xxx. 5) that husbandmen were the first to celebrate sacred rites in

honour of Demeter at the threshing-floor.

207 See above, p. 61, note 4.

208 Harpocration, _s.v._ Ἁλῶα (vol. i. p. 24, ed. G. Dindorf).

209 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 124, 144, with the editor’s notes; August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_, p. 360.

210 So I am informed by my friend Professor J. L. Myres, who speaks from personal observation.

211 This is recognised by Professor M. P. Nilsson. See his _Studia de Dionysiis Atticis_ (Lund, 1900), pp. 95 _sqq._, and his _Griechische Feste_, p. 329. To explain the lateness of the festival, Miss J. E. Harrison suggests that “the shift of date is due to Dionysos. The rival festivals of Dionysos were in mid-winter. He possessed himself of the festivals of Demeter, took over her threshing-floor and compelled the anomaly of a winter threshing festival” (_Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, Second Edition, p. 147).

212 Scholiast on Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ vii. 4 (_Scholia in Lucianum_, ed. H. Rabe, Leipsic, 1906, pp. 279-281).

213 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 15 and 20, pp. 13 and 17 ed. Potter; Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 25-27, 35, 39.

214 See below, p. 116; vol. ii. pp. 17 _sqq._

M47 The Green Festival and the Festival of the Cornstalks at Eleusis. Epithets of Demeter referring to the corn.

215 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 640; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_ (Brussels, 1900), No. 135, p. 145. To be exact, while the inscription definitely mentions the sacrifices to Demeter and Persephone at the Green Festival, it does not record the deities to whom the sacrifice at the Festival of the Cornstalks (τὴν τῶν Καλαμαίων θυσίαν) was offered. But mentioned as it is in immediate connexion with the sacrifices to Demeter and Persephone at the Green Festival, we may fairly suppose that the sacrifice at the Festival of the Cornstalks was also offered to these goddesses.

216 See above, p. 42.

_ 217 Anthologia Palatina_, vi. 36. 1 _sq._

218 Polemo, cited by Athenaeus, iii. 9, p. 416 B.

219 Nonnus, _Dionys._ xvii. 153. The Athenians sacrificed to her under this title (Eustathius, on Homer, _Iliad_, xviii. 553, p. 1162).

220 Theocritus, _Idyl._ vii. 155; _Orphica_, xl. 5.

_ 221 Anthologia Palatina_, vi. 98. 1.

_ 222 Orphica_, xl. 3.

_ 223 Anthologia Palatina_, vi. 104. 8.

_ 224 Orphica_, xl. 5.

_ 225 Ibid._

_ 226 Orphica_, xl. 18.

227 This title she shared with Persephone at Tegea (Pausanias, viii. 53. 7), and under it she received annual sacrifices at Ephesus (Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 655). It was applied to her also at Epidaurus (Ἐφημ. Ἀρχ., 1883, col. 153) and at Athens (Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 382), and appears to have been a common title of the goddess. See L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. 318 note 30.

228 Polemo, cited by Athenaeus, iii. 73, p. 109 A B, x. 9. p. 416 C.

M48 Belief in ancient and modern times that the corn-crops depend on possession of an image of Demeter.

229 E. Dodwell, _A Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece_ (London, 1819), i. 583. E. D. Clarke found the image “on the side of the road, immediately before entering the village, and in the midst of a heap of dung, buried as high as the neck, a little beyond the farther extremity of the pavement of the temple. Yet even this degrading situation had not been assigned to it wholly independent of its antient history. The inhabitants of the small village which is now situated among the ruins of Eleusis still regarded this statue with a very high degree of superstitious veneration. They attributed to its presence the fertility of their land; and it was for this reason that they heaped around it the manure intended for their fields. They believed that the loss of it would be followed by no less a calamity than the failure of their annual harvests; and they pointed to the ears of bearded wheat, upon the sculptured ornaments upon the head of the figure, as a never-failing indication of the produce of the soil.” When the statue was about to be removed, a general murmur ran among the people, the women joining in the clamour. “They had been always,” they said, “famous for their corn; and the fertility of the land would cease when the statue was removed.” See E. D. Clarke, _Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa_, iii. (London, 1814) pp. 772-774, 787 _sq._ Compare J. C. Lawson, _Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion_ (Cambridge, 1910), p. 80, who tells us that “the statue was regularly crowned with flowers in the avowed hope of obtaining good harvests.”

230 Cicero, _In C. Verrem_, act. ii. lib. iv. 51.

M49 Sacred marriage of Zeus and Demeter at Eleusis. Homer on the love of Zeus for Demeter. Zeus the Sky God may have been confused with Subterranean Zeus, that is, Pluto. Demeter may have been confused with Persephone; in art the types of the two goddesses are often very similar.

_ 231 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 138 _sq._

232 This view was expressed by my friend Professor Ridgeway in a paper which I had the advantage of hearing him read at Cambridge in the early part of 1911. Compare _The Athenaeum_, No. 4360, May 20th, 1911, p. 576.

233 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 20; E. S. Roberts and E. A. Gardner, _Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_, ii. (Cambridge, 1905) No. 9, pp. 22 _sq._ See above, pp. 55 _sq._

234 Homer, _Iliad_, xiv. 326.

235 Homer, _Odyssey_, v. 125 _sqq._

236 Diodorus Siculus, iii. 62. 6.

237 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ 12, p. 12, ed. Potter.

238 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 465 _sqq._

239 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 615, lines 25 _sq._; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 714; J. de Prott et L. Ziehen, _Leges Graecorum Sacrae_, No. 4.

240 See L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. (Oxford, 1907), p. 259, “It was long before the mother could be distinguished from the daughter by any organic difference of form or by any expressive trait of countenance. On the more ancient vases and terracottas they appear rather as twin-sisters, almost as if the inarticulate artist were aware of their original identity of substance. And even among the monuments of the transitional period it is difficult to find any representation of the goddesses in characters at once clear and impressive. We miss this even in the beautiful vase of Hieron in the British Museum, where the divine pair are seen with Triptolemos: the style is delicate and stately, and there is a certain impression of inner tranquil life in the group, but without the aid of the inscriptions the mother would not be known from the daughter”; _id._, vol. iii. 274, “But it would be wrong to give the impression that the numismatic artists of this period were always careful to distinguish—in such a manner as the above works indicate—between mother and daughter. The old idea of their unity of substance still seemed to linger as an art-tradition: the very type we have just been examining appears on a fourth-century coin of Hermione, and must have been used here to designate Demeter Chthonia who was there the only form that the corn-goddess assumed. And even at Metapontum, where coin-engraving was long a great art, a youthful head crowned with corn, which in its own right and on account of its resemblance to the masterpiece of Euainetos could claim the name of Kore [Persephone], is actually inscribed ‘Damater.’ ” Compare J. Overbeck, _Griechische Kunstmythologie_, iii. (Leipsic, 1873-1878), p. 453. In regard, for example, to the famous Eleusinian bas-relief, one of the most beautiful monuments of ancient religious art, which seems to represent Demeter giving the corn-stalks to Triptolemus, while Persephone crowns his head, there has been much divergence of opinion among the learned as to which of the goddesses is Demeter and which Persephone. See J. Overbeck, _op. cit._ iii. 427 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, _op. cit._ iii. 263 _sq._ On the close resemblance of the artistic types of Demeter and Persephone see further E. Gerhard, _Gesammelte akademische Abhandlungen_ (Berlin, 1866-1868), ii. 357 _sqq._; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines_, i. 2, _s.v._ “Ceres,” p. 1049.

M50 The date of the Eleusinian Mysteries in September would have been a very appropriate time for a Sacred Marriage of the Sky God with the Corn Goddess or the Earth Goddess.

_ 241 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 97 _sqq._

242 Homer, _Odyssey_, v. 125 _sqq._

243 Proclus, on Plato, _Timaeus_, p. 293 c, quoted by L. F. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. 357, where Lobeck’s emendation of ὔε, κύε for υἶε, τοκυῖε (_Aglaophamus_, p. 782) may be accepted as certain, confirmed as it is by Hippolytus, _Refutatio Omnium Haeresium_, v. 7, p. 146, ed. Duncker and Schneidewin (Göttingen, 1859), τὸ μέγα καὶ ἄρρητον Ἐλευσινίων μυστήριον ὔε κύε.

M51 The Eleusinian games distinct from the Eleusinian Mysteries. The Eleusinian games of later origin than the Eleusinian Mysteries. The Eleusinian games sacred to Demeter and Persephone. Triptolemus, the mythical hero of the corn.

244 As to the Eleusinian games see August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_, pp. 179-204; P. Foucart, _Les Grands Mystères d’Éleusis_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 143-147; P. Stengel, in Pauly-Wissowa’s _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. coll. 2330 _sqq._ The quadriennial celebration of the Eleusinian Games is mentioned by Aristotle (_Constitution of Athens_, 54), and in the great Eleusinian inscription of 329 B.C., which is also our only authority for the biennial celebration of the games. See Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 258 _sqq._ The regular and official name of the games was simply Eleusinia (τὰ Ἐλευσίνια), a name which late writers applied incorrectly to the Mysteries. See August Mommsen, _op. cit._ pp. 179 _sqq._; Dittenberger, _op. cit._ No. 587, note 171.

245 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 246, lines 25 _sqq._; _id._ No. 587, lines 244 _sq._, 258 _sqq._

_ 246 Marmor Parium_, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, i. 544 _sq._

247 Aristides, _Panathen._ and _Eleusin._ vol. i. pp. 168, 417, ed. G. Dindorf.

248 Schol. on Pindar, _Olymp._ ix. 150, p. 228, ed. Aug. Boeckh.

249 Aristides, _ll.cc._

250 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 246, lines 25 _sqq._ The editor rightly points out that the Great Eleusinian Games are identical with the games celebrated every fourth year, which are mentioned in the decree of 329 B.C. (Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 260 _sq._).

251 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 259 _sqq._ From other Attic inscriptions we learn that the Eleusinian games comprised a long foot-race, a race in armour, and a pancratium. See Dittenberger, _op. cit._ No. 587 note 171 (vol. ii. p. 313). The Great Eleusinian Games also included the pentathlum (Dittenberger, _op. cit._ No. 678, line 2). The pancratium included wrestling and boxing; the pentathlum included a foot-race, leaping, throwing the quoit, throwing the spear, and wrestling. See W. Smith, _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_, Third Edition, _s.vv._ “Pancratium” and “Pentathlon.”

252 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 246, lines 46 _sqq._; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 609. See above, p. 61. The identification lies all the nearer to hand because the inscription records a decree in honour of a man who had sacrificed to Demeter and Persephone at the Great Eleusinian Games, and a provision is contained in the decree that the honour should be proclaimed “at the Ancestral Contest of the Festival of the Threshing-floor.” The same Ancestral Contest at the Festival of the Threshing-floor is mentioned in another Eleusinian inscription, which records honours decreed to a man who had sacrificed to Demeter and Persephone at the Festival of the Threshing-floor. See Ἐφημερὶς Ἀρχαιολογική, 1884, coll. 135 _sq._

253 See above, p. 61.

254 Diodorus Siculus, v. 68; Arrian, _Indic._ 7; Lucian, _Somnium_, 15; _id._, _Philopseudes_, 3; Plato, _Laws_, vi. 22, p. 782; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 5. 2; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28, p. 53, ed. C. Lang; Pausanias, i. 14. 2, vii. 18. 2, viii. 4. 1; Aristides, _Eleusin._ vol. i. pp. 416 _sq._, ed. G. Dindorf; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 147, 259, 277; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 549 _sqq._; _id._, _Metamorph._ v. 645 _sqq._; Servius, on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 19. See also above, p. 54. As to Triptolemus, see L. Preller, _Demeter und Persephone_ (Hamburg, 1837), pp. 282 _sqq._; _id._, _Griechische Mythologie_,4 i. 769 _sqq._

255 C. Strube, _Studien über den Bilderkreis von Eleusis_ (Leipsic, 1870), pp. 4 _sqq._; J. Overbeck, _Griechische Kunstmythologie_, iii. (Leipsic, 1873-1880), pp. 530 _sqq._; A. Baumeister, _Denkmäler des classischen Altertums_, iii. 1855 _sqq._ That Triptolemus sowed the earth with corn from his car is mentioned by Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 5. 2; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28, pp. 53 _sq._, ed. C. Lang; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 147; and Servius, on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 19.

256 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 20, lines 37 _sqq._; E. S. Roberts and E. A. Gardner, _Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_, ii. (Cambridge, 1905), No. 9, p. 24.

