

368 J. C. Poestion, _Isländische Märchen_ (Vienna, 1884), No. vii. pp. 49-55. The same story is told with minor variations by Konrad Maurer in his _Isländische Volkssagen der Gegenwart_ (Leipsic, 1860), pp. 277-280. In his version a giant and giantess, brother and sister, have their life in one stone, which they throw backwards and forwards to each other; when the stone is caught and broken by the heroine, the giant and giantess at once expire. The tale was told to Maurer when he was crossing an arm of the sea in a small boat; and the waves ran so high and broke into the boat so that he could not write the story down at the time but had to trust to his memory in recording it afterwards.

369 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), p. 592; John Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition, revised by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson (Paisley, 1879-1882), iv. 869, _s.v._ “Yule.”

M101 The external soul in Celtic stories. The giant whose soul was in a duck’s egg.

370 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, New Edition (Paisley and London, 1890), i. 7-11.

371 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, New Edition, i. 80 _sqq._

M102 The herdsman of Cruachan and the helpful animals. The simple giant and the wily woman.

372 Compare _Taboo and the Perils of Soul_, p. 12.

373 Rev. D. MacInnes, _Folk and Hero Tales_ (London, 1890), pp. 103-121.

M103 Argyleshire story of the Bare-Stripping Hangman whose soul was in a duck’s egg.

374 Rev. J. Macdougall, _Folk and Hero Tales_ (London, 1891), pp. 76 _sqq._ (_Waifs and Strays of Celtic Tradition_, No. iii.).

M104 Highland story of Headless Hugh.

375 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 187 _sq._ The writer tells us that in his youth a certain old Betty Miles used to terrify him with this tale. For the tradition of Headless Hugh, who seems to have been the only son of Hector, first chief of Lochbuy, in the fourteenth century, see J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. III _sqq._ India also has its stories of headless horsemen. See W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (London, 1896), i. 256 _sqq._

M105 The Mackays the descendants of the seal.

376 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_, pp. 191 _sq._, from information furnished by the Rev. A. Mackay. In North Uist there is a sept known as “the MacCodrums of the seals.” and a precisely similar legend is told to explain their descent from seals. See J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 284.

M106 The external soul in Irish and Breton stories. The giant and the egg. The helpful animals. Body-without-Soul. The helpful animals. The giant whose life was in a box-tree.

377 Jeremiah Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of Ireland_ (London, N.D.), pp. 71 _sqq._

378 P. Sébillot, _Contes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 63 _sqq._

379 F. M. Luzel, _Contes populaires de Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1887), i. 435-449. Compare _id._, _Veillées Bretonnes_ (Morlaix, 1879), pp. 133 _sq._ For two other French stories of the same type, taken down in Lorraine, see E. Cosquin, _Contes populaires de Lorraine_ (Paris, N.D.), Nos. 15 and 50 (vol. i. pp. 166 _sqq._, vol. ii. pp. 128 _sqq._). In both of them there figures a miraculous beast which can only be slain by breaking a certain egg against its head; but we are not told that the life of the beast was in the egg. In both of them also the hero receives from three animals, whose dispute about the carcase of a dead beast he has settled, the power of changing himself into animals of the same sort. See the remarks and comparisons of the learned editor, Monsieur E. Cosquin, _op. cit._ i. 170 _sqq._

380 F. M. Luzel, _Veillées Bretonnes_ pp. 127 _sqq._

M107 The external soul in stories of non-Aryan peoples. The ancient Egyptian story of the Two Brothers. The heart in the flower of the Acacia. M108 Bata in the Valley of the Acacia. How Bata died and was brought to life again.

381 (Sir) Gaston Maspero, _Contes populaires de l’Égypte ancienne_3 (Paris, N.D.), pp. 1 _sqq._; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Egyptian Tales_, Second Series (London, 1895), pp. 36 _sqq._; Alfred Wiedemann, _Altägyptische Sagen und Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 58-77. Compare W. Mannhardt, “Das älteste Märchen,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) pp. 232-259. The manuscript of the story, which is now in the British Museum, belonged to an Egyptian prince, who was afterwards King Seti II. and reigned about the year 1300 B.C. It is beautifully written and in almost perfect condition.

M109 The external soul in Arabian stories. The jinnee and the sparrow. The ogress and the bottle.

_ 382 The Thousand and One Nights, commonly called, in England, The Arabian Nights’ Entertainments_, translated by E. W. Lane (London, 1839-1841), iii. 339-345.

383 G. Spitta-Bey, _Contes arabes modernes_ (Leyden and Paris, 1883), No. 2, pp. 12 _sqq._ The story in its main outlines is identical with the Cashmeer story of “The Ogress Queen” (J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales of Kashmir_, pp. 42 _sqq._) and the Bengalee story of “The Boy whom Seven Mothers Suckled” (Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, pp. 117 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. 170 _sqq._). In another Arabian story the life of a witch is bound up with a phial; when it is broken, she dies (W. A. Clouston, _A Group of Eastern Romances and Stories_, Privately printed, 1889, p. 30). A similar incident occurs in a Cashmeer story (J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ p. 73). In the Arabian story mentioned in the text, the hero, by a genuine touch of local colour, is made to drink the milk of an ogress’s breasts and hence is regarded by her as her son. The same incident occurs in Kabyle and Berber tales. See J. Rivière, _Contes populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura_ (Paris, 1882), p. 239; R. Basset, _Nouveaux Contes Berbères_ (Paris, 1897), p. 128, with the editor’s note, pp. 339 _sqq._ In a Mongolian story a king refuses to kill a lad because he has unwittingly partaken of a cake kneaded with the milk of the lad’s mother (B. Jülg, _Mongolische Märchen-Sammlung, die neun Märchen des Siddhi-Kür_, Innsbruck, 1868, p. 183). Compare W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, New Edition (London, 1903), p. 176; and for the same mode of creating kinship among other races, see A. d’Abbadie, _Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie_ (Paris, 1868), pp. 272 _sq._; Tausch, “Notices of the Circassians,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, i. (1834) p. 104; J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_ (London, 1880), pp. 77, 83 (compare G. W. Leitner, _Languages and Races of Dardistan_, Lahore, 1878, p. 34); Denzil C. J. Ibbetson, _Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal Parganah of the Karnal District_ (Allahabad, 1883), p. 101; J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 427; F. S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_ (Vienna, 1885), p. 14; J. H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 132. When the Masai of East Africa make peace with an enemy, each tribe brings a cow with a calf and a woman with a baby. The two cows are exchanged, and the enemy’s child is suckled at the breast of the Masai woman, and the Masai baby is suckled at the breast of the woman belonging to the enemy. See A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), pp. 321 _sq._

M110 The external soul in Basque, Kabyle, and Magyar stories.

384 W. Webster, _Basque Legends_ (London, 1877), pp. 80 _sqq._; J. Vinson, _Le folk-lore du pays Basque_ (Paris, 1883), pp. 84 _sqq._ As so often in tales of this type, the hero is said to have received his wonderful powers of metamorphosis from animals whom he found quarrelling about their shares in a dead beast.

385 J. Rivière, _Contes populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura_ (Paris, 1882), p. 191.

386 W. H. Jones and L. L. Kropf, _The Folk-tales of the Magyar_ (London, 1889), pp. 205 _sq._

387 R. H. Busk, _The Folk-lore of Rome_ (London, 1874), p. 168.

M111 The external soul in a Lapp story. The giant whose life was in a hen’s egg. The helpful animals.

388 F. Liebrecht, “Lappländische Märchen,” _Germania_, N.R., iii. (1870) pp. 174 _sq._; F. C. Poestion, _Lappländische Märchen_ (Vienna, 1886), No. 20, pp. 81 _sqq._

M112 The external soul in Samoyed and Kalmuck stories.

389 A. Castren, _Ethnologische Vorlesungen über die altaischen Völker_ (St. Petersburg, 1857), pp. 173 _sqq._

390 B. Jülg, _Kalmückische Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1866), No. 12, pp. 58 _sqq._

M113 The external soul in Tartar poems.

391 Anton Schiefner, _Heldensagen der Minussinschen Tataren_ (St. Petersburg, 1859), pp. 172-176.

392 A. Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 108-112.

393 A. Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 360-364; A. Castren, _Vorlesungen über die finnische Mythologie_ (St. Petersburg, 1857), pp. 186 _sq._

394 A. Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 189-193. In another Tartar poem (Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 390 _sq._) a boy’s soul is shut up by his enemies in a box. While the soul is in the box, the boy is dead; when it is taken out, he is restored to life. In the same poem (p. 384) the soul of a horse is kept shut up in a box, because it is feared the owner of the horse will become the greatest hero on earth. But these cases are, to some extent, the converse of those in the text.

M114 The external soul in a Mongolian story and Tartar poems.

395 Schott, “Ueber die Sage von Geser-Chan,” _Abhandlungen der königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, 1851, p. 269.

396 W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme Süd-Sibiriens_, ii. (St. Petersburg, 1868), pp. 237 _sq._

397 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ ii. 531 _sqq._

398 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ iv. (St. Petersburg, 1872) pp. 88 _sq._

399 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ i. (St. Petersburg, 1866) pp. 345 _sq._

M115 The external soul in a Chinese story.

400 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden, 1901) pp. 105 _sq._

M116 The external soul in a story told by the Khasis of Assam.

401 Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), pp. 181-184.

M117 The external soul in a Malay poem. Bidasari and the golden fish.

402 G. A. Wilken, “De betrekking tusschen menschen- dieren- en plantenleven naar het volksgeloof,” _De Indische Gids_, November 1884, pp. 600-602; _id._, “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5, pp. 6 _sqq._ (of the separate reprint); _id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 296-298, 559-561. Compare L. de Backer, _L’Archipel Indien_ (Paris, 1874), pp. 144-149. The Malay text of the long poem was published with a Dutch translation and notes by W. R. van Hoëvell (“Sjaïr Bidasari, een oorspronkelijk Maleisch Gedicht, uitgegeven en van eene Vertaling en Aanteekeningen voorzien,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xix. (Batavia, 1843) pp. 1-421).