257 Arrian, _Epicteti Dissertationes_, i. 4. 30.

258 Scholiast on Homer, _Iliad_, xviii. 483; L. Preller, _Demeter und Persephone_, p. 286; F. A. Paley on Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 460. The custom of ploughing the land thrice is alluded to by Homer (_Iliad_, xviii. 542, _Odyssey_, v. 127) and Hesiod (_Theogony_, 971), and is expressly mentioned by Theophrastus (_Historia Plantarum_, vii. 13. 6).

259 So I am informed by my learned friend the Rev. Professor J. H. Moulton.

260 J. Toepffer, _Attische Genealogie_ (Berlin, 1889), pp. 138 _sq._ However, the Eleusinian Torchbearer Callias apparently claimed to be descended from Triptolemus, for in a speech addressed to the Lacedaemonians he is said by Xenophon (_Hellenica_, vi. 3. 6) to have spoken of Triptolemus as “our ancestor” (ὁ ἡμέτερος πρόγονος). See above, p. 54. But it is possible that Callias was here speaking, not as a direct descendant of Triptolemus, but merely as an Athenian, who naturally ranked Triptolemus among the most illustrious of the ancestral heroes of his people. Even if he intended to claim actual descent from the hero, this would prove nothing as to the historical character of Triptolemus, for many Greek families boasted of being descended from gods.

M52 Prizes of barley given to victors in the Eleusinian games.

261 The prize of barley is mentioned by the Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ ix. 150. The Scholiast on Aristides (vol. iii. pp. 55, 56, ed. G. Dindorf) mentions ears of corn as the prize without specifying the kind of corn. In the official Athenian inscription of 329 B.C., though the amount of corn distributed in prizes both at the quadriennial and at the biennial games is stated, we are not told whether the corn was barley or wheat. See Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 259 _sqq._ According to Aristides (_Eleusin._ vol. i. p. 417, ed. G. Dindorf, compare p. 168) the prize consisted of the corn which had first appeared at Eleusis.

_ 262 Marmor Parium_, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, i. 544. That the Rarian plain was the first to be sown and the first to bear crops is affirmed by Pausanias (i. 38. 6).

263 Pausanias, i. 38. 6.

264 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 119 _sq._ In the same inscription, a few lines lower down, mention is made of two pigs which were used in purifying the sanctuary at Eleusis. On the pig in Greek purificatory rites, see my notes on Pausanias, ii. 31. 8 and v. 16. 8.

M53 The Eleusinian games primarily concerned with Demeter and Persephone. The Ancestral Contest in the games may have been originally a contest between the reapers to finish reaping.

265 See below, pp. 140 _sqq._, 155 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._, compare 218 _sqq._

266 See below, pp. 147 _sqq._, 221 _sq._, 223 _sq._

267 See above, p. 43.

M54 Games at harvest festivals in modern Europe.

268 A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 398, 399, 400.

269 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 70 _sq._

270 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), pp. 341 _sq._

271 See below, pp. 133 _sqq._

M55 Date of the Eleusinian games uncertain.

272 Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ ix. 150, p. 228, ed. Aug. Boeckh.

273 The games are assigned to Metageitnion by P. Stengel (Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. 2. coll. 2331 _sq._) and to Boedromion by August Mommsen and W. Dittenberger. The last-mentioned scholar supposes that the games immediately followed the Mysteries, and August Mommsen formerly thought so too, but he afterwards changed his view and preferred to suppose that the games preceded the Mysteries. See Aug. Mommsen, _Heortologie_ (Leipsic, 1864), p. 263; _id._, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 182 _sqq._; Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, note 171 (vol. ii. pp. 313 _sq._). The dating of the games in Metageitnion or in the early part of Boedromion depends on little more than a series of conjectures, particularly the conjectural restoration of an inscription and the conjectural dating of a certain sacrifice to Democracy.

M56 Why should games intended to promote the annual growth of the crops be held only every second or fourth year? The Eleusinian Mysteries probably much older than the Eleusinian games.

274 A. de Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_ (London, 1884), pp. 354 _sq._, 367 _sqq._; R. Munro, _The Lake-dwellings of Europe_ (London, Paris, and Melbourne, 1890), pp. 497 _sqq._; O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 8 _sqq._; _id._, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_ (Jena, 1906-1907), ii. 185 _sqq._; H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_ (Strasburg, 1905-1907), i. 254 _sqq._, 273 _sq._, 276 _sqq._, ii. 640 _sqq._; M. Much, _Die Heimat der Indogermanen_ (Jena and Berlin, 1904), pp. 221 _sqq._; T. E. Peet, _The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 362.

M57 Quadriennial period of many of the great games of Greece. Old octennial period of the Pythian and probably of the Olympian games. The octennial cycle was instituted by the Greeks at a very early era for the purpose of harmonising solar and lunar time.

275 Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_, 54, where the quadriennial (penteteric) festival of the Eleusinian Games is mentioned along with the quadriennial festivals of the Panathenaica, the Delia, the Brauronia, and the Heraclea. The biennial (trieteric) festival of the Eleusinian Games is mentioned only in the inscription of 329 B.C. (Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 259 _sq._). As to the identity of the Great Eleusinian Games with the quadriennial games see Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_, No. 246 note 9, No. 587 note 171.

276 As to the Plataean games see Plutarch, _Aristides_, 21; Pausanias, ix. 2. 6.

277 Strabo, vii. 7. 6, p. 325; Suetonius, _Augustus_, 18; Dio Cassius, li. 1; Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines_, _s.v._ “Actia.”

278 Pausanias, viii. 9. 8.

279 Scholiast on Pindar, _Pyth._, Argument, p. 298, ed. Aug. Boeckh; Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 6. According to the scholiast on Pindar (_l.c._) the change from the octennial to the quadriennial period was occasioned by the nymphs of Parnassus bringing ripe fruits in their hands to Apollo, after he had slain the dragon at Delphi.

280 Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 35 (20), p. 98, ed. Aug. Boeckh. Compare Boeckh’s commentary on Pindar (vol. iii. p. 138 of his edition); L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 366 _sq._, ii. 605 _sqq._

281 See _The Dying God_, chapter ii. § 4, “Octennial Tenure of the Kingship,” especially pp. 68 _sq._, 80, 89 _sq._

282 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 25 _sqq._, pp. 110 _sqq._, ed. C. Manitius (Leipsic, 1898); Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 2-6.

283 Geminus, _l.c._

284 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 36-41.

285 Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 5. As Eudoxus flourished in the fourth century B.C., some sixty or seventy years after Meton, who introduced the nineteen years’ cycle to remedy the defects of the octennial cycle, the claim of Eudoxus to have instituted the latter cycle may at once be put out of court. The claim of Cleostratus, who seems to have lived in the sixth or fifth century B.C., cannot be dismissed so summarily; but for the reasons given in the text he can hardly have done more than suggest corrections or improvements of the ancient octennial cycle.

286 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 27. With far less probability Censorinus (_De die natali_, xviii. 2-4) supposes that the octennial cycle was produced by the successive duplication of biennial and quadriennial cycles. See below, pp. 86 _sq._

287 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, ii. 605.

_ 288 The Dying God_, pp. 58 _sqq._ Speaking of the octennial cycle Censorinus observes that “_Ob hoc in Graecia multae religiones hoc intervallo temporis summa caerimonia coluntur_” (_De die natali_, xviii. 6). Compare L. Ideler, _op. cit._ ii. 605 _sq._; G. F. Unger, “Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,” in Iwan Müller’s _Handbuch der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i.2 732 _sq._ The great age and the wide diffusion of the octennial cycle in Greece are rightly maintained by A. Schmidt (_Handbuch der griechischen Chronologie_, Jena, 1888, pp. 61 _sqq._), who suggests that the cycle may have owed something to the astronomy of the Egyptians, with whom the inhabitants of Greece are known to have had relations from a very early time.

M58 The motive for instituting the eight years’ cycle was religious, not practical or scientific.

289 Aratus, _Phaenomena_, 733 _sqq._; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 255 _sq._

290 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 15-45.

M59 In early times the regulation of the calendar is largely an affair of religion.

291 Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, i. 15. 9 _sqq._; Livy, ix. 46. 5; Valerius Maximus, ii. 5. 2; Cicero, _Pro Muraena_, xi. 25; _id._, _De legibus_, ii. 12. 29; Suetonius, _Divus Iulius_, 40; Plutarch, _Caesar_, 59.

M60 The quadriennial period of games and festivals in Greece was probably arrived at by bisecting an older octennial period.

292 See _The Dying God_, pp. 92 _sqq._

293 Plato, _Meno_, p. 81 A-C; Pindar, ed. Aug. Boeckh, vol. iii. pp. 623 _sq._, Frag. 98. See further _The Dying God_, pp. 69 _sq._

294 Plutarch, _Aristides_, 21; Pausanias, ix. 2. 6.

295 See above, p. 80.

M61 The reasons for bisecting the old octennial period into two quadriennial periods may have been partly religious, partly political.

296 Pausanias, iv. 5. 10; compare Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_, iii. 1; G. Gilbert, _Handbuch der griechischen Staatsalterthumer_, i.2 (Leipsic, 1893) pp. 122 _sq._

297 See _The Dying God_, pp. 89-92.

M62 The biennial period of some Greek games may have been obtained by bisecting the quadriennial period.

298 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, ii. 606 _sq._

299 Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 2-4.

300 Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 2.

301 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 270.

M63 Application of the foregoing conclusion to the Eleusinian games. M64 Varro on the rites of Eleusis.

302 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 20. “_In Cereris autem sacris praedicantur illa Eleusinia, quae apud Athenienses nobilissima fuerunt. De quibus iste [Varro] nihil interpretatur, nisi quod attinet ad frumentum, quod Ceres invenit, et ad Proserpinam, quam rapiente Orco perdidit. Et hanc ipsam dicit significare foecunditatem seminum.... Dicit deinde multa in mysteriis ejus tradi, quae nisi ad frugum inventionem non pertineant._”

M65 The close resemblance between the artistic types of Demeter and Persephone militates against the theory that the two goddesses personified two things so different as the earth and the corn.

303 A. Baumeister, _Denkmäler des classischen Altertums_, i. 577 _sq._; Drexler, _s.v._ "Gaia," in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, i. 1574 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. (Oxford, 1907) p. 27.

304 Pausanias, vii. 21. 11. At Athens there was a sanctuary of Earth the Nursing-Mother and of Green Demeter (Pausanias, i. 22. 3), but we do not know how the goddesses were represented.

305 L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. 256 with plate xxi. b.

306 The distinction between Demeter (Ceres) and the Earth Goddess is clearly marked by Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 673 _sq._:

“_Officium commune Ceres et Terra tuentur;_ _ Haec praebet causam frugibus, illa locum._”

307 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 Nos. 20, 408, 411, 587, 646, 647, 652, 720, 789. Compare the expression διώνυμοι θέαι applied to them by Euripides, _Phoenissae_, 683, with the Scholiast’s note.

308 The substantial identity of Demeter and Persephone has been recognised by some modern scholars, though their interpretations of the myth do not altogether agree with the one adopted in the text. See F. G. Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_ (Göttingen, 1857-1862), ii. 532; L. Preller, in Pauly’s _Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, vi. 106 _sq._; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines_, i. 2. pp. 1047 _sqq._

M66 As goddesses of the corn Demeter and Persephone came to be associated with the ideas of death and resurrection.

_ 309 Homeric Hymn to Demeter_, 480 _sqq._; Pindar, quoted by Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ iii. 3. 17, p. 518, ed. Potter; Sophocles, quoted by Plutarch, _De audiendis poetis_, 4; Isocrates, _Panegyricus_, 6; Cicero, _De legibus_, ii. 14. 36; Aristides, _Eleusin._ vol. i. p. 421, ed. G. Dindorf.

310 A learned German professor has thought it worth while to break the poor butterfly argument on the wheel of his inflexible logic. The cruel act, while it proves the hardness of the professor’s head, says little for his knowledge of human nature, which does not always act in strict accordance with the impulse of the syllogistic machinery. See Erwin Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), i. 290 _sqq._

311 1 Corinthians xv. 35 _sqq._

M67 Games played as magical ceremonies to promote the growth of the crops. The Kayans of central Borneo, a primitive agricultural people. The sacred rice-fields (_luma lali_) on which all religious ceremonies requisite for agriculture are performed.

312 See above, p. 71, with the footnote 5.

313 See above, pp. 74 _sqq._

314 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 156 _sq._

M68 Ceremonies observed at the sowing festival. Taboos observed at the sowing festival.

315 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 164.

316 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 164-167.