M118 The external soul in a story told in Nias.

403 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) p. 111; H. Sundermann, “Die Insel Nias,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xi. (1884) p. 453; _id._, _Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst_ (Barmen, 1905), p. 71. Compare E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), p. 339.

M119 The external soul in a Hausa story. The king whose life was in a box. The helpful animals.

404 Major A. J. N. Tremearne, _Hausa Superstitions and Customs_ (London, 1913), pp. 131 _sq._ The original Hausa text of the story appears to be printed in Major Edgar’s _Litafi na Tatsuniyoyi na Hausa_ (ii. 27), to which Major Tremearne refers (p. 9).

M120 The external soul in a South Nigerian story. The external soul in a story told by the Ba-Ronga of South Africa. The Clan of the Cat.

405 Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), pp. 319-321.

406 Henri A. Junod, _Les Chants et les Contes des Ba-ronga_ (Lausanne, N.D.), pp. 253-256; _id._, _The Life of a South African Tribe_ (Neuchatel, 1912-1913), i. 338 _sq._

M121 The external soul in stories told by the North American Indians. The ogress whose life was in a hemlock branch.

407 J. Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of the Russians, Western Slavs, and Magyars_ (London, 1891), p. 551. The writer does not mention his authorities.

408 G. B. Grinnell, _Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-tales_ (New York, 1889), pp. 121 _sqq._, “The Bear Man.”

409 Washington Matthews, “The Mountain Chant: a Navajo Ceremony,” _Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp. 406 _sq._

410 Franz Boas, “The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,” _Report of the United States National Museum for 1895_ (Washington, 1897), p. 373.

M122 The external soul in folk-custom. M123 The soul removed from the body as a precaution in seasons of danger. Souls of people collected in a bag at a house-warming. Soul of a woman put in a chopping-knife at childbirth.

_ 411 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 63 _sq._

412 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_ (The Hague, 1875), p. 54.

413 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 23 _sq._; _id._, “Van Paloppo naar Posso,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlii. (1898) p. 72. As to the _lamoa_ in general, see A. C. Kruijt, _op. cit._ xl. (1896) pp. 10 _sq._

414 A. C. Kruijt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes, en zijne beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie der Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, iv. Reeks, iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) pp. 201 _sq._; _id._, “Het ijzer in Midden-Celebes,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch- Indië_, liii. (1901) pp. 156 _sq._ Both the interpretations in the text appear to be inferences drawn by Mr. Kruijt from the statement of the natives, that, if they did not hang up these wooden models in the smithy, “the iron would flow away and be unworkable” (“_zou het ijzer vervloeien en onbewerkbaar worden_”).

M124 Soul of a child put for safety in an empty coco-nut or a bag. Souls of people in ornaments, horns, a column, and so forth. The souls of Egyptian kings in portrait statues. A man’s life bound up with the fire in his lodge.

415 A. H. B. Agerbeek, “Enkele gebruiken van de Dajaksche bevolking der Pinoehlanden,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, li. (1909) pp. 447 _sq._

416 J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in die Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 199.

417 In a long list of female ornaments the prophet Isaiah mentions (iii. 20) “houses of the soul” (בת הנפש) or (שפנה תב), which modern scholars suppose to have been perfume boxes, as the Revised English Version translates the phrase. The name, literally translated “houses of the soul,” suggests that these trinkets were amulets of the kind mentioned in the text. See my article, “Folk-lore in the Old Testament,” _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_ (Oxford, 1907), pp. 148 _sqq._ In ancient Egyptian tombs there are often found plaques or palettes of schist bearing traces of paint; some of them are decorated with engravings of animals or historical scenes, others are modelled in the shape of animals of various sorts, such as antelopes, hippopotamuses, birds, tortoises, and fish. As a rule only one such plaque is found in a tomb, and it lies near the hands of the mummy. It has been conjectured by M. Jean Capart that these plaques are amulets or soul-boxes, in which the external souls of the dead were supposed to be preserved. See Jean Capart, _Les Palettes en schiste de L’Égypte primitive_ (Brussels, 1908), pp. 5 _sqq._, 19 _sqq._ (separate reprint from the _Revue des Questions Scientifiques_, avril, 1908). For a full description of these plaques or palettes, see Jean Capart, _Les Débuts de l’Art en Égypte_ (Brussels, 1904), pp. 76 _sqq._, 221 _sqq._

418 Miss Alice Werner, in a letter to the author, dated 25th September 1899. Miss Werner knew the old woman. Compare _Contemporary Review_, lxx. (July-December 1896), p. 389, where Miss Werner describes the ornament as a rounded peg, tapering to a point, with a neck or notch at the top.

419 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), p. 190. Compare Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 83: “The natives occasionally fix ox-horns in their roofs and say that the spirit of the chief lives in these horns and protects the hut; these horns also protect the hut from lightning, though not in virtue of their spiritual connections. (They are also used simply as ornaments.)” No doubt amulets often degenerate into ornaments.

420 R. Thurnwald, “Im Bismarckarchipel und auf den Salomo-inseln,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xlii. (1910) p. 136. As to the Ingniet, Ingiet, or Iniet Society see P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_ (Hiltrup bei Münster, N.D.), pp. 354 _sqq._; R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 598 _sqq._

421 G. Cedrenus, _Historiarum Compendium_, p. 625B, vol. ii. p. 308, ed. Im. Bekker (Bonn, 1838-1839).

422 Alexandre Moret, _Du caractère religieux de la Royauté Pharaonique_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 224 _sqq._ As to the Egyptian doctrine of the spiritual double or soul (_ka_), see A. Wiedemann, _The Ancient Egyptian Doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul_ (London, 1895), pp. 10 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_ (Berlin, 1905), p. 88; A. Moret, _Mystères Égyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), pp. 199 _sqq._

423 F. Mason, “Physical Character of the Karens,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1866, Part ii. No. 1, p. 9.

_ 424 A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, during Thirty Years’ Residence among the Indians_, prepared for the press by Edwin James, M.D. (London, 1830), pp. 155 _sq._ The passage has been already quoted by Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) in his _Origin of Civilisation_4 (London, 1882), p. 241.

M125 Strength of people supposed to reside in their hair.

425 François Valentijn, _Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indiën_ (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), ii. 143 _sq._; G. A. Wilken, “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5, pp. 15 _sq._ (of the separate reprint); _id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 569 _sq._

426 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 137.

M126 Witches and wizards shaved to deprive them of their power.

427 J. G. Dalyell, _The darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834), pp. 637-639; C. de Mensignac, _Recherches ethnographiques sur la Salive et le Crachat_ (Bordeaux, 1892), p. 49 note.

428 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 281.

429 W. Crooke, _op. cit._ ii. 281 _sq._

430 B. de Sahagun, _Histoire des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_, traduite par D. Journdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), p. 274.

M127 Life of a person supposed to be bound up with that of a tree or plant. Birth-trees in Africa.

431 Above, pp. 102, 110, 117 _sq._, 135, 136.

432 Walter E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin, No. 5, Superstition, Magic, and Medicine_ (Brisbane, 1903), p. 27.

433 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 202.

434 G. Duloup, “Huit jours chez les M’Bengas,” _Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. (1883), p. 223; compare P. Barret, _L’Afrique Occidentale_ (Paris, 1888), ii. 173.

435 Fr. Kunstmann, “Valentin Ferdinand’s Beschreibung der Serra Leoa,” _Abhandlungen der histor. Classe der könig. Bayer. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, ix. (1866) pp. 131 _sq._

436 Bruno Gutmann, “Feldbausitten und Wachstumsbräuche der Wadschagga,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xlv. (1913), p. 496.

437 C. Velten, _Sitten und Gebräuche der Suaheli_ (Göttingen, 1903), pp. 8 _sq._ In Java it is customary to plant a tree, for example, a coco-nut palm, at the birth of a child, and when he grows up he reckons his age by the age of the tree. See _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, iii. (Lyons and Paris, 1830) pp. 400 _sq._

438 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_ (Jena, 1874-1875), i. 165.

439 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), p. 178.

440 H. Trilles, _Le Totémisme chez les Fân_ (Münster i. W., 1912), p. 570.

441 Rev. John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 295.

442 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 52, 54 _sq._ Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 295 _sq._; and for other examples of burying the afterbirth or navel-string at the foot of a tree or planting a young tree over these remains, see _id._, pp. 182 _sqq._ In Kiziba, a district to the west of Lake Victoria Nyanza, the afterbirth is similarly regarded as a sort of human being. Hence when twins are born the people speak of four children instead of two, reckoning the two afterbirths as two children. See H. Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910), p. 117. The conception of the afterbirth and navel-string as spiritual doubles of the child with whom they are born is held very firmly by the Kooboos, a primitive tribe of Sumatra. We are told that among these people “a great vital power is ascribed to the navel-string and afterbirth; because they are looked upon as brother or sister of the infant, and though their bodies have not come to perfection, yet their soul and spirit are just as normal as those of the child and indeed have even reached a much higher stage of development. The navel-string (_oeri_) and afterbirth (_tĕm-boeni_) visit the man who was born with them thrice a day and thrice by night till his death, or they hover near him (‘_zweven voorbij hem heen_’). They are the good spirits, a sort of guardian angels of the man who came into the world with them and who lives on earth; they are said to guard him from all evil. Hence it is that the Kooboo always thinks of his navel-string and afterbirth (_oeri-tĕmboeni_) before he goes to sleep or to work, or undertakes a journey, and so on. Merely to think of them is enough; there is no need to invoke them, or to ask them anything, or to entreat them. By not thinking of them a man deprives himself of their good care.” Immediately after the birth the navel-string and afterbirth are buried in the ground close by the spot where the birth took place; and a ceremony is performed over it, for were the ceremony omitted, the navel-string and afterbirth, “instead of being a good spirit for the newly born child, might become an evil spirit for him and visit him with all sorts of calamities out of spite for this neglect.” The nature of the ceremony performed over the spot is not described by our authority. The navel-string and afterbirth are often regarded by the Kooboos as one; their names are always mentioned together. See G. J. van Dongen, “De Koeboe in de Onderafdeeling Koeboe-streken der Residentie Palembang,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, lxiii. (1910) pp. 229 _sq._

443 Franz Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 653.

M128 Birth-trees among the Papuans, Maoris, Fijians, Dyaks, and others.