317 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 163. The motive assigned for the exclusion of strangers at the sowing festival applies equally to all religious rites. “In all religious observances,” says Dr. Nieuwenhuis, “the Kayans fear the presence of strangers, because these latter might frighten and annoy the spirits which are invoked.” On the periods of seclusion and quiet observed in connexion with agriculture by the Kayans of Sarawak, see W. H. Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia, 1902), pp. 160 _sqq._

M69 Games played at the sowing festival. Masquerade at the sowing festival.

318 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 167-169.

M70 Rites at hoeing.

319 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 169.

M71 The Kayan New Year festival. Offerings and addresses to the spirits. Sacrifice of pigs.

320 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 171-182.

M72 Dr. Nieuwenhuis on the games played by the Kayans in connexion with agriculture.

321 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 169 _sq._

M73 Serious religious or magical significance of the games.

322 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 163 _sq._

323 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, ii. 130 _sq._ The game as to the religious significance of which Dr. Nieuwenhuis has no doubt is the masquerade performed by the Kayans of the Mahakam river, where disguised men personate spirits and pretend to draw home the souls of the rice from the far countries to which they may have wandered. See below, pp. 186 _sq._

M74 The Kai, an agricultural people of German New Guinea. Superstitious practices observed by the Kai for the good of the crops.

324 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 3, 9 _sq._, 12 _sq._

325 Ch. Keysser, _op. cit._ pp. 123-125.

M75 Games played by the Kai people to promote the growth of the yams and taro. Tales and legends told by the Kai to cause the fruits of the earth to thrive.

326 Ch. Keysser, _op. cit._ iii. 125 _sq._

327 Ch. Keysser, _op. cit._ iii. 161.

M76 Thus among these New Guinea people games are played and stories told as charms to ensure good crops.

328 On the principles of homoeopathic or imitative magic, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 52 _sqq._ The Esquimaux play cat’s cradle as a charm to catch the sun in the meshes of the string and so prevent him from sinking below the horizon in winter. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 316 _sq._ Cat’s cradle is played as a game by savages in many parts of the world, including the Torres Straits Islands, the Andaman Islands, Africa, and America. See A. C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_ (London and New York, 1898), pp. 224-232; Miss Kathleen Haddon, _Cat’s Cradles from Many Lands_ (London, 1911). For example, the Indians of North-western Brazil play many games of cat’s cradle, each of which has its special name, such as the Bow, the Moon, the Pleiades, the Armadillo, the Spider, the Caterpillar, and the Guts of the Tapir. See Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin, 1909-1910), i. 120, 123, 252, 253, ii. 127, 131. Finding the game played as a magical rite to stay the sun or promote the growth of the crops among peoples so distant from each other as the Esquimaux and the natives of New Guinea, we may reasonably surmise that it has been put to similar uses by many other peoples, though civilised observers have commonly seen in it nothing more than a pastime. Probably many games have thus originated in magical rites. When their old serious meaning was forgotten, they continued to be practised simply for the amusement they afforded the players. Another such game seems to be the “Tug of War.” See _The Golden Bough_,2 iii. 95.

329 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 318 _sqq._

330 Stefan Lehner, "Bukaua," in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 478 _sq._

M77 The Yabim of German New Guinea also tell tales on purpose to obtain abundant crops.

331 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 386.

332 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 290.

333 H. Zahn, _op. cit._ pp. 332 _sq._

M78 Specimens of Yabim tales told as charms to procure a good harvest. Such tales may be called narrative spells.

334 H. Zahn, _op. cit._ p. 333.

335 Stefan Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 448.

M79 Use of the bull-roarer to quicken the fruits of the earth.

336 A. C. Haddon, in _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 218, 219. Compare _id._, _Head-hunters, Black, White, and Brown_ (London, 1901) p. 104.

337 A. C. Haddon, in _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 346 _sq._

338 A. W. Howitt, “The Dieri and other kindred Tribes of Central Australia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 83; _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 660. The first, I believe, to point out the fertilising power ascribed to the bull-roarer by some savages was Dr. A. C. Haddon. See his essay, “The Bull-roarer,” in _The Study of Man_ (London and New York, 1898), pp. 277-327. In this work Dr. Haddon recognises the general principle of the possible derivation of many games from magical rites. As to the bull-roarer compare my paper “On some Ceremonies of the Central Australian Tribes,” in the _Report of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science for the year 1900_ (Melbourne, 1901), pp. 313-322.

M80 Swinging as an agricultural charm.

339 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), ii. 25.

340 For the evidence see _The Dying God_, pp. 277-285.

M81 Analogy of the Kayans of Borneo to the Greeks of Eleusis in the early time. The Sacred Ploughing at Eleusis.

341 On the Kayan chiefs and their religious duties, see A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 58-60.

342 See above, p. 36.

343 See above, p. 74.

344 Plutarch, _Praecepta Conjugalia_, 42. Another of these Sacred Ploughings was performed at Scirum, and the third at the foot of the Acropolis at Athens; for in this passage of Plutarch we must, with the latest editor, read ὑπὸ πόλιν for the ὑπὸ πέλιν of the manuscripts.

345 See above, pp. 50 _sqq._

_ 346 Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ Βουζυγία, p. 206, lines 47 _sqq._; Im. Bekker, _Anecdota Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 221; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 199; Hesychius, _s.v._ Βουζύγης; καθίστατο δὲ παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς καὶ ὁ τοὺς ἱεροὺς ἀρότους ἐπιτελῶν Βουζύγης; _Paroemiographi Graeci_, ed. E. L. Leutsch und F. G. Schneidewin (Göttingen, 1839-1851), i. 388, Βουζύγης; ἐπὶ τῶν πολλὰ ἀρωμένων. Ὁ γὰρ Βουζύγης Ἀθήνησιν ὁ τὸν ἱερὸν ἄροτον ἐπιτελῶν ... ἄλλα τε πολλὰ ἀρᾶται καὶ τοῖς μὴ κοινωνοῦσι κατὰ τὸν Βίον ὕδατος ἢ πυρὸς ἢ μὴ ὑποφαίνουσιν ὁδὸν πλανωμένοις; Scholiast on Sophocles, _Antigone_, 255, λόγος δὲ ὅτι Βουζύγης Ἀθήνησι κατηράσατο τοῖς περιορῶσιν ἄταφον σῶμα. The Sacred Ploughing at the foot of the Acropolis was specially called _bouzygios_ (Plutarch, _Praecepta Conjugalia_, 42). Compare J. Toepffer, _Attische Genealogie_ (Berlin, 1889) pp. 136 _sqq._

347 Such Sabbaths are very commonly and very strictly observed in connexion with the crops by the agricultural hill tribes of Assam. The native name for such a Sabbath is _genna_. See T. C. Hodson, “The _Genna_ amongst the Tribes of Assam,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) pp. 94 _sq._: “Communal tabus are observed by the whole village.... Those which are of regular occurrence are for the most part connected with the crops. Even where irrigated terraces are made, the rice plant is much affected by deficiencies of rain and excess of sun. Before the crop is sown, the village is tabu or _genna_. The gates are closed and the friend without has to stay outside, while the stranger that is within the gates remains till all is ended. The festival is marked among some tribes by an outburst of licentiousness, for, so long as the crops remain ungarnered, the slightest incontinence might ruin all. An omen of the prosperity of the crops is taken by a mock contest, the girls pulling against the men. In some villages the _gennas_ last for ten days, but the tenth day is the crowning day of all. The men cook, and eat apart from the women during this time, and the food tabus are strictly enforced. From the conclusion of the initial crop _genna_ to the commencement of the _genna_ which ushers in the harvest-time, all trade, all fishing, all hunting, all cutting grass and felling trees is forbidden. Those tribes which specialise in cloth-weaving, salt-making or pottery-making are forbidden the exercise of these minor but valuable industries. Drums and bugles are silent all the while.... Between the initial crop _genna_ and the harvest-home, some tribes interpose a _genna_ day which depends on the appearance of the first blade of rice. All celebrate the commencement of the gathering of the crops by a _genna_, which lasts at least two days. It is mainly a repetition of the initial _genna_ and, just as the first seed was sown by the _gennabura_, the religious head of the village, so he is obliged to cut the first ear of rice before any one else may begin.” On such occasions among the Kabuis, in spite of the licence accorded to the people generally, the strictest chastity is required of the religious head of the village who initiates the sowing and the reaping, and his diet is extremely limited; for example, he may not eat dogs or tomatoes. See T. C. Hodson, “The Native Tribes of Manipur,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) pp. 306 _sq._; and for more details, _id._, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_ (London, 1911), pp. 168 _sqq._ The resemblance of some of these customs to those of the Kayans of Borneo is obvious. We may conjecture that the “tug of war” which takes place between the sexes on several of these Sabbaths was originally a magical ceremony to ensure good crops rather than merely a mode of divination to forecast the coming harvest. Magic regularly dwindles into divination before it degenerates into a simple game. At one of these taboo periods the men set up an effigy of a man and throw pointed bamboos at it. He who hits the figure in the head will kill an enemy; he who hits it in the belly will have plenty of food. See T. C. Hodson, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) p. 95; _id._, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_, p. 171. Here also we probably have an old magical ceremony passing through a phase of divination before it reaches the last stage of decay. On Sabbaths observed in connexion with agriculture in Borneo and Assam, see further Hutton Webster, _Rest Days, a Sociological Study_, pp. 11 _sqq._ (_University Studies_, Lincoln, Nebraska, vol. xi. Nos. 1-2, January-April, 1911).

M82 The connexion of the Eleusinian games with agriculture, attested by the ancients, is confirmed by modern savage analogies.

348 See above, p. 71.

349 See above, p. 71 note 5.

350 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 137-139.

351 See the old Greek scholiast on Clement of Alexandria, quoted by Chr. Aug. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_ (Königsberg, 1829), p. 700; Andrew Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (London, 1884), p. 39. It is true that the bull-roarer seems to have been associated with the rites of Dionysus rather than of Demeter; perhaps the sound of it was thought to mimick the bellowing of the god in his character of a bull. But the worship of Dionysus was from an early time associated with that of Demeter in the Eleusinian mysteries; and the god himself, as we have seen, had agricultural affinities. See above, p. 5. An annual festival of swinging (which, as we have seen, is still practised both in New Guinea and Russia for the good of the crops) was held by the Athenians in antiquity and was believed to have originated in the worship of Dionysus. See _The Dying God_, pp. 281 _sq._

M83 The sacred drama of the Eleusinian mysteries compared to the masked dances of agricultural savages.

352 See above, pp. 95 _sq._, and below, pp. 186 _sq._

353 See above, p. 39.

354 Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin, 1909-1910), i. 137-140, ii. 193-196. As to the cultivation of manioc among these Indians see _id._ ii. 202 _sqq._

M84 Theory that the personification of corn as feminine was suggested by the part played by women in primitive agriculture.

355 F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_ (London, 1896), p. 240; H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_ (Strasburg, 1905-1907), i. 251 _sqq._

M85 Among many savage tribes the labour of hoeing the ground and sowing the seed devolves on women. Agricultural work done by women among the Zulus and other tribes of South Africa.

356 Rev. J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London, 1857), pp. 17 _sq._ Speaking of the Zulus another writer observes: “In gardening, the men clear the land, if need be, and sometimes fence it in; the women plant, weed, and harvest” (Rev. L. Grout, _Zulu-land_, Philadelphia, N.D., p. 110).

357 A. Delegorgue, _Voyage dans l’Afrique Australe_ (Paris, 1847), ii. 225.

358 H. A. Junod, _Les Ba-Ronga_ (Neuchatel, 1908), pp. 195 _sq._

359 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 85.

360 L. Decle, _op. cit._ p. 160.

361 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 302.

M86 Chastity required in the sowers of seed.

362 L. Decle, _op. cit._ p. 295.

363 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Nigeria_ (London, 1911), p. 179.

364 Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,” _Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) p. 311.

365 In order to guard against any breach of the rule they strewed _Agnus castus_ and other plants, which were esteemed anaphrodisiacs, under their beds. See Dioscorides, _De Materia Medica_, i. 134 (135), vol. i. p. 130, ed. C. Sprengel (Leipsic, 1829-1830); Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 59; Aelian, _De Natura Animalium_, ix. 26; Hesychius, _s.v._ κνέωρον; Scholiast on Theocritus, iv. 25; Scholiast on Nicander, _Ther._ 70 _sq._

366 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Thesmophor._ 80; Plutarch, _Demosthenes_, 30; Aug. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 310 _sq._ That Pyanepsion was the month of sowing is mentioned by Plutarch (_Isis et Osiris_, 69). See above, pp. 45 _sq._

367 See below, vol. ii. p. 17 _sq._

M87 Woman’s part in agriculture among the Caffres of South Africa in general.

368 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kaffir_ (London, 1904), p. 323. Compare B. Ankermann, “L’Ethnographie actuelle de l’Afrique méridionale,” _Anthropos_, i. (1906) pp. 575 _sq._ As to the use of the Pleiades to determine the time of sowing, see note at the end of the volume, “The Pleiades in Primitive Calendars.”

369 Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 143 (with plate), pp. 162-165.

M88 Agricultural work done by women among the Nandi, Baganda, the Congo, and other tribes of Central and Western Africa.

370 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 19. However, among the Bantu Kavirondo, an essentially agricultural people of British East Africa, both men and women work in the fields with large iron hoes. See Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1904), ii. 738.

371 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk_ (Oxford, 1911), p. 33.

372 F. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 36.

373 F. Stuhlmann, _op. cit._ p. 75.

374 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 426, 427; compare pp. 5, 38, 91 _sq._, 93, 94, 95, 268.

375 H. Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910), p. 53.

376 G. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_3 (London, 1878), i. 281.

377 G. Schweinfurth, _op. cit._ ii. 40.

378 Rev. J. H. Weeks, “Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper Congo River,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) pp. 117, 128.

379 E. Torday, “Der Tofoke,” _Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xli. (1911) p. 198.

380 E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, “Notes on the Ethnography of the Ba-Mbala,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 405.

381 P. B. du Chaillu, _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_ (London, 1861), p. 22.

382 P. B. du Chaillu, _op. cit._ p. 417.

M89 Agricultural work done by women among the Indian tribes of South America.

383 A. D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain (de l’Amérique Méridionale)_ (Paris, 1839), i. 198 _sq._

384 Le Sieur de la Borde, “Relation de l’Origine, Mœurs, Coustumes, Religion, Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes Sauvages des Isles Antilles de l’Amerique,” pp. 21-23, in _Recueil de divers Voyages faits en Afrique et en l’Amerique_ (Paris, 1684).

385 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883), pp. 250 _sqq._, 260 _sqq._

M90 Cultivation of manioc by women among the Indian tribes of tropical South America.

386 C. F. Phil. v. Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s, zumal Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 486-489. On the economic importance of the manioc or cassava plant in the life of the South American Indians, see further E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford, 1892) pp. 310 _sqq._, 312 _sq._

387 A. R. Wallace, _Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro_ (London, 1889), pp. 336, 337 (_The Minerva Library_). Mr. Wallace’s account of the agriculture of these tribes is entirely confirmed by the observations of a recent explorer in north-western Brazil. See Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 202-209; _id._, “Frauenarbeit bei den Indianern Nordwest-Brasiliens,” _Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxxviii. (1908) pp. 172-174. This writer tells us (_Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_, ii. 203) that these Indians determine the time for planting by observing certain constellations, especially the Pleiades. The rainy season begins when the Pleiades have disappeared below the horizon. See Note at end of the volume.

388 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, vol. i. Second Edition (London, 1822), p. 253.

389 J. B. von Spix und C. F. Ph. von Martius, _Reise in Brasilien_ (Munich, 1823-1831), i. 381.

390 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 214.

391 J. J. von Tschudi, _Peru_ (St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 214.

M91 Agricultural work done by women among savage tribes in India, New Guinea, and New Britain.

392 Captain T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of South-Eastern India_ (London, 1870), p. 255.

393 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p. 33.

394 E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ pp. 226, 227.

_ 395 Nieuw Guinea, ethnographisch en natuurkundig onderzocht en beschreven_ (Amsterdam, 1862), p. 159.

_ 396 Op. cit._ p. 119; H. von Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), p. 433.

397 P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_ (Hiltrup bei Münster, preface dated Christmas, 1906), pp. 60 _sq._; G. Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), pp. 324 _sq._

M92 Division of agricultural work between men and women in the Indian Archipelago.

398 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 132, 134; J. Boot, “Korte schets der noordkust van Ceram,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 672; E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_ (London, 1911), p. 46; E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), pp. 590 _sq._; K. Vetter, _Komm herüber und hilf uns!_ Heft 2 (Barmen, 1898), pp. 6 _sq._; Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 14, 85.

399 J. Gumilla, _Histoire Naturelle, Civile et Géographique de l’Orénoque_ (Avignon, 1758), ii. 166 _sqq._, 183 _sqq._ Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 139 _sqq._

M93 Among savages who have not learned to till the ground the task of collecting the vegetable food in the form of wild seeds and roots generally devolves on women. Examples furnished by the Californian Indians.

400 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 23.

401 Father Geronimo Boscana, “Chinigchinich,” in [A. Robinson’s] _Life in California_ (New York, 1846), p. 287. Elsewhere the same well-informed writer observes of these Indians that “they neither cultivated the ground, nor planted any kind of grain; but lived upon the wild seeds of the field, the fruits of the forest, and upon the abundance of game” (_op. cit._ p. 285).

402 Father Geronimo Boscana, _op. cit._ pp. 302-305. As to the _puplem_, see _id._ p. 264. The writer says that criers informed the people “when to cultivate their fields” (p. 302). But taken along with his express statement that they “neither cultivated the ground, nor planted any kind of grain” (p. 285, see above, p. 125 note 2), this expression “to cultivate their fields” must be understood loosely to denote merely the gathering of the wild seeds and fruits.

403 See above, pp. 81 _sq._

M94 Among the aborigines of Australia the women provided the vegetable food, while the men hunted.

404 H. E. A. Meyer, “Manners and Customs of the Encounter Bay Tribe,” in _Native Tribes of South Australia_ (Adelaide, 1879), pp. 191 _sq._

405 (Sir) George Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii. 292 _sq._ The women also collect the nuts from the palms in the month of March (_id._ ii. 296).

406 (Sir) George Grey, _op. cit._ ii. 12. The yam referred to is a species of _Diascorea_, like the sweet potato.

407 R. Brough Smyth, _The Aborigines of Victoria_ (Melbourne, 1878), i. 209.

408 P. Beveridge, “Of the Aborigines inhabiting the Great Lacustrine and Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray, Lower Murrumbidgee, Lower Lachlan, and Lower Darling,” _Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales for 1883_, vol. xvii. (Sydney, 1884) p. 36.

409 R. Brough Smyth, _The Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 214.

410 W. Stanbridge, “Some Particulars of the General Characteristics, Astronomy, and Mythology of the Tribes in the Central Part of Victoria, South Australia,” _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., i. (1861) p. 291.

411 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 22.

M95 The digging of the earth for wild fruits may have led to the origin of agriculture. M96 The discovery of agriculture due mainly to women. M97 Women as agricultural labourers among the Aryans of Europe. The Greek conception of the Corn Goddess probably originated in a simple personification of the corn.

412 O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 6 _sqq._, 630 _sqq._; _id._, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_3 (Jena, 1905-1907), ii. 201 _sqq._; H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_, i. 251 _sqq._, 263, 274. The use of oxen to draw the plough is very ancient in Europe. On the rocks at Bohuslän in Sweden there is carved a rude representation of a plough drawn by oxen and guided by a ploughman: it is believed to date from the Bronze Age. See H. Hirt, _op. cit._ i. 286.

413 Strabo, iii. 4. 17, p. 165; Heraclides Ponticus, “De rebus publicis,” 33, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Müller, ii. 219.

414 Tacitus, _Germania_, 15.

415 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 313.

416 (Sir) G. Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-west and Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii. 292.

M98 Suggested derivation of the name Demeter.

417 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 292 _sqq._ See above, p. 40, note 3.

418 O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 11, 289; _id._, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_2 (Jena, 1890), pp. 409, 422; _id._, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_3 (Jena, 1905-1907), ii. 188 _sq._ Compare V. Hehn, _Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere in ihrem Uebergang aus Asien_7 (Berlin, 1902), pp. 58 _sq._

419 Hesiod, _Theog._ 969 _sqq._; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines_, i. 2, p. 1029; Kern, in Pauly-Wissowa’s _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iv. 2, coll. 2720 _sq._

420 My friend Professor J. H. Moulton tells me that there is great doubt as to the existence of a word δηαί, “barley” (_Etymologicum Magnum_, p. 264, lines 12 _sq._), and that the common form of Demeter’s name, _Dâmâter_ (except in Ionic and Attic) is inconsistent with η in the supposed Cretan form. “Finally if δηαί = ζειαί, you are bound to regard her as a Cretan goddess, or as arising in some other area where the dialect changed Indogermanic _y_ into δ and not ζ: since Ionic and Attic have ζ, the two crucial letters of the name tell different tales” (Professor J. H. Moulton, in a letter to me, dated 19 December 1903).

421 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 68 _sq._; O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_, pp. 11, 12, 289; _id._, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_,3 ii. 189, 191, 197 _sq._; H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_ (Strasburg, 1905-1907), i. 276 _sqq._ In the oldest Vedic ritual barley and not rice is the cereal chiefly employed. See H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 353. For evidence that barley was cultivated in Europe by the lake-dwellers of the Stone Age, see A. de Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_ (London, 1884), pp. 368, 369; R. Munro, _The Lake-dwellings of Europe_ (London, Paris, and Melbourne, 1890), pp. 497 _sq._ According to Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xviii. 72) barley was the oldest of all foods.

M99 The Corn-mother among the Germans and the Slavs.

422 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 296. Compare O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150.

423 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 297.

_ 424 Ibid._ pp. 297 _sq._

_ 425 Ibid._ p. 299. Compare R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 281.

426 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 300.

427 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 310.

_ 428 Ibid._ pp. 310 _sq._ Compare O. Hartung, _l.c._

M100 The Corn-mother in the last sheaf. Fertilising power of the Corn-mother. The Corn-mother in the last sheaf among the Slavs and in France.

429 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 316.

_ 430 Ibid._ p. 316.

_ 431 Ibid._ pp. 316 _sq._

_ 432 Ibid._ p. 317. As to such rain-charms see _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 195-197.

433 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 317.

_ 434 Ibid._ pp. 317 _sq._

_ 435 Ibid._ p. 318.

_ 436 Ibid._

437 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 318 _sq._

438 P. Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1886), p. 306.

M101 The Harvest-mother or the Great Mother in the last sheaf.

439 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 319.

M102 The Grandmother in the last sheaf.

440 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 320.

_ 441 Ibid._ p. 321.

M103 The Old Woman or the Old Man in the last sheaf.

_ 442 Ibid._ pp. 321, 323, 325 _sq._

_ 443 Ibid._ p. 323; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. p. 219, § 403.

444 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 325.

_ 445 Ibid._ p. 323.

_ 446 Ibid._

447 A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 396 _sq._, 399; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 309, § 1494.

448 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 323 _sq._

449 H. Prahn, “Glaube und Brauch in der Mark Brandenburg,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, i. (1891) pp. 186 _sq._

450 K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 233, No. 277 note.

M104 The Old Man or the Old Woman in the last sheaf.

451 R. Krause, _Sitten, Gebräuche und Aberglauben in Westpreussen_ (Berlin, preface dated March 1904), p. 51.

452 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 65 _sqq._

453 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 189.

454 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 184, §§ 512 b, 514.

455 W. von Schulenburg, _Wendisches Volksthum_ (Berlin, 1882), p. 147.

456 A. Jaussen, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris, 1908), pp. 252 _sq._

M105 Identification of the harvester with the corn-spirit.

457 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 324.

_ 458 Ibid._ p. 320.

459 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 325.

460 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 74 _sqq._

M106 The last sheaf made unusually large and heavy.

461 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 324.

_ 462 Ibid._ pp. 324 _sq._

_ 463 Ibid._ p. 325. The author of _Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_ (Chemnitz, 1759) mentions (p. 891) the German superstition that the last sheaf should be made large in order that all the sheaves next year may be of the same size; but he says nothing as to the shape or name of the sheaf. Compare A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 188.

464 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 327.

_ 465 Ibid._ p. 328.

M107 The Carlin and the Maiden in Scotland. The Old Wife (_Cailleach_) at harvest in the Highlands of Scotland.

466 J. Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 206, _s.v._ “Maiden”; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 326.

467 That is, with the reaping.

468 Rev. J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 243 _sq._

M108 The Old Wife (_Cailleach_) in the last sheaf at harvest in the islands of Lewis and Islay. The Old Wife at harvest in Argyleshire. The reaper of the last sheaf called the Winter.

469 R. C. Maclagan, “Notes on folk-lore objects collected in Argyleshire,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 149 _sq._

470 R. C. Maclagan, _op. cit._ p. 151.

471 R. C. Maclagan, _op. cit._ p. 149.

_ 472 Ibid._ pp. 151 _sq._

473 Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 182.