444 A. Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_ (Bremen, 1859), pp. 103 _sq._; _id._, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), iii. 193.

445 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_2 (London, 1870), p. 184; Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse sur la corvette Astrolabe_, ii. 444.

446 W. T. L. Travers, “Notes of the traditions and manners and customs of the Mori-oris,” _Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute_, ix. (1876) p. 22.

447 The late Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to me dated May 29th, 1901. Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 184.

448 N. Annandale, “Customs of the Malayo-Siamese,” _Fasciculi Malayenses_, Anthropology, part ii. (a) (May, 1904), p. 5.

449 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_ (The Hague, 1875), p. 59.

450 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S., ix. (1880) pp. 417 _sq._

451 G. A. Wilken, “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5, p. 26 (of the separate reprint); _id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 562.

452 M. C. Schadee, “Het familieleven en familierecht der Dajaks van Landak en Tajan,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, lxiii. (1910) p. 416.

453 F. Grabowsky, “Die Theogenie der Dajaken auf Borneo,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, v. (1892) p. 133.

454 J. Perham, “Manangism in Borneo,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 19 (Singapore, 1887), p. 97; _id._, in H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), i. 278.

M129 Birth-trees in Europe. Marriage oaks. Trees with which the fate of families or individuals is thought to be bound up. The Edgewell oak. The old tree at Howth Castle. The oak of the Guelphs.

455 Angelo de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), i. pp. xxviii. _sq._

456 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 50; H. Ploss, _Das Kind_2 (Leipsic, 1884), i. 79.

457 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. p. 43, § 63.

458 F. S. Krauss, “Haarschurgodschaft bei den Südslaven,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 193.

459 Karl Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), ii. 129, No. 207.

460 “Heilige Haine und Bäume der Finnen,” _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 350. Compare K. Rhamm, “Der heidenische Gottesdienst des finnischen Stammes,” _Globus_, lxvii. (1891) p. 344.

461 Thomas Moore, _Life of Lord Byron_, i. 101 (i. 148, in the collected edition of Byron’s works, London, 1832-1833).

462 J. G. Lockhart, _Life of Sir Walter Scott_ (First Edition), vi. 283 (viii. 317, Second Edition, Edinburgh, 1839).

463 Sir Walter Scott’s _Journal_ (First Edition, Edinburgh, 1890), ii. 282, with the editor’s note.

464 Letter of Miss A. H. Singleton to me, dated Rathmagle House, Abbey Leix, Ireland, 24th February, 1904.

465 P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, ii. (Berlin, 1891) pp. 85 _sq._

M130 The Life-tree of the Manchu dynasty.

_ 466 Die Woche_, Berlin, 31 August, 1901, p. 3, with an illustration shewing the garden and the tree.

M131 The myrtle-trees of the patricians and plebeians at Rome. The oak of the Vespasian family.

467 Pliny, _Natur. Hist._ xv. 120 _sq._

468 Suetonius, _Divus Vespasianus_, 5.

M132 Life of persons supposed to be bound up with that of the cleft trees through which in their youth they were passed as a cure for rupture. In England ruptured children are passed through cleft ash-trees.

_ 469 The Gentleman’s Magazine_, 1804, p. 909; John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 289.

470 Gilbert White, _The Natural History of Selborne_, Part II. Letter 28 (Edinburgh, 1829), pp. 239 _sq._; Francis Grose, _A Provincial Glossary_ (London, 1811), p. 290; J. Brand, _op. cit._ iii. 287-292; R. Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_3 (London, 1881), pp. 415, 421; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_ (London, 1883), pp. 67 _sq._; W. Wollaston Groome, “Suffolk Leechcraft,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 123 _sq._; E. S. Hartland, in _Folk-lore_, vii. (1896) pp. 303-306; _County Folk-lore, Suffolk_, edited by Lady E. C. Gurdon (London, 1893) pp. 26-28; Beatrix A. Wherry, “Miscellaneous Notes from Monmouthshire,” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 65; Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 320. Sometimes the tree was an oak instead of an ash (M. Trevelyan, _l.c._). To ensure the success of the cure various additional precautions are sometimes recommended, as that the ash should be a maiden, that is a tree that has never been topped or cut; that the split should be made east and west; that the child should be passed into the tree by a maiden and taken out on the other side by a boy; that the child should always be passed through head foremost (but according to others feet foremost), and so forth. In Surrey we hear of a holly-tree being used instead of an ash (_Notes and Queries_, Sixth Series, xi. Jan.-Jun. 1885, p. 46).

M133 The practice in Sussex.

471 “Some West Sussex superstitions lingering in 1868, collected by Charlotte Latham, at Fittleworth,” _Folk-lore Record_, i. (1878) pp. 40 _sq._

M134 Sick children passed through cleft trees, especially oaks, as a cure in Germany, France, Denmark, Sweden, and Greece.

472 For the custom in Germany and Austria, see J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 975 _sq._; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 317, § 503; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Nord-deutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 443 _sq._; J. F. L. Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_ (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 54; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 390, § 56; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 301; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, ii. (Munich, 1863) p. 255; J. A. E. Köhler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 415 _sq._; L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 72 _sq._, § 88; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 290 _sq._, § 1447; J. Haltrich, _Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen_ (Vienna, 1885), p. 264; P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, i. (Wurzen, 1891) pp. 21-23. As to the custom in France, see Marcellus, _De medicamentis_, xxxiii. 26 (where the tree is a cherry); J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 333 _sq._; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 231; L. J. B. Bérenger-Féraud, in _Bullétins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, iv. série, i. (1890) pp. 895-902; _id._, _Superstitions et Survivances_ (Paris, 1896), i. 523 _sqq._ As to the custom in Denmark and Sweden, see J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 976; H. F. Feilberg, “Zwieselbäume nebst verwandtem Aberglauben in Skandinavien,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) pp. 42 _sqq._ In Mecklenburg it is sometimes required that the tree should have been split by lightning (K. Bartsch, _l.c._). The whole subject of passing sick people through narrow apertures as a mode of cure has been well handled in an elegant little monograph (_Un Vieux Rite médical_, Paris, 1892) by Monsieur H. Gaidoz, who rightly rejects the theory that all such passages are symbols of a new birth. But I cannot agree with him in thinking that the essence of the rite consists in the transference of the disease from the person to the tree; rather, it seems to me, the primary idea is that of interposing an impassable barrier between a fugitive and his pursuing foe, though no doubt the enemy thus left behind is apparently supposed to adhere to the further side of the obstacle (whether tree, stone, or what not) through which he cannot pass. However, the sympathetic relation supposed to exist between the sufferer and the tree through which he has been passed certainly favours the view that he has left some portion of himself attached to the tree. But in this as in many similar cases, the ideas in the minds of the persons who practise the custom are probably vague, confused, and inconsistent; and we need not attempt to define them precisely. Compare also R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_ (Stuttgart, 1878), pp. 31 _sq._; E. S. Hartland, _The Legend of Perseus_ (London, 1894-1896), ii. 146 _sq._; L. J. B. Bérenger-Féraud, _Superstitions et Survivances_ (Paris, 1896), i. 523-540.

473 L. Strackerjan, _l.c._; K. Bartsch, _l.c._

474 E. Meier, _l.c._; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, ii. 255; A. Wuttke, _l.c._

475 H. F. Feilberg, “Zwieselbäume nebst verwandtem Aberglauben in Skandinavien,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 44.

476 J. Theodore Bent, _The Cyclades_ (London, 1885), pp. 457 _sq._

M135 Sympathetic relation thought to exist between the child and the tree through which it has been passed. The disease is apparently thought to be left behind on the farther side of the cleft tree.

477 H. Ploss, _Das Kind_2 (Leipsic, 1884), ii. 221.

478 R. Baier, “Beiträge von der Insel Rügen,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, ii. (1855) p. 141.

M136 Creeping through cleft trees to get rid of spirits in Armenia and Nias. Among the Bella Coola Indians mourners creep through cleft trees to get rid of the ghost.

479 Manuk Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), p. 58.

480 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 478-480; H. Sundermann, _Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst_ (Barmen, 1905), pp. 81-83. According to the latter writer the intention of passing through the cleft stick is “to strip off from himself (_von zich abzustreifen_) the last spirit that may have followed him.” The notion that the sun causes death by drawing away the souls of the living is Indian. See _The Satapatha Brâhmana_, ii. 3. 3. 7-8, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part I. (Oxford, 1882) p. 343 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.): “Now yonder burning (sun) doubtless is no other than Death; and because he is Death, therefore the creatures that are on this side of him die. But those that are on the other side of him are the gods, and they are therefore immortal.... And the breath of whomsoever he (the sun) wishes he takes and rises, and that one dies.”

481 Fr. Boas, in _Seventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 13 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association_, Cardiff meeting, 1891). The Shuswap Indians of the same region also fence their beds against ghosts with a hedge of thorn bushes. See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 142.

M137 The Madangs of Borneo creep through a cleft stick after a funeral in order to rid themselves of the ghost.

482 C. Hose, “In the heart of Borneo,” _The Geographical Journal_, xvi. (1900) pp. 45 _sq._ Compare C. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (London, 1912), ii. 36 _sq._, where, after describing the ceremony of passing through the cloven stick, the writers add: “In this way the Kayans symbolically prevent any of the uncanny influences of the graveyard following the party back to the house; though they do not seem to be clear as to whether it is the ghosts of the dead, or the _Toh_ of the neighbourhood, or those which may have contributed to his death, against whom these precautions are taken.”

M138 The cleft stick or tree through which a person passes is a barrier to part him from a dangerous foe; the closing of the cleft is like shutting the door in the face of a pursuer. But combined with this in the case of ruptured patients seems to be the idea that the rupture heals sympathetically as the cleft in the tree closes. Analogous Roman cure for dislocation.

483 Cato, _De agri cultura_, 159 (pp. 106 sq. ed. H. Keil, Leipsic, 1884): “_Luxum siquod est, hac cantione sanum fiet. Harundinem prende tibi viridem P. III. aut quinque longam, mediam diffinde, et duo homines teneant ad coxendices. Incipe cantare in alio s. f. moetas vaeta daries dardaries asiadarides una petes, usque dum coeant. Motas vaeta daries dardares astataries dissunapiter, usque dum coeant. Ferrum insuper jactato. Ubi coierint et altera alteram tetigerint, id manu prehende et dextera sinistra praecide, ad luxum aut ad fracturam alliga, sanum fiet._” The passage is obscure and perhaps corrupt. It is not clear whether “_usque dum coeant_” and “_ubi coierint_” refer to the drawing together of the bones or of the split portions of the reed, but apparently the reference is to the reed. The charm is referred to by Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, xvii. 267: “_Quippe cum averti grandines carmine credant plerique, cujus verba inserere non equidem serio ausim, quamquam a Catone proditis contra luxata membra jungenda harundinum fissurae._” Compare J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 186, ii. 1031 _sq._

M139 Other examples of creeping through narrow openings after a death.

484 Pinabel, “Notes sur quelques peuplades dépendant du Tong-King,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_, Septième Série, v. (Paris, 1884) p. 430; A. Bourlet, “Funérailles chez les Thay,” _Anthropos_, viii. (1913) p. 45.

485 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo, 1766), pp. 268, 282.

486 N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, “Van Posso naar Parigi, Sigi en Lindoe,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlii. (1898) p. 502. The poles are of a certain plant or tree called _bomba_.

487 Alb. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 223.

M140 The intention of the custom probably is to escape from the ghost of the dead.

488 For examples of these ceremonies I may refer to my article, “On certain burial customs as illustrative of the primitive theory of the soul,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) pp. 64 _sqq._

M141 Passing through an archway in order to escape from demons. Crawling under an arch of bramble as a cure for various maladies. Crawling under arches of various sorts as a cure or preventive of sickness.

489 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo, 1766), pp. 277 _sq._

490 W. H. Furness, _Folk-lore in Borneo, a Sketch_, p. 28 (Wallingford, Pennsylvania, 1899, privately printed). Compare _id._, _The Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia, 1902), p. 28: “Here a halt for final purification was made. An arch of boughs about five feet high was erected on the beach, and beneath it a fire was kindled, and then Tama Bulan, holding a young chicken, which he waved and brushed over every portion of the arch, invoked all evil spirits which had been accompanying us, and forbade them to follow us further through the fire. The fowl was then killed, its blood smeared all over the archway and sprinkled in the fire; then, led by Tama Bulan, the whole party filed under the arch, and as they stepped over the fire each one spat in it vociferously and immediately took his place in the boats.”

491 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _English Folk-lore_ (London, 1884), pp. 171 _sq._; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_ (London, 1883), p. 70; R. Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp. 412, 415; Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 320.

492 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 152; H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite médical_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 7 _sq._

493 A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 414.

494 A. Strausz, _op. cit._ p. 404. As to the Bulgarian custom of creeping through a tunnel in a time of epidemic, see above, vol. i. pp. 282-284.

_ 495 Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa_ (London, 1874), i. 60.

M142 Custom in Uganda of causing a sick man to pass through a cleft stick or a narrow opening in the doorway.

496 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 343. Compare _id._, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 126; id., “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 42 _sq._

M143 Similar custom practised by the Kai of New Guinea and the Looboos of Sumatra for the purpose of giving the slip to spiritual pursuers.

497 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 141 _sq._

498 J. Kreemer, “De Loeboes in Mandailing,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, lxvi. (1912) p. 327.

M144 Passing through cleft sticks in connexion with puberty and circumcision.

499 Hermann Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 139 _sq._ The writer was unable to ascertain the meaning of the rite; the natives would only say that it was their custom.

500 A. Karasek, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Waschambo,” _Baessler-Archiv_, i. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1911) p. 192.

M145 Crawling through a ring or hoop as a cure or preventive of disease. Passing sheep through a hoop of rowan. Milking a cow through a natural wooden ring or a “witch’s nest.” Passing sick persons or animals through a ring of yarn. Passing diseased children through a coil. Passing through a hemlock ring during an epidemic. Passing through a ring of red-hot iron to escape an evil spirit.

501 H. F. Feilberg, “Zwieselbäume nebst verwandtem Aberglauben in Skandinavien,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) pp. 49 _sq._

502 H. F. Feilberg, _op. cit._ p. 44.

503 J. G. Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834), p. 121; Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 239.

504 John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, edited by A. Allardyce, (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 454. Immediately after mentioning this custom the writer adds: “And in Breadalbane it is the custom for the dairymaid to drive the cattle to the sheals with a wand of that tree [the rowan] cut upon the day of removal, which is laid above the door until the cattle be going back again to the winter-town. This was reckoned a preservative against witchcraft.” As to the activity of witches and fairies on Hallowe’en and the first of May, see above, vol. i. pp. 226 _sqq._, 295; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 52 _sqq._; J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 18; _id._, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 270. As to the power of the rowan-tree to counteract their spells, see W. Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 188; J. C. Atkinson, _Forty Years in a Moorland Parish_ (London, 1891), pp. 97 _sqq._; _The Scapegoat_, pp. 266 _sq._

505 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. 364, § 241.

506 L. Strackerjan, _op. cit._ i. p. 364, § 240.

507 Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. G. Cole, “The Lushais,” in _Census of India_, 1911, vol. iii. _Assam_, Part i. _Report_ (Shillong, 1912), p. 140.

508 Franz Boas, in _Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, pp. 3 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science_, Liverpool meeting, 1896).

509 Rev. G. E. White, Dean of Anatolia College, _Survivals of Primitive Religion among the People of Asia Minor_, p. 12 (paper read before the Victoria Institute or Philosophical Society of Great Britain, 6 Adelphi Terrace, Strand, London).

M146 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in Scotland and Cornwall.

510 John Ramsay, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 451 _sq._

511 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 100.

512 Mr. James S. Greig, in a letter to me dated Lindean, Perth Road, Dundee, 17th August, 1913.

513 W. Borlase, _Antiquities, historical and monumental, of the County of Cornwall_ (London, 1769), pp. 177 _sq._

514 Robert Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp. 176, 415.

M147 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in France.

515 Thomas-de-Saint-Mars, “Fête de Saint Estapin,” _Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France_, i. (1817) pp. 428-430.

516 J. Deniker, “Dolmen et superstitions,” _Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, v. série, i. (1900) p. 111. Compare H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite médical_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 26 _sq._; G. Fouju, “Légendes et Superstitions préhistoriques,” _Revue des Traditions Populaires_, xiv. (1899) pp. 477 _sq._

M148 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in Bavaria, Austria, and Greece.

517 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 48 § 61.

518 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. 431 _sq._

519 Marie Andree-Eysn, _Volkskundliches aus dem bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet_ (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 1, 9, with the illustrations on pp. 10, 11.

520 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 431.

521 J. Theodore Bent, _The Cyclades_ (London, 1885), p. 437.

M149 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in Asia Minor. Passing through various narrow openings as a cure or preventive in India and Ireland.

522 E. H. Carnoy et J. Nicolaides, _Traditions populaires de l’Asie Mineure_ (Paris, 1889), p. 338.

523 Rev. George E. White (of Marsovan, Turkey), _Present Day Sacrifices in Asia Minor_, p. 3 (reprinted from _The Hartford Seminary Record_, February 1906).

_ 524 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, vii. _Draft Articles on Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1911), p. 46.

525 So my friend Dr. G. W. Prothero informs me in a letter.

_ 526 Census of India, 1911_, vol. xiv. _Punjab_, Part i. _Report_, by Pandit Harikishan Kaul (Lahore, 1912), p. 302.

M150 Crawling through holes in the ground as a cure for disease. Passing through the yoke of a chariot as a cure for skin disease.

527 H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite médical_ (Paris, 1892), p. 10.

528 H. Gaidoz, _op. cit._ p. 21.

529 H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite médical_ (Paris, 1892), p. 21. Compare J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 975 _sq._

530 H. F. Feilberg, “Zwieselbäume nebst verwandtem Aberglaube in Skandinavien,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 45.

531 H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite médical_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 22 _sq._, referring to Nyrop, in _Dania_, i. No. 1 (Copenhagen, 1890), pp. 5 _sqq._

532 Rev. John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, Second Journey_ (London, 1822), ii. 346. Among the same people “when a person is ill, they bring an ox to the place where he is laid. Two cuts are then made in one of its legs, extending down the whole length of it. The skin in the middle of the leg being raised up, the operator thrusts in his hand, to make way for that of the sick person, whose whole body is afterwards rubbed over with the blood of the animal. The ox after enduring this torment is killed, and those who are married and have children, as in the other case, are the only partakers of the feast.” (J. Campbell, _op. cit._ ii. 346 _sq._). Here the intention seems to be not so much to transfer the disease to the ox, as to transfuse the healthy life of the beast into the veins of the sick man. The same is perhaps true of the Welsh and French cure for whooping-cough, which consists in passing the little sufferer several times under an ass. See J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 288; L. J. B. Bérenger-Féraud, in _Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, Quatrième Série, i. (1890) p. 897; _id._, _Superstitions et Survivances_ (Paris, 1896), i. 526. The same cure for whooping-cough “is also practised in Ireland; only here the sufferer is passed round, that is, over and under, the body of an ass” (letter of Miss A. H. Singleton to me, dated Rathmagle House, Abbey-Leix, Ireland, 24th February 1904). But perhaps the intention rather is to give the whooping-cough to the animal; for it might reasonably be thought that the feeble whoop of the sick child would neither seriously impair the lungs, nor perceptibly augment the stentorian bray, of the donkey.