474 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), p. 141.

M109 The Hag (_wrach_) at harvest in North Pembrokeshire. M110 The Hag (_wrach_) at harvest in South Pembrokeshire. The Carley at harvest in Antrim.

475 D. Jenkyn Evans, in an article entitled “The Harvest Customs of Pembrokeshire,” _Pembroke County Guardian_, 7th December 1895. In a letter to me, dated 23 February 1901, Mr. E. S. Hartland was so good as to correct the Welsh words in the text. He tells me that they mean literally, “I rose early, I pursued late on her neck,” and he adds: “The idea seems to be that the man has pursued the Hag or Corn-spirit to a later refuge, namely, his neighbour’s field not yet completely reaped, and now he leaves her for the other reapers to catch. The proper form of the Welsh word for Hag is _Gwrach_. That is the radical from _gwr_, man; _gwraig_, woman. _Wrach_ is the ‘middle mutation.’ ”

476 M. S. Clark, “An old South Pembrokeshire Harvest Custom,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 194-196.

477 Communicated by my friend Professor W. Ridgeway.

M111 The Old Woman (the Baba) at harvest among Slavonic peoples.

478 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 328.

479 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 238.

_ 480 Ibid._ pp. 328 _sq._

_ 481 Ibid._ p. 329.

_ 482 Ibid._ p. 330.

M112 The Old Woman (the Baba) at harvest in Lithuania.

_ 483 Ibid._

484 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 331.

_ 485 Ibid._

M113 The Corn-queen and the Harvest-queen.

_ 486 Ibid._ p. 332.

487 Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), p. 310.

488 Hutchinson, _History of Northumberland_, ii. _ad finem_, 17, quoted by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, ii. 20, Bohn’s edition.

489 E. D. Clarke, _Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa_, Part ii., Section First, Second Edition (London, 1813), p. 229. Perhaps _Morgay_ (which Clarke absurdly explains as μητὴρ γῆ) is a mistake for _Hawkie_ or _Hockey_. The waggon in which the last corn was brought from the harvest field was called the _hockey_ cart or _hock_ cart. In a poem called “The Hock-cart or Harvest Home” Herrick has described the joyous return of the laden cart drawn by horses swathed in white sheets and attended by a merry crowd, some of whom kissed or stroked the sheaves, while others pranked them with oak leaves. See further J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 22 _sq._, Bohn’s edition. The name _Hockey_ or _Hawkie_ is no doubt the same with the German _hokelmei_, _hörkelmei_, or _harkelmei_, which in Westphalia is applied to a green bush or tree set up in the field at the end of harvest and brought home in the last waggon-load; the man who carries it into the farmhouse is sometimes drenched with water. See A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 178-180, §§ 494-497. The word is thought to be derived from the Low German _hokk_ (plural _hokken_), “a heap of sheaves.” See Joseph Wright, _English Dialect Dictionary_, iii. (London, 1902) p. 190, _s.v._ “Hockey,” from which it appears that in England the word has been in use in Yorkshire, Cambridgeshire, and Suffolk.

490 Book ix. lines 838-842.

M114 The corn-spirit as the Old Woman or Old Man at threshing.

491 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 333 _sq._

_ 492 Ibid._ p. 334.

493 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 334.

_ 494 Ibid._ p. 336.

M115 The man who gives the last stroke at threshing is called the Corn-fool, the Oats-fool, etc.

495 A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 397.

496 A. Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 270.

M116 The man who gives the last stroke at threshing is said to get the Old Woman or the Old Man. The Corn-woman at threshing.

_ 497 Bavaria Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. (Munich, 1865) pp. 344, 969.

498 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 67.

499 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), pp. 193, 194, 197.

500 R. Wuttke, _Sächsische Volkskunde_ (Dresden, 1901), p. 360.

501 W. Mannhardt. _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 336.

_ 502 Ibid._ p. 336; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 612.

503 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 194.

504 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 437.

M117 The corn-spirit as a child at harvest.

505 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 184 _sq._, § 515.

506 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 28.

507 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

508 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

M118 The last corn cut called the _mell_, the _kirn_, or the _churn_ in various parts of England. The _churn_ cut by throwing sickles at it.

509 Joseph Wright, _English Dialect Dictionary_, vol. i. (London, 1898) p. 605 _s.v._ “Churn”; _id._, vol. iii. (London, 1902) p. 453 _s.v._ “Kirn”; _id._ vol. iv. (London, 1903) pp. 82 _sq._ Sir James Murray, editor of the _New English Dictionary_, kindly informs me that the popular etymology which identifies _kern_ or _kirn_ in this sense with _corn_ is entirely mistaken; and that “baby” or “babbie” in the same phrase means only “doll,” not “infant.” He writes, “_Kirn-babbie_ does not mean ‘corn-baby,’ but merely _kirn-doll_, _harvest-home doll_. _Bab_, _babbie_ was even in my youth the regular name for ‘doll’ in the district, as it was formerly in England; the only woman who sold dolls in Hawick early in the [nineteenth] century, and whose toy-shop all bairns knew, was known as ‘Betty o’ the Babs,’ Betty of the dolls.”

510 W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England_ (London, 1879), pp. 88 _sq._; M. C. F. Morris, _Yorkshire Folk-talk_, pp. 212-214. Compare F. Grose, _Provincial Glossary_ (London, 1811), _s.v._ “Mell-supper”; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 27 _sqq._, Bohn’s edition; _The Denham Tracts_, edited by Dr. James Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 2 _sq._ The sheaf out of which the Mell-doll was made was no doubt the Mell-sheaf, though this is not expressly said. Dr. Joseph Wright, editor of _The English Dialect Dictionary_, kindly informs me that the word _mell_ is well known in these senses in all the northern counties of England down to Cheshire. He tells me that the proposals to connect _mell_ with “meal” or with “maiden” (through a form like the German _Mädel_) are inadmissible.

511 Joseph Wright, _The English Dialect Dictionary_, vol. iv. (London, 1903) _s.v._ “Mell,” p. 83.

512 R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (Edinburgh, 1886), ii. 377 _sq._ The expression “Corn Baby” used by the writer is probably his interpretation of the correct expression _kirn_ or _kern_ baby. See above, p. 151, note 3. It is not clear whether the account refers to England or Scotland. Compare F. Grose, _Provincial Glossary_ (London 1811), _s.v._ “Kern-baby,” “an image dressed up with corn, carried before the reapers to their mell-supper, or harvest-home”; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 20; W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England_, p. 87.

513 Joseph Wright, _The English Dialect Dictionary_, iii. (London, 1902) _s.v._ “Kirn,” p. 453.

514 Joseph Wright, _The English Dialect Dictionary_, i. (London, 1898) p. 605.

515 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 21 _sq._

M119 The last corn cut called the _kirn_ in some parts of Scotland. The _kirn_ cut by reapers blindfold.

516 J. Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 42 _sq._, _s.v._ “Kirn.”

517 Mrs. A. B. Gomme, “A Berwickshire Kirn-dolly,” _Folk-lore_, xii. (1901) p. 215.

518 Mrs. A. B. Gomme, “Harvest Customs,” _Folk-lore_, xiii. (1902) p. 178.

519 J. G. Frazer, “Notes on Harvest Customs,” _Folk-lore_, vii. (1889) p. 48.

M120 The _churn_ in Ireland cut by throwing the sickles at it.

520 (Rev.) H. W. Lett, “Winning the Churn (Ulster),” _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 185. My friend Miss Welsh, formerly Principal of Girton College, Cambridge, told me (30th May 1901) that she remembers the custom of the _churn_ being observed in the north of Ireland; the reapers cut the last handful of standing corn (called the _churn_) by throwing their sickles at it, and the corn so cut was taken home and kept for some time.

M121 The last corn cut called the Maiden in the Highlands of Scotland.

521 J. Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 206, _s.v._ “Maiden.” An old Scottish name for the Maiden (_autumnalis nymphula_) was _Rapegyrne_. See Fordun, _Scotichren_. ii. 418, quoted by J. Jamieson, _op. cit._ iii. 624, _s.v._ “Rapegyrne.”

522 R. C. Maclagan, in _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 149, 151.

M122 The cutting of the Maiden at harvest in Argyleshire.

523 Rev. M. MacPhail (Free Church Manse, Kilmartin, Lochgilphead), “Folk-lore from the Hebrides,” _Folk-lore_, xi. (1900) p. 441. That the Maiden, hung up in the house, is thought to keep out witches till the next harvest is mentioned also by the Rev. J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 20. So with the _churn_ (above, p. 153).

M123 The cutting of the Maiden at harvest in Perthshire.

524 Sir John Sinclair, _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xix. (Edinburgh, 1797), pp. 550 _sq._ Compare Miss E. J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow, 1885), pp. 130 _sq._

_ 525 Folk-lore Journal_, vi. (1888) pp. 268 _sq._

526 The late Mrs. Macalister, wife of Professor Alexander Macalister, Cambridge. Her recollections referred especially to the neighbourhood of Glen Farg, some ten or twelve miles to the south of Perth.

M124 The Maiden at harvest in Lochaber. The cutting of the Maiden at harvest on the Gareloch in Dumbartonshire.

527 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 141 _sq._

528 From information supplied by Archie Leitch, late gardener to my father at Rowmore, Garelochhead. The Kirn was the name of the harvest festivity in the south of Scotland also. See Lockhart’s _Life of Scott_, ii. 184 (first edition); _Early Letters of Thomas Carlyle_, ed. Norton, ii. 325 _sq._

529 Communicated by the late Mr. Macfarlane of Faslane, Gareloch.

M125 The cutting of the _clyack_ sheaf at harvest in Aberdeenshire. M126 The _clyack_ sheaf cut by the youngest girl and not allowed to touch the ground.

530 A slightly different mode of making up the _clyack_ sheaf is described by the Rev. Walter Gregor elsewhere (_Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland_, London, 1881, pp. 181 sq.): “The _clyack_ sheaf was cut by the maidens on the harvest field. On no account was it allowed to touch the ground. One of the maidens seated herself on the ground, and over her knees was the band of the sheaf laid. Each of the maidens cut a handful, or more if necessary, and laid it on the band. The sheaf was then bound, still lying over the maiden’s knees, and dressed up in woman’s clothing.”

M127 The _clyack_ feast or “meal and ale.” M128 The _clyack_ sheaf in the dance. M129 The _clyack_ sheaf given to a mare in foal or to a cow in calf.

531 W. Gregor, “Quelques coutumes du Nord-est du Comté d’Aberdeen,” _Revue des Traditions populaires_, iii. (October, 1888) pp. 484-487 (wrong pagination; should be 532-535). This account, translated into French by M. Loys Brueyre from the author’s English and translated by me back from French into English, is fuller than the account given by the same writer in his _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland_ (London, 1881), pp. 181-183. I have translated “_une jument ayant son poulain_” by “a mare in foal,” and “_la plus ancienne vache ayant son veau_” by “the oldest cow in calf,” because in the author’s _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland_ (p. 182) we read that the last sheaf was “carefully preserved till Christmas or New Year morning. On that morning it was given to a mare in foal,” etc. Otherwise the French words might naturally be understood of a mare with its foal and a cow with its calf.

M130 Sanctity attributed to the _clyack_ sheaf. The sacrament of barley-meal and water at Eleusis.

532 See above, pp. 115 _sq._

533 See below, vol. ii. p. 110.

534 The drinking of the draught (called the κυκεών) as a solemn rite in the Eleusinian mysteries is mentioned by Clement of Alexandria (_Protrept._ 21, p. 18, ed. Potter) and Arnobius (_Adversus Nationes_, v. 26). The composition of the draught is revealed by the author of the Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_ (verses 206-211), where he represents Demeter herself partaking of the sacred cup. That the compound was a kind of thick gruel, half-solid, half-liquid, is mentioned by Eustathius (on Homer, _Iliad_, xi. 638, p. 870). Compare Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 155 _sqq._

535 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 140 _sq._, from MS. notes of Miss J. Ligertwood.

_ 536 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 51; _The Quarterly Review_, clxxii. (1891) p. 195.

537 As to Inverness-shire my old friend Mr. Hugh E. Cameron, formerly of Glen Moriston, Inverness-shire, wrote to me many years ago: “As a boy, I remember the last bit of corn cut was taken home, and neatly tied up with a ribbon, and then stuck up on the wall above the kitchen fire-place, and there it often remained till the ‘maiden’ of the following year took its place. There was no ceremony about it, beyond often a struggle as to who would get, or cut, the last sheaf to select the ‘maiden’ from” (_The Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 1889, pp. 50 _sq._). As to Sutherlandshire my mother was told by a servant, Isabella Ross, that in that county “they hang up the ‘maiden’ generally over the mantel-piece (chimney-piece) till the next harvest. They have always a kirn, whipped cream, with often a ring in it, and sometimes meal sprinkled over it. The girls must all be dressed in lilac prints, they all dance, and at twelve o’clock they eat potatoes and herrings” (_op. cit._ pp. 53 _sq._).