533 H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 495. According to a fuller account, Indra drew her through three holes, that of a war-chariot, that of a cart, and that of a yoke. See W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_ (Amsterdam, 1900), p. 31 note 5.

M151 Passing under a yoke or arch as a rite of initiation.

534 Dr. E. Werner, “Im westlichen Finsterregebirge und an der Nordküste von Deutsch-Neuginea,” _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, lv. (1909) pp. 74 _sq._ Among some tribes of South-Eastern Australia it was customary at the ceremonies of initiation to bend growing saplings into arches and compel the novices to pass under them; sometimes the youths had to crawl on the ground to get through. See A. W. Howitt, “On some Australian ceremonies of Initiation,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 445; _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 536.

M152 The ancient Roman custom of passing enemies under a yoke was probably in origin a ceremony of purification rather than of degradation.

535 Livy iii. 28, ix. 6, x. 36; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Roman._ iii. 22. 7. The so-called yoke in this case consisted of two spears or two beams set upright in the ground, with a third spear or beam laid transversely across them. See Livy iii. 28; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _l.c._

536 Livy i. 26: “_Itaque, ut caedes manifesta aliquo tamen piaculo lueretur, imperatum patri, ut filium expiaret pecunia publica. Is quibusdam piacularibus sacrificiis factis, quae deinde genti Horatiae tradita sunt, transmisso per viam tigillo capite adoperto velut sub jugum misit juvenem. Id hodie quoque publice semper refectum manet; sororium tigillum vocant_;” Festus, _s.v._ “Sororium Tigillum,” pp. 297, 307, ed. C. O. Müller (Leipsic, 1839); Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Roman._ iii. 22. The position of the beam is described exactly by the last of these writers, who had evidently seen it. According to Festus, the yoke under which Horatius passed was composed of three beams, two uprights, and a cross-piece. The similarity of the ceremony to that which was exacted from conquered foes is noted by Dionysius Halicarnasensis as well as by Livy. The tradition of the purification has been rightly explained by Dr. W. H. Roscher with reference to the custom of passing through cleft trees, holed stones, and so on. See W. H. Roscher, _Ausführliches Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. (Leipsic, 1890-1897) col. 21. Compare G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_2 (Munich, 1912), p. 104.

M153 Similarly the passage of a victorious Roman army under a triumphal arch may have been intended to purify the men from the stain of bloodshed by interposing a barrier between the slayers and the angry ghosts of the slain.

_ 537 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 165 _sqq._

538 Pliny, _Natur. Histor._ xv. 135: “_Quia suffimentum sit caedis hostium et purgatio_.”

539 Cicero, _In Pisonem_, xxiii. 55; Josephus, _Bellum Judaicum_, vii. 5. 4.

540 It was not till after I had given this conjectural explanation of the “Sister’s Beam” and the triumphal arch at Rome that I read the article of Mr. W. Warde Fowler, “Passing under the Yoke” (_The Classical Review_, March 1913, pp. 48-51), in which he quite independently suggests practically the same explanation of both these Roman structures. I have left my exposition, except for one or two trivial verbal changes, exactly as it stood before I was aware that my friend had anticipated me in both conjectures. The closeness of the coincidence between our views is a welcome confirmation of their truth. As to the _Porta Triumphalis_, the exact position of which is uncertain, Mr. Warde Fowler thinks that it was not a gate in the walls, but an archway standing by itself in the Campus Martius outside the city walls. He points out that in the oldest existing triumphal arch, that of Augustus at Ariminum, the most striking part of the structure consists of two upright Corinthian pillars with an architrave laid horizontally across them; and he ingeniously conjectures that we have here a reminiscence of the two uprights and the cross-piece, which, if our theory is correct, was the original form both of the triumphal arch and of the yoke.

M154 Belief in a sympathetic relation between a man and an animal such that the fate of the one depends on that of the other. The external souls of Yakut shamans in animals. Sympathetic relation between witches and hares.

541 Professor V. M. Mikhailoviskij, “Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) pp. 133, 134.

542 Th. Parkinson, _Yorkshire Legends and Traditions_, Second Series (London, 1889), pp. 160 _sq._

543 See above, vol. i. pp. 315 _sqq._

544 B. F. Matthes, _Makassaarsch-Hollandsch Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam, 1859), _s.v._ _soemāñgá_, p. 569; G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, p. 933; _id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 12.

M155 Melanesian conception of the _tamaniu_, a person’s external soul lodged in an animal or other object.

545 R. H. Codrington, D.D., _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 250 _sq._ Compare _id._, “Notes on the Customs of Mota, Banks Islands,” _Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria_, xvi. (1880) p. 136.

M156 Sympathetic relation between a man and his _tamaniu_ (external soul).

546 W. H. R. Rivers, “Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) p. 177. Dr. Rivers cites a recent case of a man who had a large lizard for his _tamaniu_. The animal lived in the roots of a big banyan-tree; when the man was ill, the lizard also seemed unwell; and when the man died, the tree fell, which was deemed a sign that the lizard also was dead.

M157 Soul of a Melanesian doctor in an eagle-hawk and a rat.

547 George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p. 177. The case was known to Dr. Brown, who made notes of it. The part of Melanesia where it happened was probably the Duke of York Island or New Britain.

548 “Totemismus auf den Marshall-Inseln (Südsee),” _Anthropos_, viii. (1913) p. 251.

M158 The theory of an external soul lodged in an animal is very prevalent in West Africa. The soul of a chief in a hippopotamus or a black snake. Belief of the Fans that every wizard unites his life to that of a wild animal by a rite of blood brotherhood.

549 Much of the following evidence has already been cited by me in _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 593 _sqq._

550 Herbert Ward, _Five Years with the Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1890), p. 53.

_ 551 Notes Analytiques sur les Collections ethnographiques du Musée du Congo_, i. (Brussels, 1902-1906) p. 150.

552 Father H. Trilles, “Chez les Fangs,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxx. (1898) p. 322; _id._, _Le Totémisme chez les Fâṅ_ (Münster i. W. 1912), pp. 473 _sq._

553 Father H. Trilles, _Le Totémisme chez les Fâṅ_ (Münster i. W. 1912), pp. 167 _sq._, 438 _sq._, 484-489. The description of the rite of blood-brotherhood contracted with the animal is quoted by Father Trilles (pp. 486 _sq._) from a work by Mgr. Buléon, _Sous le ciel d’Afrique, Récits d’un Missionnaire_, pp. 88 _sqq._ Father Trilles’s own observations and enquiries confirm the account given by Mgr. Buléon. But the story of an alliance contracted between a man or woman and a ferocious wild beast and cemented by the blood of the high contracting parties is no doubt a mere fable devised by wizards and witches in order to increase their reputation by imposing on the credulity of the simple.

M159 Belief of the natives of the Cross River that they stand in a vital relation to certain wild animals, so that when the animal dies the man dies also.

554 Alfred Mansfeld, _Urwald-Dokumente, vier Jahre unter den Crossflussnegern Kameruns_ (Berlin, 1908), pp. 220 _sq._

M160 Similar belief of the Balong in the Cameroons.

555 J. Keller (missionary), “Ueber das Land und Volk der Balong,” _Deutsches Kolonialblatt_, 1 Oktober 1895, p. 484; H. Seidel, “Ethnographisches aus Nordost Kamerun,” _Globus_, lxix. (1896) p. 277.

M161 Belief of the Ibos in external human souls which are lodged in animals.

556 John Parkinson, “Note on the Asaba People (Ibos) of the Niger,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) pp. 314 _sq._

557 Charles Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), pp. 225 _sq._

M162 Belief of the negroes of Calabar that every person has an external or bush soul lodged in a wild beast.

558 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), pp. 459-461. The lamented authoress was kind enough to give me in conversation (1st June 1897) some details which do not appear in her book; among these are the statements, which I have embodied in the text, that the bush soul is never a domestic animal, and that when a man knows what kind of creature his bush soul is, he will not kill an animal of that species and will strongly object to any one else doing so. Miss Kingsley was not able to say whether persons who have the same sort of bush soul are allowed or forbidden to marry each other.

M163 Further particulars as to the Calabar belief in bush souls.

559 John Parkinson, “Notes on the Efik Belief in ‘Bush-soul,’ ” _Man_, vi. (1906) pp. 121 _sq._, No. 80. Mr. Henshaw is a member of the highest grade of the secret society of Egbo.

560 Rev. Hugh Goldie, _Calabar and its Mission_, New Edition (Edinburgh and London, 1901), pp. 51 _sq._ Compare Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), p. 217: “When Efik or waterside Ibo see a dead fish floating in the water of the kind called _Edidim_ by the former and _Elili_ by the latter—a variety of the electric species—they believe it to be a bad omen, generally signifying that some one belonging to the house will die, the man who first sees it becoming the victim according to Ibo belief. The only reason that is assigned for this lugubrious forecast is the fact that one of the souls of the departed is in the dead fish—that, in fact, the relationship or affinity existing between the soul essence that had animated the fish and that of one of the members of the household was so intimate that the death of the one was bound to effect the death of the other.”

M164 Belief of the Ekoi of Southern Nigeria in external souls lodged in animals. Case of a chief whose external soul was in a buffalo.

561 P. Amaury Talbot, _In the Shadow of the Bush_ (London, 1912), pp. 80-87. The Ekoi name for a man who has the power of sending out his spirit into the form of some animal is _efumi_ (_id._, p. 71 note). A certain chief named Agbashan, a great elephant hunter, is believed to have the power of transforming himself into an elephant; and “a man of considerable intelligence, educated in England, the brother of a member of the Legislative Council for one of the West African Colonies, offered to take oath that he had seen Agbashan not only in his elephant form, but while actually undergoing the metamorphosis” (_id._, pp. 82 _sq._). In this case, therefore, the man seems to have felt no scruples at hunting the animals in one of which his own bush soul might be lodged.

M165 Belief of other tribes of Nigeria in external souls lodged in animals.