M131 The corn-spirit as a bride.

538 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 30.

539 W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 327.

540 J. E. Waldfreund, “Volksgebräuche und Aberglaube in Tirol und dem Salzburger Gebirg,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iii. (1855) p. 340.

541 Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), p. 310.

542 Mr. R. Matheson, in _The Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp. 49, 50.

M132 The corn-spirit as Bride and Bridegroom.

543 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 30.

544 E. Sommer, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen_ (Halle, 1846), pp. 160 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

545 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._; E. Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 269.

M133 The corn-spirit in the double form of the Old Wife and the Maiden simultaneously at harvest in the Highlands of Scotland.

546 Alexander Nicolson, _A Collection of Gaelic Proverbs and Familiar Phrases, based on Macintosh’s Collection_ (Edinburgh and London, 1881), p. 248.

547 A. Nicolson, _op. cit._ pp. 415 _sq._

548 R. C. Maclagan, “Corn-maiden in Argyleshire,” _Folk-lore_, vii. (1896) pp. 78 _sq._

M134 In these customs the Old Wife represents the old corn of last year, and the Maiden the new corn of this year.

549 See above, p. 149, where, however, the corn-spirit is conceived as an Old Man.

M135 Analogy of the harvest customs to the spring customs of Europe.

550 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 73 _sqq._

551 Above, pp. 134, 137, 138 _sq._, 142, 145, 147, 148, 149.

552 See below, pp. 237 _sq._

_ 553 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sqq._

554 Above, pp. 134, 135.

555 Above, pp. 141, 155, 156, 158, 160 _sq._, 162, 165.

556 See above, p. 135.

557 Above, p. 145. Compare A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. p. 185, § 516.

558 Above, pp. 136, 139, 155, 157 _sq._, 162; compare p. 160.

M136 The spring and harvest customs of Europe are parts of a primitive heathen ritual. M137 Marks of a primitive ritual.

_ 559 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 220 _sqq._

M138 Reasons for regarding the spring and harvest customs of modern Europe as a primitive ritual.

560 Above, p. 146. The common custom of wetting the last sheaf and its bearer is no doubt also a rain-charm; indeed the intention to procure rain or make the corn grow is sometimes avowed. See above, pp. 134, 137, 143, 144, 145; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 195-197.

561 Above, pp. 135 _sq._, 138, 139, 152.

562 Above, p. 134.

563 Above, pp. 134, 155, 158, 161.

M139 The Corn-mother in many lands. M140 The Maize-mother among the Peruvian Indians.

564 Above, pp. 136, 138, 140, 143, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158: W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, pp. 7, 26.

565 J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. p. 374 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). In quoting the passage I have modernised the spelling. The original Spanish text of Acosta’s work was reprinted in a convenient form at Madrid in 1894. See vol. ii. p. 117 of that edition.

M141 The Maize-mother, the Quinoa-mother, the Coca-mother, and the Potato-mother among the Peruvian Indians.

566 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 342 _sq._ Mannhardt’s authority is a Spanish tract (_Carta pastorale de exortacion e instruccion contra las idolatrias de los Indios del arçobispado de Lima_) by Pedro de Villagomez, Archbishop of Lima, published at Lima in 1649, and communicated to Mannhardt by J. J. v. Tschudi. The _Carta Pastorale_ itself seems to be partly based on an earlier work, the _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru. Dirigido al Rey N.S. en Su real conseio de Indias, por el Padre Pablo Joseph de Arriaga de la Compañia de Jesus_ (Lima, 1621). A copy of this work is possessed by the British Museum, where I consulted it. The writer explains (p. 16) that the Maize-mothers (_Zaramamas_) are of three sorts, namely (1) those which are made of maize stalks, dressed up like women, (2) those which are carved of stone in the likeness of cobs of maize, and (3) those which consist simply of fruitful stalks of maize or of two maize-cobs naturally joined together. These last, the writer tells us, were the principal _Zaramamas_, and were revered by the natives as Mothers of the Maize. Similarly, when two potatoes were found growing together the Indians called them Potato-mothers (_Axomamas_) and kept them in order to get a good crop of potatoes. As Arriaga’s work is rare, it may be well to give his account of the Maize-mothers, Coca-mothers, and Potato-mothers in his own words. He says (p. 16): “_Zaramamas, son de tres maneras, y son las que se quentan entre las cosas halladas en los pueblos. La primera es una como muñeca hecha de cañas de maiz, vestida como muger con su anaco, y llicilla, y sus topos de plata, y entienden, que como madre tiene virtud de engendrar, y parir mucho maiz. A este modo tienen tambien Cocamamas para augmento de la coca. Otras son de piedra labradas como choclos, o mazorcas de maiz, con sus granos relevados, y de estas suelen tener muchas en lugar de Conopas_ [household gods]. _Otras son algunas cañas fertiles de maiz, que con la fertilidad de la tierra dieron muchas maçorcas, y grandes, o quando salen dos maçorcas juntas, y estas son las principales, Zaramamas, y assi las reverencian como a madres del maiz, a estas llaman tambien Huantayzara, o Ayrihuayzara. A este tercer genero no le dan la adoracion que a Huaca, ni Conopa, sino que le tienen supersticiosamente como una cosa sagrada, y colgando estas cañas con muchos choclos de unos ramos de sauce bailen con ellas el bayle, que llaman Ayrihua, y acabado el bayle, las queman, y sacrifican a Libiac para que les de buena cosecha. Con la misma supersticion guardan las mazorcas del maiz, que salen muy pintadas, que llaman Micsazara, o Mantayzara, o Caullazara, y otros que llaman Piruazara, que son otras maçorcas en que van subiendo los granos no derechos sino haziendo caracol. Estas Micsazara, o Piruazara, ponen supersticiosamente en los montones de maiz, y en las Piruas (que son donde guardan el maiz) paraque se las guarde, y el dia de las exhibiciones se junta tanto de estas maçorcas, que tienen bien que comer las mulas. La misma supersticion tienen con las que llaman Axomamas, que son quando salen algunas papas juntas, y las guardan para tener buena cosecha de papas._” The _exhibiciones_ here referred to are the occasions when the Indians brought forth their idols and other relics of superstition and delivered them to the ecclesiastical visitors. At Tarija in Bolivia, down to the present time, a cross is set up at harvest in the maize-fields, and on it all maize-spadices growing as twins are hung. They are called Pachamamas (Earth-mothers) and are thought to bring good harvests. See Baron E. Nordenskiöld, “Travels on the Boundaries of Bolivia and Argentina,” _The Geographical Journal_, xxi. (1903) pp. 517, 518. Compare E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_ (Oxford, 1892), i. 414 _sq._

M142 Customs of the ancient Mexicans at the maize-harvest.

567 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris 1857-1859), iii. 40 _sqq._ Compare _id._, iii. 505 _sq._; E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. 419 _sq._

M143 Sahagun’s account of the ancient Mexican religion. M144 Sahagun’s description of the Mexican Maize-goddess and her festival.

568 E. Seler, “Altmexikanische Studien, ii.,” _Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_, vi. (Berlin, 1899) 2/4 Heft, pp. 67 _sqq._ Another chapter of Sahagun’s work, describing the costumes of the Mexican gods, has been edited and translated into German by Professor E. Seler in the same series of publications (“Altmexikanische Studien,” _Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_, i. 4 (Berlin, 1890) pp. 117 _sqq._). Sahagun’s work as a whole is known to me only in the excellent French translation of Messrs. D. Jourdanet and R. Simeon (_Histoire Générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne par le R. P. Fray Bernardino de Sahagun_, Paris, 1880). As to the life and character of Sahagun see M. R. Simeon’s introduction to the translation, pp. vii. _sqq._

569 B. de Sahagun, Aztec text of book ii., translated by Professor E. Seler, “Altmexikanische Studien, ii.,” _Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_, vi. 2/4 Heft (Berlin, 1899), pp. 188-194. The account of the ceremonies given in the Spanish version of Sahagun’s work is a good deal more summary. See B. de Sahagun, _Histoire Générale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_ (Paris, 1880), pp. 94-96.

M145 The Corn-mother among the North American Indians.

570 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part I. (Washington, 1900) pp. 423, 432. See further _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 296 _sq._

571 L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_ (Rochester, 1851), pp. 161 _sq._, 199. According to the Iroquois the corn plant sprang from the bosom of the mother of the Great Spirit after her burial (L. H. Morgan, _op. cit._ p. 199 note 1).

572 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), ii. 280.

M146 The Mother-cotton in the Punjaub.

573 H. M. Elliot, _Supplemental Glossary of Terms used in the North-Western Provinces_, edited by J. Beames (London, 1869), i. 254.

M147 The Barley Bride among the Berbers.

574 W. B. Harris, “The Berbers of Morocco,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898) p. 68.

M148 Another account of the Barley Bride among the Berbers. Competitions for the possession of the image that represents the Corn-mother.

575 Sir John Drummond Hay, _Western Barbary, its Wild Tribes and Savage Animals_ (1844), p. 9, quoted in _Folk-lore_, vii. (1896) pp. 306 _sq._

576 See above, pp. 70 _sqq._

M149 Comparison of the European ritual of the corn with the Indonesian ritual of the rice. M150 The Indonesian ritual of the rice is based on the belief that the rice is animated by a soul. M151 Parallelism between the human soul and the rice-soul.

577 R. J. Wilkinson (of the Civil Service of the Federated Malay States), _Malay Beliefs_ (London and Leyden, 1906), pp. 49-51. On the conception of the soul as a bird, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 33 _sqq._ The Toradjas of Central Celebes think that the soul of the rice is embodied in a pretty little blue bird, which builds its nest in the rice-field when the ears are forming and vanishes after harvest. Hence no one may drive away, much less kill, these birds; to do so would not only injure the crop, the sacrilegious wretch himself would suffer from sickness, which might end in blindness. See A. C. Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,” p. 374 (see the full reference in the next note).

M152 The soul-stuff of rice.

578 A. C. Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v. part 4 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 361 _sq._ This essay (pp. 361-411) contains a valuable collection of facts relating to what the writer calls the Rice-mother in the East Indies. But it is to be observed that while all the Indonesian peoples seem to treat a certain portion of the rice at harvest with superstitious respect and ceremony, only a part of them actually call it “the Rice-mother.” Mr. Kruyt prefers to speak of “soul-stuff” rather than of “a soul,” because, according to him, in living beings the animating principle is conceived, not as a tiny being confined to a single part of the body, but as a sort of fluid or ether diffused through every part of the body. See his work, _Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel_ (The Hague, 1906), pp. 1 _sqq._ In the latter work (pp. 145-150) the writer gives a more summary account of the Indonesian theory of the rice-soul.

M153 Rice treated by the Indonesians as if it were a woman.

579 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 28 _sq._; A. C. Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder,” _op. cit._ pp. 363 _sq._, 370 _sqq._

580 See above, pp. 113 _sqq._

581 See above, p. 181.

582 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 411 _sq._; A. C. Kruyt, “De Rijstmoeder,” _op. cit._ p. 372.

M154 The Kayans of Borneo, their treatment of the soul of the rice.

583 See above, pp. 92 _sqq._

584 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 157 _sq._

M155 Instruments used by the Kayans for the purpose of catching and detaining the soul of the rice. Ceremonies performed by Kayan housewives at fetching rice from the barn.

585 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 118-121. Compare _id._, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 154 _sqq._

M156 Masquerade performed by the Kayans before sowing for the purpose of attracting the soul of the rice.

586 A similar belief probably explains the masked dances and pantomimes of many savage tribes. If that is so, it shews how deeply the principle of imitative magic has influenced savage religion.

587 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 322-330. Compare _id._, _In Centraal Borneo_, i. 185 _sq._ As to the masquerades performed and the taboos observed at the sowing season by the Kayans of the Mendalam river, see above, pp. 94 _sqq._

588 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 317.

M157 Comparison of the Kayan masquerade with the Eleusinian drama. M158 Securing the soul of the rice among the Dyaks of Northern Borneo.

589 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London, 1863), i. 187, 192 _sqq._; W. Chalmers, quoted in H. Ling Roth’s _Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), i. 412-414.

M159 Recalling the soul of the rice among the Karens of Burma.