562 Letter of Mr. P. Amaury Talbot to me, dated Eket, North Calabar, Southern Nigeria, April 3d, 1913.

563 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), pp. 538 _sq._

564 C. H. Robinson, _Hausaland_ (London, 1896), pp. 36 _sq._

565 J. F. J. Fitzpatrick (Assistant Resident, Northern Nigeria), “Some Notes on the Kwolla District and its Tribes,” _Journal of the African Society_, No. 37, October, 1910, p. 30.

566 Extract from a Report by Captain Foulkes to the British Colonial Office. My thanks are due to Mr. N. W. Thomas for sending me the extract and to the authorities of the Colonial Office for their permission to publish it.

_ 567 The Daily Graphic_, Tuesday, October 7th, 1902, p. 3.

M166 The conception of an external soul lodged in an animal appears to be absent in South Africa.

568 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, “Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 300. The writer adds that he found a similar belief as to the sympathetic relation between a wounded crocodile and the man who wounded it very general among the Wanyamwezi, who, in 1882, were living under Mirambo about two hundred miles south of Lake Victoria Nyanza and a hundred miles east of Lake Tanganyika.

569 F. Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission in Africa_ (Hermannsburg, 1876) p. 167. Compare David Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_, Second Edition (Edinburgh, 1875) pp. 47 _sq._; “The Kaffirs believe that after death their spirits turn into a snake, which they call _Ehlose_, and that every living man has two of these familiar spirits—a good and a bad. When everything they undertake goes wrong with them, such as hunting, cattle-breeding, etc., they say they know that it is their enemies who are annoying them, and that they are only to be appeased by sacrificing an animal; but when everything prospers, they ascribe it to their good _Ehlose_ being in the ascendant”; _id._, _op. cit._ p. 148: “When in battle two men are fighting, their snakes (_Mahloze_) are poetically said to be twisting and biting each other overhead. One ‘softens’ and goes down, and the man, whose attendant it is, goes down with it. Everything is ascribed to _Ehlose_. If he fails in anything, his _Ehlose_ is bad; if successful, it is good.... It is this thing which is the inducing cause of everything. In fact, nothing in Zulu is admitted to arise from natural causes; everything is ascribed to witchcraft or the _Ehlose_.”

It is not all serpents that are _amadhlozi_ (plural of _idhlozi_), that is, are the transformed spirits of the dead. Serpents which are dead men may easily be distinguished from common snakes, for they frequent huts; they do not eat mice, and they are not afraid of people. If a man in his life had a scar, his serpent after his death will also have a scar; if he had only one eye, his serpent will have only one eye; if he was lame, his serpent will be lame too. That is how you can recognise So-and-So in his serpent form. Chiefs do not turn into the same kind of snakes as ordinary people. For common folk become harmless snakes with green and white bellies and very small heads; but kings become boa-constrictors or the large and deadly black _mamba_. See Rev. Henry Callaway, M.D., _The Religions System of the Amazulu_, Part ii. (Capetown, London, etc., 1869) pp. 134 _sq._, 140, 196-202, 205, 208-211, 231. “The _Ehlose_ of Chaka and other dead kings is the Boa-constrictor, or the large and deadly black Mamba, whichever the doctors decide. That of dead Queens is the tree Iguana” (David Leslie, _op. cit._ p. 213). Compare Rev. Joseph Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London, 1857), pp. 161 _sq._; W. R. Gordon, “Words about Spirits,” (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (Cape Town, 1880) pp. 101-103; W. Grant, “Magato and his Tribe,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 270. A word which is sometimes confounded with _idhlozi_ is _itongo_ (plural _amatongo_); but the natives themselves when closely questioned distinguish between the two. See Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood, a Study of Kafir Children_ (London, 1906), pp. 14 _sq._, 281-286. The notion that the spirits of the dead appear in the form of serpents is widespread in Africa. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 73 _sqq._ Dr. F. B. Jevons has suggested that the Roman _genius_, the guardian-spirit which accompanied a man from birth to death (Censorinus, _De die natali_, 3) and was commonly represented in the form of a snake, may have been an external soul. See F. B. Jevons, _Plutarch’s Romane Questions_ (London, 1892) pp. xlvii. _sq._; _id._, _Introduction to the History of Religion_ (London, 1896), pp. 186 _sq._; L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 195 _sqq._; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_2 (Munich, 1912), pp. 176 _sq._

M167 The conception of an external soul lodged in an animal occurs among the Indians of Central America, some of whom call such a soul a _nagual_.

570 H. H. Bancroft, _The Native Races of the Pacific Coast_ (London, 1875-1876), i. 661. The words quoted by Bancroft (p. 662, note), “_Consérvase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida está unida à la de un animal, y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando éste muere_,” are not quite accurately represented by the statement of Bancroft in the text. Elsewhere (vol. ii. p. 277) the same writer calls the “second self” of the Zapotecs a “_nagual_, or tutelary genius,” adding that the fate of the child was supposed to be so intimately bound up with the fortune of the animal that the death of the one involved the death of the other. Compare Daniel G. Brinton, “Nagualism, a Study in American Folk-lore and History,” _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia_, vol. xxxiii. No. 144 (Philadelphia, January, 1894), pp. 11-73. According to Professor E. Seler the word _nagual_ is akin to the Mexican _naualli_, “a witch or wizard,” which is derived from a word meaning “hidden” with reference to the power attributed to sorcerers of transforming themselves into animals. See E. Seler, “Altmexikanische Studien, II.” _Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_, vi. heft 2/4 (Berlin, 1899), pp. 52-57.

571 Otto Stoll, _Die Ethnologie der Indianerstämme von Guatemala_ (Leyden, 1889), p. 57.

572 Thomas Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, Third Edition (London, 1677), p. 334. The same writer relates how a certain Indian named Gonzalez was reported to have the power of turning himself into a lion or rather a puma. Once when a Spaniard had shot a puma in the nose, Gonzalez was found with a bruised face and accused the Spaniard of having shot him. Another Indian chief named Gomez was said to have transformed himself into a puma, and in that shape to have fought a terrific battle with a rival chief named Lopez, who had changed himself into a jaguar. See Gage, _op. cit._ pp. 383-389.

573 Antonio de Herrera, _General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 138 _sq._ The Spanish original of Herrera’s history, a work based on excellent authorities, was first published at Madrid in 1601-1615. The Indians of Santa Catalina Istlavacan still receive at birth the name of some animal, which is commonly regarded as their guardian spirit for the rest of their life. The name is bestowed by the heathen priest, who usually hears of a birth in the village sooner than his Catholic colleague. See K. Scherzer, “Die Indianer von Santa Catalina Istlávacana (Frauenfuss), ein Beitrag zur Culturgeschichte der Urbewohner Central-Amerikas,” _Sitzungsberichte der philos. histor. Classe der kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften_ (Vienna), xviii. (1856) p. 235.

574 Otto Stoll, _Die Ethnologie der Indianerstämme von Guatemala_ (Leyden, 1889), pp. 57 _sq._; _id._, _Suggestion und Hypnotism_2 (Leipsic, 1904), p. 170.

M168 In some tribes of South-Eastern Australia the lives of the two sexes are thought to be bound up with the lives of two different kinds of animals, as bats and owls.

575 A. W. Howitt, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) pp. 57 _sq._ Compare _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 148, 150. It is very remarkable that among the Kurnai these fights had a special connexion with marriage. When young men were backward of taking wives, the women used to go out into the forest and kill an emu-wren, which was the men’s “brother”; then returning to the camp they shewed the dead bird to the men. The result was a fight between the young men and the young women, in which, however, lads who were not yet marriageable might not take part. Next day the marriageable young men went out and killed a superb warbler, which was the women’s “sister,” and this led to a worse fight than before. Some days afterwards, when the wounds and bruises were healed, one of the marriageable young men met one of the marriageable young women, and said, “Superb warbler!” She answered, “Emu-wren! What does the emu-wren eat?” To which the young man answered, “He eats so-and-so,” naming kangaroo, opossum, emu, or some other game. Then they laughed, and she ran off with him without telling any one. See L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_ (Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, and Brisbane, 1880), pp. 201 _sq._; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 149, 273 _sq._ Perhaps this killing of the sex-totem before marriage may be related to the pretence of killing young men and bringing them to life again at puberty. See below, pp. 225 _sqq._

576 Gerard Krefft, “Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Lower Murray and Darling,” _Transactions of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales_, 1862-65, pp. 359 _sq._

577 A. W. Howitt, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) pp. 56 _sq._

578 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ p. 57; _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 150.

579 A. W. Howitt, “On the Migrations of the Kurnai Ancestors,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 416.

580 C. W. Schürmann, “The Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln,” in _Native Tribes of South Australia_ (Adelaide, 1879), p. 241. Compare G. F. Angas, _Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand_ (London, 1847), i. 109.

581 A. W. Howitt, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) p. 58. Compare _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 148-151.

582 James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_ (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, 1881), p. 52.

M169 Bats regarded as the brothers of men, and owls as the sisters of women.

583 See _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 47 _sq._ It is at least remarkable that both the creatures thus assigned to the two sexes should be nocturnal in their habits. Perhaps the choice of such creatures is connected with the belief that the soul is absent from the body in slumber. On this hypothesis bats and owls would be regarded by these savages as the wandering souls of sleepers. Such a belief would fully account for the reluctance of the natives to kill them. The Kiowa Indians of North America think that owls and other night birds are animated by the souls of the dead. See James Mooney, “Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians,” _Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1898) p. 237.

584 A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) p. 350 note 1; A. W. Howitt, “On the Migrations of the Kurnai Ancestors,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 416; _id._, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) p. 57.

585 L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, pp. 194, 201, _sq._, 215; _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. 416, xviii. 56 _sq._; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 148-151.