590 Rev. E. B. Cross, “On the Karens,” _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, iv. (1854) p. 309.

M160 Securing the soul of the rice in various parts of Burma.

591 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and of the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part i. vol. i. p. 559.

592 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 423. Compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 296 _sq._

593 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _op. cit._ Part ii. vol. i. p. 172.

594 From a letter written to me by Mr. J. S. Furnivall and dated Pegu Club, Rangoon, 6/6 (_sic_). Mr. Furnivall adds that in Upper Burma the custom of the _Bonmagyi_ sheaf is unknown.

M161 The Rice-mother among the Minangkabauers of Sumatra.

595 J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 63-65. In the charm recited at sowing the Rice-mother in the bed, I have translated the Dutch word _stoel_ as “root,” but I am not sure of its precise meaning in this connexion. It is doubtless identical with the English agricultural term “to stool,” which is said of a number of stalks sprouting from a single seed, as I learn from my friend Professor W. Somerville of Oxford.

M162 The Rice-mother among the Tomori of Celebes. Special words used at reaping among the Tomori. Riddles and stories in connexion with the rice.

596 A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp. 227, 230 _sq._

597 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 411 _sq._

598 A. C. Kruijt, _op. cit._ p. 228.

599 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschapelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 142 _sq._

M163 The Rice-mother among the Toradjas of Celebes.

600 G. Maan, “Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlvi. (1903) pp. 330-337. The writer dates his article from Tanneteya (in Celebes?), but otherwise gives no indication of the geographical position of the people he describes. A similar omission is common with Dutch writers on the geography and ethnology of the East Indies, who too often appear to assume that the uncouth names of these barbarous tribes and obscure hamlets are as familiar to European readers as Amsterdam or the Hague. The Toerateyas whose customs Mr. Maan describes in this article are the inland inhabitants of Celebes. Their name Toerateyas or Toradjas signifies simply “inlanders” and is applied to them by their neighbours who live nearer the sea; it is not a name used by the people themselves. The Toradjas include many tribes and the particular tribe whose usages in regard to the Rice-mother are described in the text is probably not one of those whose customs and beliefs have been described by Mr. A. C. Kruijt in many valuable papers. See above, p. 183 note 1, and _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 109 note 1.

M164 The rice personified as a young woman among the Bataks of Sumatra.

601 M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) pp. 425 _sq._

602 J. H. Neumann, “Iets over den landbouw bij de Karo-Bataks,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) pp. 380 _sq._ As to the employment in ritual of young people whose parents are both alive, see _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 413 _sqq._

M165 The King of the Rice in Mandeling.

603 A. L. van Hasselt, “Nota, betreffende de rijstcultuur in de Residentie Tapanoeli,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxvi. (1893) pp. 526-529; Th. A. L. Heyting, “Beschrijving der Onderafdeeling Groot- mandeling en Batangnatal,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, xiv. (1897) pp. 290 _sq._ As to the rule of sowing seed on a full stomach, which is a simple case of homoeopathic or imitative magic, see further _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 136.

M166 The Rice-mother and the Rice-child at harvest in the Malay Peninsula.

604 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), pp. 225 _sq._

605 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 235-249.

M167 The Rice-bride and the Rice-bridegroom at harvest in Java.

606 See above, pp. 163 _sq._

607 P. J. Veth, _Java_ (Haarlem, 1875-1884), i. 524-526. The ceremony has also been described by Miss Augusta de Wit (_Facts and Fancies about Java_, Singapore, 1898, pp. 229-241), who lays stress on the extreme importance of the rice-harvest for the Javanese. The whole island of Java, she tells us, “is one vast rice-field. Rice on the swampy plains, rice on the rising ground, rice on the slopes, rice on the very summits of the hills. From the sod under one’s feet to the verge of the horizon, everything has one and the same colour, the bluish-green of the young, or the gold of the ripened rice. The natives are all, without exception, tillers of the soil, who reckon their lives by seasons of planting and reaping, whose happiness or misery is synonymous with the abundance or the dearth of the precious grain. And the great national feast is the harvest home, with its crowning ceremony of the Wedding of the Rice” (_op. cit._ pp. 229 _sq._). I have to thank my friend Dr. A. C. Haddon for directing my attention to Miss de Wit’s book.

M168 Another account of the Javanese custom.

608 A. C. Kruijt, “Gebruiken bij den rijstoogst in enkele streken op Oost-Java,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvii. (1903) pp. 132-134. Compare _id._, “De rijst-moeder in den Indischen Archipel,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v. part 4 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 398 _sqq._

M169 The rice-spirit as husband and wife in Bali and Lombok.

609 J. C. van Eerde, “Gebruiken bij den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op Lombok,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlv. (1902) pp. 563-565 note.

610 J. C. van Eerde, “Gebruiken bij den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op Lombok,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlv. (1902) pp. 563-573.

M170 The Father and Mother of the Rice among the Szis of Burma.

611 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_, Part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900) p. 426.

M171 The spirit of the corn sometimes thought to be embodied in men or women. M172 The Old Woman who Never Dies, the goddess of the crops among the Mandans and Minnitarees.

612 Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das innere Nord-America_ (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 182 _sq._

M173 Miami myth of the Corn-spirit in the form of a broken-down old man.

613 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_, v. (Philadelphia, 1856) pp. 193-195.

M174 The harvest-goddess Gauri represented by a girl and a bundle of plants.

614 B. A. Gupte, “Harvest Festivals in honour of Gauri and Ganesh,” _Indian Antiquary_, xxxv. (1906) p. 61. For details see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 77 _sq._

M175 Analogy of Demeter and Persephone to the Corn-mother, the Harvest-maiden, and similar figures in the harvest customs of modern European peasantry. The rustic analogues of Demeter and Persephone.

615 It is possible that the image of Demeter with corn and poppies in her hands, which Theocritus (vii. 155 _sqq._) describes as standing on a rustic threshing-floor (see above, p. 47), may have been a Corn-mother or a Corn-maiden of the kind described in the text. The suggestion was made to me by my learned and esteemed friend Dr. W. H. D. Rouse.

616 Homer, _Odyssey_, v. 125 _sqq._; Hesiod, _Theog._ 969 _sqq._

617 See above, pp. 150 _sq._

618 It is possible that a ceremony performed in a Cyprian worship of Ariadne may have been of this nature: at a certain annual sacrifice a young man lay down and mimicked a woman in child-bed. See Plutarch, _Theseus_, 20: ἐν δὴ τῇ θυσίᾳ τοῦ Γορπιαίου μηνὸς ἰσταμένου δευτέρᾳ κατακλινόμενόν τινα τῶν νεανίσκων φθέγγεσθαι καὶ ποιεῖν ἅπερ ὠδινοῦσαι γυναῖκες. We have already seen grounds for regarding Ariadne as a goddess or spirit of vegetation. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 138. Amongst the Minnitarees in North America, the Prince of Neuwied saw a tall strong woman pretend to bring up a stalk of maize out of her stomach; the object of the ceremony was to secure a good crop of maize in the following year. See Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das innere Nord-America_ (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 269.

619 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 97 _sqq._

M176 Why did the Greeks personify the corn as a mother and a daughter? M177 Demeter was perhaps the ripe crop and Persephone the seed-corn.

620 See above, p. 135.

621 See above, pp. 140 _sqq._, 155 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._, 197 _sqq._

622 However, the Sicilians seem on the contrary to have regarded Demeter as the seed-corn and Persephone as the ripe crop. See above, pp. 57, 58 _sq._

623 According to Augustine (_De civitate Dei_, iv. 8) the Romans imagined a whole series of distinct deities, mostly goddesses, who took charge of the corn at all its various stages from the time when it was committed to the ground to the time when it was lodged in the granary. Such a multiplication of mythical beings to account for the process of growth is probably late rather than early.

M178 Or the Greeks may have started with the personification of the corn as a single goddess, and the conception of a second goddess may have been a later development. Duplication of deities as a consequence of the anthropomorphic tendency. Example of such duplication in Japan, where there are two distinct deities of the sun. Perhaps the Greek personification of the corn as a mother and a daughter (Demeter and Persephone) is a case of such a mythical duplication.

624 In some places it was customary to kneel down before the last sheaf, in others to kiss it. See W. Mannhardt, _Korndämonen_, p. 26; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 339. The custom of kneeling and bowing before the last corn is said to have been observed, at least occasionally, in England. See _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1888) p. 270; and Herrick’s evidence, above, p. 147, note 1. The Malay sorceress who cut the seven ears of rice to form the Rice-child kissed the ears after she had cut them (W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 241).

625 Above, pp. 132 _sq._

626 Even in one of the oldest documents, the Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_, Demeter is represented as the goddess who controls the growth of the corn rather than as the spirit who is immanent in it. See above, pp. 36 _sq._

627 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 127.

628 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 323 _sqq._, 330 _sqq._, 346 _sqq._

629 A. Pauly, _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Alterthumswissenschaft_, v. (Stuttgart, 1849) p. 1011.

M179 Death and resurrection a leading incident in the myth of Persephone, as in the myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, and Dionysus. M180 Popular harvest and vintage customs in ancient Egypt, Syria, and Phrygia. M181 Maneros, a plaintive song of Egyptian reapers.

630 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14, ἔτι γὰρ καὶ νῦν κατὰ τὸν θερισμὸν τοὺς πρώτους ἀμηθέντας στάχυς θέντας τοὺς ἀνθρώπους κόπτεσθαι πλησίον τοῦ δράγματοσ καὶ τὴν Ἶσιν ἀνακαλεῖσθαι κτλ. For θέντας we should perhaps read σύνθεντας, which is supported by the following δράγματος.

631 Herodotus, ii. 79; Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Pausanias, ix. 29. 7; Athenaeus, xiv. 11, p. 620 A.

632 H. Brugsch, _Die Adonisklage und das Linoslied_ (Berlin, 1852), p. 24. According to another interpretation, however, Maneros is the Egyptian _manurosh_, “Let us be merry.” See Lauth, “Über den ägyptischen Maneros,” _Sitzungsberichte der königl. bayer._ _Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München_, 1869, ii. 163-194.

633 Above, pp. 197 _sqq._

634 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), pp. 249 _sq._

635 See above, pp. 158 _sq._

636 W. Gregor, “Quelques coutumes du Nord-est du comté d’Aberdeen,” _Revue des Traditions populaires_, iii. (1888) p. 487 (should be 535).

M182 Linus or Ailinus, a plaintive song sung at the vintage in Phoenicia.

637 Homer, _Iliad_, xviii. 570; Herodotus, ii. 79; Pausanias, ix. 29. 6-9; Conon, _Narrat_. 19. For the form Ailinus see Suidas, _s.v._; Euripides, _Orestes_, 1395; Sophocles, _Ajax_, 627. Compare Moschus, _Idyl._ iii. 1; Callimachus, _Hymn to Apollo_, 20. See Greve, _s.v._ “Linos,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Ausführliches Lexikon der griech, und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 2053 _sqq._

638 Conon, _Narrat._ 19.

639 F. C. Movers, _Die Phönizier_, i. (Bonn, 1841), p. 246; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), p. 281. In Hebrew the expression would be _oï lanu_ (אוי לנו), which occurs in 1 Samuel, iv. 7 and 8; Jeremiah, iv. 13, vi. 4. However, the connexion of the Linus song with the lament for Adonis is regarded by Baudissin as very doubtful. See W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_ (Leipsic, 1911), p. 360, note 3.

640 Pausanias, ix. 29. 8.

M183 Bormus, a plaintive song sung by Mariandynian reapers in Bithynia.

641 Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Athenaeus, xiv. 11, pp. 619 F-620 A; Hesychius, _svv._ Βῶρμον and Μαριανουνὸς θρῆνος.

M184 Lityerses, a song sung at reaping and threshing in Phrygia. Legend of Lityerses.

642 The story was told by Sositheus in his play of _Daphnis_. His verses have been preserved in the tract of an anonymous writer. See _Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci_, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick, 1839), pp. 220 _sq._; also Athenaeus, x. 8, p. 415 B; Scholiast on Theocritus, x. 41; Photius, _Lexicon_, Suidas, and Hesychius, _s.v._ “Lityerses”; Apostolius, _Centur._ x. 74; Servius, on Virgil, _Bucol._ viii. 68. Photius mentions the sickle with which Lityerses beheaded his victims. Servius calls Lityerses a king and says that Hercules cut off his head with the sickle that had been given him to reap with. Lityerses is the subject of a special study by W. Mannhardt (_Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 1 _sqq._), whom I follow. Compare O. Crusius, _s.v._ “Lityerses,” in W. H. Roscher’s _Ausführliches Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 2065 _sqq._

643 Julius Pollux, iv. 54.

M185 The story of Lityerses seems to reflect an old Phrygian harvest custom of killing strangers as embodiments of the corn-spirit.