586 The following suggestion as to the origin of totemism was made in the first edition of this book (published in 1890) and is here reprinted without any substantial change. In the meantime much additional evidence as to the nature and prevalence of totemism has come to light, and with the new evidence my opinions, or rather conjectures, as to the origin of the institution have repeatedly changed. If I here reprint my earliest conjecture, it is partly because I still think it may contain an element of truth, and partly because it serves as a convenient peg on which to hang a collection of facts which are much more valuable than any theories of mine. The reader who desires to acquaint himself more fully with the facts of totemism and with the theories that have been broached on the subject, will find them stated at length in my _Totemism and Exogamy_ (London, 1910). Here I will only call attention to the Arunta legend that the ancestors of the tribe kept their spirits in certain sacred sticks and stones (_churinga_), which bear a close resemblance to the well-known bull-roarers, and that when they went out hunting they hung these sticks or stones on certain sacred poles (_nurtunjas_) which represented their totems. See Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 137 _sq._, 629. This tradition appears to point to a custom of transferring a man’s soul or spirit temporarily to his totem. Conversely when an Arunta is sick he scrapes his _churinga_ and swallows the scrapings, as if to restore to himself the spiritual substance deposited in the instrument. See Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _op. cit._ p. 135 note 1.

M170 Sex totems and clan totems may both be based on the notion that men and women keep their external souls in their totems, whether these are animals, plants, or what not.

587 (Sir) George Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii. 228 _sq._

588 L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 169. According to Dr. Howitt, it is a serious offence to kill the totem of another person “with intent to injure him” (_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) p. 53). Such an intention seems to imply a belief in a sympathetic connexion between the man and the animal. Similarly the Siena of the Ivory Coast, in West Africa, who have totemism, believe that if a man kills one of his totemic animals, a member of his totemic clan dies instantaneously. See Maurice Delafosse, “Le peuple Siéna ou Sénoufo,” _Revue des Études Ethnographiques et Sociologiques_, i. (1908) p. 452.

M171 The savage may imagine his life to be bound up with that of more animals than one at the same time; for many savages think that every person has more souls than one.

589 According to Plato, the different parts of the soul were lodged in different parts of the body (_Timaeus_, pp. 69C-72D), and as only one part, on his theory, was immortal, Lucian seems not unnaturally to have interpreted the Platonic doctrine to mean that every man had more than one soul (_Demonax_, 33).

590 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden, 1901) pp. 3 _sq._, 70-75.

591 Le sieur de la Borde, “Relation de l’Origine, Mœurs, Coustumes, Religion, Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes sauvages des Isles Antilles de l’Amerique,” p. 15, in _Recueil de divers Voyages faits en Afrique et en l’Amerique_ (Paris, 1684).

592 Washington Matthews, _The Hidatsa Indians_ (Washington, 1877), p. 50.

593 H. Ling Roth, “Low’s Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 117; W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), p. 50.

594 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 3 _sq._

595 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) p. 248.

596 In some tribes, chiefly of North American Indians, every man has an individual or personal totem in addition to the totem of his clan. This personal totem is usually the animal of which he dreamed during a long and solitary fast at puberty. See _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 49-52, iii. 370-456, where the relation of the individual or personal totem (if we may call it so) to the clan totem is discussed. It is quite possible that, as some good authorities incline to believe, the clan totem has been developed out of the personal totem by inheritance. See Miss Alice C. Fletcher, _The Import of the Totem_, pp. 3 _sqq._ (paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, August 1887, separate reprint); Fr. Boas, “The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,” _Report of the United States National Museum for 1895_ (Washington, 1897), pp. 323 _sq._, 336-338, 393. In the bush souls of the Calabar negroes (see above, pp. 204 _sqq._) we seem to have something like the personal totem on its way to become hereditary and so to grow into the totem of a clan.

M172 The Battas of Sumatra, who have totemism, believe that every person has a soul which is always outside of his body.

597 J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane- en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl. iii. Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2 (1886), pp. 311 _sq._; _id._, dl. iv. No. 1 (1887), pp. 8 _sq._; Van Hoëvell, “Iets over ’t oorlogvoeren der Batta’s,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S., vii. (1878) p. 434; G. A. Wilken, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), i. 296, 306 _sq._, 309, 325 _sq._; L. de Backer, _L’Archipel Indien_ (Paris, 1874), p. 470; Col. Yule, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, ix. (1880) p. 295; Joachim Freiherr von Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen Sumatras_ (Würzburg, 1894), pp. 197 _sqq._; P. A. L. E. van Dijk, “Eenige aanteekeningen omtrent de verschillenden stammen (_Margas_) en de stamverdeling bij de Battaks,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxviii. (1895) pp. 296 _sq._; M. Joustra, “Naar het landschap Goenoeng,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlv. (1901) pp. 80 _sq._; _id._, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) pp. 387 _sqq._; J. E. Neumann, “Kemali, Pantang, en Rĕboe bij de Karo-Bataks,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlviii. (1906) p. 512. See further _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 185 _sqq._

598 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. (1883) p. 514. J. B. Neumann (_op. cit._ dl. iii. No. 2, pp. 299) is the authority for the seven souls. According to another writer, six out of the seven souls reside outside of the body; one of them dwells in heaven, the remaining five have no definite place of abode, but are so closely related to the man that were they to abandon him his health would suffer. See J. Freiherr von Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen Sumatras_, pp. 239 _sq._ A different account of Batta psychology is given by Mr. Westenberg. According to him, each Batta has only one _tendi_ (not three or seven of them); and the _tendi_ is something between a soul and a guardian spirit. It always resides outside of the body, and on its position near, before, behind, above, or below, the welfare of its owner is supposed in great measure to depend. But in addition each man has two invisible guardian spirits (his _kaka_ and _agi_) whose help he invokes in great danger; one is the seed by which he was begotten, the other is the afterbirth, and these he calls respectively his elder and his younger brother. Mr. Westenberg’s account refers specially to the Karo-Battas. See C. J. Westenberg, “Aanteekeningen omtrent de godsdienstige begrippen der Karo-Bataks,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_, xli. (1892) pp. 228 _sq._

M173 If a totem is the receptacle in which a man keeps his external soul, it is no wonder that savages should conceal the secret from strangers.

599 Compare Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (London, 1912), ii. 90 _sqq._: “An important institution among some of the Ibans, which occurs but in rare instances among the other peoples, is the _ngarong_ or secret helper. The _ngarong_ is one of the very few topics in regard to which the Ibans display any reluctance to speak freely. So great is their reserve in this connection that one of us lived for fourteen years on friendly terms with Ibans of various districts without ascertaining the meaning of the word _ngarong_, or suspecting the great importance of the part played by the notion in the lives of some of these people. The _ngarong_ seems to be usually the spirit of some ancestor or dead relative, but not always so, and it is not clear that it is always conceived as the spirit of a deceased human being. This spirit becomes the special protector of some individual Iban, to whom in a dream he manifests himself, in the first place in human form, and announces that he will be his secret helper.... When, as is most commonly the case, the secret helper takes on the form of some animal, all individuals of that species become objects of especial regard to the fortunate Iban; he will not kill or eat any such animal, and he will as far as possible restrain others from doing so.” Thus the _ngarong_ or secret helper of the Ibans closely resembles what I have called the individual or personal totem.

600 It is not merely the personal name which is often shrouded in mystery (see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 318 _sqq._); the names of the clans and their subdivisions are objects of mysterious reverence among many, if not all, of the Siouan tribes of North America, and are never used in ordinary conversation. See J. Owen Dorsey, “Osage Traditions,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 396. Among the Yuin of South-Eastern Australia “the totem name was called _Budjan_, and it was said to be more like _Joïa_, or magic, than a name; and it was in one sense a secret name, for with it an enemy might cause injury to its bearer by magic. Thus very few people knew the totem names of others, the name being told to a youth by his father at his initiation” (A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, London, 1904, p. 133).

M174 This view of totemism may help to explain the rite of death and resurrection which forms part of many initiatory ceremonies among savages.

601 Theodor Benfey, _Pantschatantra_ (Leipsic, 1859), i. 128 _sq._ Similarly a man of the Kulin tribe in Victoria was called Kurburu, that is, “native bear,” because the spirit of a native bear was supposed to have entered into him when he killed the animal, and to have endowed him with its wonderful cleverness. This I learn from Miss E. B. Howitt’s _Folklore and Legends of some Victorian Tribes_ (chapter vi.), which I have been privileged to see in manuscript. Among the Chiquites Indians of Paraguay sickness was sometimes accounted for by supposing that the soul of a deer or a turtle had entered into the patient. See _Lettres Édifiantes et Curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) p. 339. We have seen (pp. 213 _sq._) that the Indians of Honduras made an alliance with the animal that was to be their _nagual_ by offering some of their own blood to it. Conversely the North American Indian kills the animal which is to be his personal totem, and thenceforth wears some part of the creature as an amulet (_Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 50). These facts seem to point to the establishment of a blood covenant, involving an interchange of life between a man and his personal totem or _nagual_; and among the Fans of West Africa, as we saw (above, p. 201), such a covenant is actually supposed to exist between a sorcerer and his _elangela_.

M175 The rite of death and resurrection among the Wonghi of New South Wales.

602 A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) pp. 357 _sq._ Compare A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 588 _sq._

M176 Use of the bull-roarer at initiatory ceremonies in Australia. The sound of the bull-roarer compared to thunder. Belief of the Dieri that by sounding a bull-roarer a newly initiated young man produces a supply of edible snakes and lizards.

603 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 213, 453.

604 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 538. As to Daramulun (of whose name Thuremlin is no doubt only a dialectical variation) see _id._, pp. 407, 493, 494 _sq._, 497, 499, 500, 507, 523 _sq._, 526, 528, 529 _sq._, 535, 540, 541, 585 _sq._, 587; _id._, “On some Australian Ceremonies of Initiation,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) pp. 442, 443, 446, 447, 448, 450, 451, 452, 455, 456, 459. On the bull-roarer see Andrew Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (London, 1884), pp. 29-44; J. D. E. Schmeltz, _Das Schwirrholz_ (Hamburg, 1896); A. C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_ (London and New York, 1898), pp. 277-327; J. G. Frazer, “On some Ceremonies of the Central Australian Aborigines,” _Proceedings of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science for the Year 1900_ (Melbourne, 1901), pp. 317-322. The religious or magical use of the bull-roarer is best known in Australia. See, for example, L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_ (Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, and Brisbane, 1880), pp. 267-269; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 354, 509 _sq._, 514, 515, 517, 569, 571, 575, 578, 579, 582, 583, 584, 589, 592, 594, 595, 606, 659 _sq._, 670, 672, 696, 715; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 246, 344, 347; W. Baldwin Spencer, _Introduction to the Study of Certain Native Tribes of the Northern Territory_ (_Bulletin of the Northern Territory_, No. 2) (Melbourne, 1912), pp. 19 _sq._, 23, 24, 31 _sq._, 37 _sqq._; A. R. Brown, “Three Tribes of Western Australia,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xliii. (1913) pp. 168, 174; R. Pettazzoni, “Mythologie Australienne du Rhombe,” _Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, lxv. (1912) pp. 149-170. But in the essay just referred to Mr. Andrew Lang shewed that the instrument has been similarly employed not only by savages in various parts of the world, but also by the ancient Greeks in their religious mysteries. In the Torres Straits Islands it is used both at the initiation of young men and as a magical instrument. See _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 217, 218, 219, 328, 330-333, 346, 352. In various parts of New Guinea it is sounded at the initiation of young men and is carefully concealed from women; the sound is thought to be the voice of a spirit. See Rev. J. Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_ (London, 1887), p. 85; _id._, “Toaripi,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898) p. 329; Rev. J. Holmes, “Initiation Ceremonies of Natives of the Papuan Gulf,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 420, 424 _sq._; O. Schellong, “Das Barlum-fest der Gegend Finsch-hafens,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) pp. 150 _sq._, 154 _sq._; F. Grabowsky, “Der Bezirk von Hatzfeldthafen und seine Bewohner,” _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xli. (1895) p. 189; B. Hagen, _Unter den Papua’s_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), pp. 188 _sq._; Max Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, preface dated 1899), pp. 168 _sqq._; J. Vetter, in _Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xi. (1892) p. 105; K. Vetter, in _Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel, 1897_ (Berlin), p. 93; R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 36, 297, 403, 406 _sq._, 410-412, 494 _sqq._; Otto Reche, _Der Kaiserin-Augusta-Fluss_ (Hamburg, 1913), pp. 349 _sqq._ (_Ergebnisse der Südsee-Expedition 1908-1910_, herausgegeben von G. Thilenius). It is similarly used at the circumcision-festivals in the French Islands, to the west of New Britain (R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee_, Stuttgart, 1907, pp. 640 _sq._), and it is employed at mysteries or mourning ceremonies in Bougainville and other Melanesian Islands. See R. Parkinson, _op. cit._ pp. 658 _sq._; _id._, _Zur Ethnographie der Nordwestlichen Salomo Inseln_ (Berlin, 1899), p. 11; R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 98 _sq._, 342. Among the Minangkabauers of Sumatra the bull-roarer (_gasiĕng_) is used by a rejected lover to induce the demons to carry off the soul of the jilt and so drive her mad. It is made of the frontal bone of a brave or skilful man, and some of the intended victim’s hair is attached to it. See J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer in der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 55 _sq._ Among the Yoruba-speaking negroes of the Slave Coast in West Africa, particularly at Abeokuta, the sound of the bull-roarer is supposed to be the voice of a great bogey named Oro, whose votaries compose a secret society under the name of Ogboni. When the sound of the bull-roarer is heard in the streets, every woman must shut herself up in her house and not look out of the window under pain of death. See R. F. Burton, _Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains_ (London, 1863), i. 197 _sq._;, Missionary Chautard, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lv. (Lyons, 1883) pp. 192-198; Missionary Baudin, “Le Fétichisme,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) p. 257; P. Bouche, _La Côte des Esclaves et le Dahomey_ (Paris, 1885), p. 124; Mrs. R. B. Batty and Governor Moloney, “Notes on the Yoruba Country,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) pp. 160-164; A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa_ (London, 1894), pp. 110 _sq._; R. H. Stone, _In Afric’s Forest and Jungle_ (Edinburgh and London, 1900), p. 88; L. Frobenius, _Die Masken und Geheimbünde Afrikas_ (Halle, 1898), pp. 95 _sqq._ (_Nova Acta, Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher_, vol. lxxiv. No. 1). Among the Nandi of British East Africa and the Bushongo of the Congo region bull-roarers are sounded by men to frighten novices at initiation. See A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 40, 56; E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, _Les Bushongo_ (Brussels, 1910), p. 82. Among the Caffres of South Africa and the Boloki of the Upper Congo the bull-roarer is a child’s toy, but yet is thought to be endowed with magical virtue. See below, p. 232 note 3. Among the Koskimo Indians of British Columbia the sound of the bull-roarers is supposed to be the voice of a spirit who comes to fetch away the novices. See Franz Boas, “The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,” _Report of the United States National Museum_ (Washington, 1897), p. 610. The bull-roarer is used as a sacred or magical instrument for the making of rain by the Zuñi and other Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, also by the Navajos and Apaches of the same region, and by the Utes of Nevada and Utah. See Dr. Washington Matthews, “The Mountain Chant, a Navajo Ceremony,” _Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp. 435, 436; Captain J. G. Bourke, “The Medicine-men of the Apache,” _Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1892), pp. 476-479; Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuñi Indians,” _Twenty-third Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1904), pp. 115, 117, 128 _sq._, 175, 177, 355. The Guatusos of Costa Rica ascertain the will of the deity by listening to the humming sound of the bull-roarer. See Dr. C. Sapper, “Ein Besuch bei den Guatusos in Costarica,” _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p. 352; _id._, “Beiträge zur Ethnographie des südlichen Mittelamerika,” _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xlvii. (1901) p. 36. The Caripunas Indians of the Madeira River, in Brazil, sound bull-roarers in lamentations for the dead. See Franz Keller, _The Amazon and Madeira Rivers_ (London, 1874), p. 124. The Bororo of Brazil also swing bull-roarers at their festivals of the dead; the sound of them is the signal for the women to hide themselves; it is believed that women and children would die if they saw a bull-roarer. See K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasilien’s_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 497-499. The Nahuqua and other Brazilian tribes use bull-roarers in their masked dances, but make no mystery of them. See K. von den Steinen, _op. cit._ pp. 327 _sq._ As to the magical use of the bull-roarer, see pp. 230 _sqq._

605 A. W. Howitt, “The Dieri and other Kindred Tribes of Central Australia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 83; _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 660. In the latter passage Dr. Howitt omits the not unimportant particular that the bull-roarer is swung for this purpose by the young man _before his wounds are healed_.

606 On the desert nature of Central Australia and the magical-like change wrought in its fauna and flora by heavy rain, see Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 4 _sq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 170 _sqq._, 316 _sqq._, 341 _sq._; J. G. Frazer, “Howitt and Fison,” _Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) pp. 160, 162 _sq._, 164.

M177 The bull-roarer used by the Indians of New Mexico and Arizona to procure rain. The bull-roarer used in Torres Straits Islands to produce wind and good crops.

607 Captain J. G. Bourke, “The Medicine-men of the Apache,” _Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1892), pp. 476 _sq._

608 Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuñi Indians,” _Twenty-third Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1904), pp. 115, 355.

609 Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, _op. cit._ p. 175; compare _id._, pp. 128 _sq._, 177.

610 Dr. Washington Matthews, “The Navajo Chant,” _Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), p. 436; compare _id._, p. 435, where the sound of the bull-roarer is said to be “like that of a rain storm.”

611 Karl von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 328.

_ 612 Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 352.

613 G. McCall Theal, _Kaffir Folk-lore_ (London, 1886), pp. 222 _sq._; _id._, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p. 456; Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 333. For an analogous reason among the Boloki of the Upper Congo the elders do not like when boys play with bull-roarers, because the sound resembles the growl of a leopard and will attract these ferocious animals. See Rev. John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 157.

614 A. C. Haddon, _Head-hunters, Black, White, and Brown_ (London, 1901), p. 104; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 218, 219; Rev. J. Chalmers, “Notes on the Natives of Kiwai Island,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) p. 119.

615 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), iii. 333.

M178 The whirling of bull-roarers by young men with bleeding backs in Australia seems to have been a rain-making ceremony.

_ 616 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 256-258.

617 This appears to be the view also of Professor K. von den Steinen (_Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, pp. 327 _sq._), who is probably right in thinking that the primary intention of the instrument is to make thunder, and that the idea of making rain is secondary.

M179 The sound of the bull-roarer at initiation is believed by Australian women and children to be the voice of a spirit, who carries away the novices.

618 A. W. Howitt, “On Australian Medicine Men,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xvi. (1887) pp. 47 _sq._; compare _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 596.

619 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 246 note 1; _id._, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 497. According to the classificatory system of relationship, which prevails among all the aborigines of Australia, a man may have, and generally has, a number of women who stand to him in the relation of mother as well as of sister, though there need not be a drop of blood in common between them, as we count kin. This explains the reference in the text to a boy’s “mothers.”

M180 In some Australian tribes the women believe that lads at initiation are killed and brought to life again by a spirit, whose voice is heard in the sound of the bull-roarer.

620 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 342 _sq._, 498.

621 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ p. 498.

622 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ pp. 366 _sq._, 501.

623 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ pp. 373, 501.

M181 A drama of resurrection from the dead used to be shewn to novices at initiation in some tribes of New South Wales. Dr. Howitt’s description of the scene. The seeming dead man in the grave. The resurrection from the grave.

624 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 554-556. Compare _id._, “On some Australian Ceremonies of Initiation,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) pp. 453 _sq._

M182 In some Australian tribes a medicine-man at his initiation is thought to be killed and raised again from the dead.

625 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 523-525; _id._, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, 480 _sq._, 484, 485, 487, 488; _id._, _Across Australia_ (London, 1912), ii. 334 _sqq._

626 Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 480 _sq._

627 F. J. Gillen, “Notes on some Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the McDonnel Ranges belonging to the Arunta Tribe,” in _Report on the Work of the Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia_,