644 In this comparison I closely follow W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 18 _sqq._

M186 Contests among reapers, binders, and threshers in order not to be the last at their work.

645 Compare above, pp. 134, 136, 137 _sq._, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147 _sq._, 149, 164 _sq._ On the other hand, the last sheaf is sometimes an object of desire and emulation. See above, pp. 136, 141, 153, 154 _sq._, 156, 162 note 3, 165. It is so at Balquhidder also (_Folk-lore Journal_, vi. 269); and it was formerly so on the Gareloch, Dumbartonshire, where there was a competition for the honour of cutting it, and handfuls of standing corn used to be hidden under sheaves in order that the last to be uncovered should form the Maiden.—(From the information of Archie Leitch. See pp. 157 _sq._)

646 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 19 _sq._

647 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 342.

648 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 20; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. p. 217, § 397; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 222, § 69.

M187 Custom of wrapping up in corn-stalks the last reaper, binder, or thresher.

649 Above, pp. 167 _sq._

650 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 22.

651 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 22.

_ 652 Ibid._ pp. 22 _sq._

_ 653 Ibid._ p. 23.

_ 654 Ibid._ pp. 23 _sq._

_ 655 Ibid._ p. 24.

_ 656 Ibid._ p. 24.

_ 657 Ibid._ p. 24.

_ 658 Ibid._ pp. 24 _sq._

_ 659 Ibid._ p. 25.

660 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 65.

661 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 223, § 70.

M188 The corn-spirit, driven out of the last corn, lives in the barn during the winter.

662 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 25 _sq._

M189 Similar ideas as to the last corn in India.

663 C. A. Elliot, _Hoshangábád Settlement Report_, p. 178, quoted in _Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. §§ 8, 168 (October and December, 1885); W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 306.

664 W. Crooke, _op. cit._ ii. 306 _sq._

M190 The corn-spirit supposed to be killed at reaping or threshing. Corn-spirit represented by a man, who is threshed.

665 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 31.

_ 666 Ibid._ p. 334.

_ 667 Ibid._ p. 330.

_ 668 Ibid._

_ 669 Ibid._ p. 331.

670 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 335.

_ 671 Ibid._ p. 335.

672 Above, pp. 135, 146.

673 J. Nicholson, _Folk-lore of East Yorkshire_ (London, Hull, and Driffield, 1890), p. 28, supplemented by a letter of the author’s addressed to Mr. E. S. Hartland and dated 33 Leicester Street, Hull, 11th September, 1890. I have to thank Mr. E. S. Hartland for calling my attention to the custom and allowing me to see Mr. Nicholson’s letter.

674 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 26.

675 Above, pp. 149 _sq._

676 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 50.

_ 677 Ibid._ pp. 50 _sq._

678 See above, pp. 146, 170 note 1; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 195 sqq.

M191 Corn-spirit represented by a stranger or a visitor to the harvest-field, who is treated accordingly.

679 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschunge_ pp. 32 _sqq._ Compare K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 296 _sq._; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 62 _sq._; A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 193; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 221, § 61; R. Krause, _Sitten, Gebräuche und Aberglauben in Westpreussen_ (Berlin, preface dated March, 1904), p. 51; _Revue des Traditions populaires_, iii. (1888) p. 598.

680 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 35 _sq._

_ 681 Ibid._ p. 36.

682 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_, (Prague, 1905), p. 194.

683 O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 153.

684 J. Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 240 _sq._

685 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 36.

686 For the evidence, see _ibid._ p. 36, note 2. The “key” in the European custom is probably intended to serve the same purpose as the “knot” in the Cingalese custom, as to which see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 308 _sq._

687 From a letter written to me by Colonel Henry Wilson, of Farnborough Lodge, Farnborough, Kent. The letter is dated 21st March, 1901.

688 “Notes on Harvest Customs,” _The Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp. 52 _sq._

M192 Ceremonies of the Tarahumare Indians at hoeing, ploughing, and harvest.

689 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 214 _sq._

690 Compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 75 _sq._

691 K. Vetter, _Komm herüber und hilf uns!_ Heft 2 (Barmen, 1898), p. 7.

692 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) p. 137. As to influence which the spirits of the dead are thought to exercise on the growth of the crops, see above, pp. 103 _sq._, and below, vol. ii. pp. 109 _sqq._

M193 Pretence made by the reapers of killing some one with their scythes.

693 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 39.

694 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 39 _sq._

_ 695 Ibid._ p. 40. For the speeches made by the woman who binds the stranger or the master, see _ibid._ p. 41; C. Lemke, _Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 23 _sq._

696 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 41 _sq._

M194 Pretence made by threshers of choking a person with their flails.

697 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 42. See also above, p. 150.

698 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 42. See above, p. 149. In Thüringen a being called the Rush-cutter (_Binsenschneider_) used to be much dreaded. On the morning of St. John’s Day he was wont to walk through the fields with sickles tied to his ankles cutting avenues in the corn as he walked. To detect him, seven bundles of brushwood were silently threshed with the flail on the threshing-floor, and the stranger who appeared at the door of the barn during the threshing was the Rush-cutter. See A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 221. With the _Binsenschneider_ compare the _Bilschneider_ and _Biberschneider_ (F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, Munich, 1848-1855, ii. pp. 210 _sq._, §§ 372-378).

M195 Custom observed at the madder-harvest in Zealand.

699 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 47 _sq._

M196 The spirit of the corn conceived as poor and robbed by the reapers. Some of the corn left on the harvest-field for the corn-spirit. Little fields or gardens cultivated for spirits or gods.

700 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 48.

701 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

_ 702 Ibid._ pp. 48 _sq._

703 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 49.

_ 704 Ibid._ p. 337.

_ 705 Ibid._

706 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 337 _sq._

707 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 189.

708 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 224, § 74.

_ 709 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), iii. 343 _sq._

_ 710 Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 154.

711 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, § 419.

712 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp. 251 _sq._ As to Perun, the old Slavonic thunder-god, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 365.

713 Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 182.

714 See above, pp. 136 _sqq._

715 A. Germain, “Note zur Zanzibar et la Côte Orientale d’Afrique,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), Vème Série, xvi. (1868) p. 555.

716 E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), p. 593.

717 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 303. In the Central Provinces of India “sometimes the oldest man in the house cuts the first five bundles of the crop and they are afterwards left in the fields for the birds to eat. And at the end of harvest the last one or two sheaves are left standing in the field and any one who likes can cut and carry them away. In some localities the last sheaves are left standing in the field and are known as _barhona_, or the giver of increase. Then all the labourers rush together at this last patch of corn and tear it up by the roots; everybody seizes as much as he can [and] keeps it, the master having no share in this patch. After the _barhona_ has been torn up all the labourers fall on their faces to the ground and worship the field” (A. E. Nelson, _Central Provinces Gazetteers, Bilaspur District_, vol. A, 1910, p. 75). This quotation was kindly sent to me by Mr. W. Crooke; I have not seen the original. It seems to shew that in the Central Provinces the last corn is left standing on the field as a portion for the corn-spirit, and that he is believed to be immanent in it; hence the name of “the giver of increase” bestowed on it, and the eagerness with which other people, though not the owner of the land, seek to appropriate it.

M197 Hence perhaps we may explain the dedication of sacred fields and the offering of first-fruits to gods and spirits.

718 See above, pp. 93 _sq._

719 See above, pp. 36, 74.

720 Leviticus, xix. 9 _sq._, xxiii. 22; Deuteronomy, xxiv. 19-21.

721 See above, pp. 46 _sq._, 53 _sqq._, and below, vol. ii. pp. 109 _sqq._

M198 Passing strangers treated as the spirit of the madder-roots.

722 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 49 _sq._; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 254, § 400; M. Töppen, _Aberglaube aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 57. The same belief is held and acted upon in Japan (L. Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_, London, 1904, ii. 603).

723 The explanation of the custom is W. Mannhardt’s (_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 49).

_ 724 Odyssey_, xvii. 485 _sqq._ Compare Plato, _Sophist_, p. 216 A.

725 A. C. Kruijt, “Mijne eerste ervaringen te Poso,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxvi. (1892) p. 402.

M199 Killing of the personal representative of the corn-spirit.

726 For throwing him into the water, see p. 225.

M200 Human sacrifices for the crops in South and Central America.

727 Cieza de Leon, _Travels_, translated by C. R. Markham, p. 203 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1864).

728 Juan de Velasco, _Histoire du Royaume de Quito_, i. (Paris, 1840) pp. 121 _sq._ (Ternaux-Compans, _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires Originaux pour servir à l’Histoire de la Découverte de l’Amérique_, vol. xviii.).

729 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), i. 274; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876), ii. 340.

730 Brasseur de Bourbourg, “Aperçus d’un voyage dans les États de San-Salvador et de Guatemala,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), IVème Série, xiii. (1857) pp. 278 _sq._

731 Herrera, quoted by A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_ (Berlin, 1878), ii. 379 _sq._ See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 338 _sq._

M201 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Pawnees.

732 E. James, _Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_ (London, 1823), ii. 80 _sq._; H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 77 _sqq._; J. De Smet, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xi. (1838) pp. 493 _sq._; _id._, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xv. (1843) pp. 277-279; _id._, _Voyages aux Montagnes Rocheuses_, Nouvelle Edition (Paris and Brussels, 1873), pp. 121 _sqq._ The accounts by Schoolcraft and De Smet of the sacrifice of the Sioux girl are independent and supplement each other. According to De Smet, who wrote from the descriptions of four eye-witnesses, the procession from hut to hut for the purpose of collecting wood took place on the morning of the sacrifice. Another description of the sacrifice is given by Mr. G. B. Grinnell from the recollection of an eye-witness (_Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-tales_, New York, 1889, pp. 362-369). According to this last account the victim was shot with arrows and afterwards burnt. Before the body was consumed in the fire a man pulled out the arrows, cut open the breast of the victim, and having smeared his face with the blood ran away as fast as he could.

M202 Human sacrifices for the crops in Africa.

733 J. B. Labat, _Relation historique de l’Ethiopie occidentale_ (Paris, 1732), i. 380.

734 John Adams, _Sketches taken during Ten Voyages in Africa between the years 1786 and 1800_ (London, N.D.), p. 25.

735 P. Bouche, _La Côte des Esclaves_ (Paris, 1885), p. 132.

736 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d’exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_ (Paris, 1842), pp. 117 _sq._ The custom has probably long been obsolete.

737 From information given me by my friend the Rev. John Roscoe, who resided for some time among the Wamegi and suppressed the sacrifice in 1886.

M203 Human sacrifices for the crops in the Philippines.

738 F. Blumentritt, “Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindanao,” _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xxxvii. (1891) p. 110.

739 A. Schadenberg, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der im Innern Nordluzons lebenden Stämme,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1888, p. (39) (bound with _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xx. 1888).

740 Schadenberg, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1889, p. (681) (bound with _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxi. 1889).

M204 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Wild Wa of Burma.

741 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part i. vol. i. pp. 493-509.

M205 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Shans of Indo-China and the Nagas and other tribes of India.

742 Col. R. G. Woodthorpe, “Some Account of the Shans and Hill Tribes of the States on the Mekong,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvi. (1897) p. 24.

743 For a general description of the country and the tribes see L. A. Waddell, “The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxix. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1901), pp. 1-127.

744 Miss G. M. Godden, “Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-Eastern India,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898) pp. 9 _sq._, 38 _sq._

_ 745 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. p. 4, § 15 (April 1891).

_ 746 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. pp. 127 _sq._, § 721 (May 1885).

747 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., “Religion and Customs of the Uraons,” _Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 141 _sq._

M206 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Khonds.

748 Major S. C. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India_ (London, 1865), pp. 113-131; Major-General John Campbell, _Wild Tribes of Khondistan_ (London, 1864), pp. 52-58, etc. Compare Mgr. Neyret, Bishop of Vizagapatam, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxiii. (1851) pp. 402-404; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes on Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), pp. 510-519; _id._, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), iii. 371-385.

749 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 56.

750 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 115 _sq._

751 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 117 _sq._; J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 112.

M207 Ceremonies preliminary to the sacrifice.

752 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 117 _sq._

753 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 118.

754 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 54 _sq._

M208 Consummation of the sacrifice.

755 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 55, 112.

756 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 119; J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 113.

757 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 127. Instead of the branch of a green tree, Campbell mentions two strong planks or bamboos (p. 57) or a slit bamboo (p. 182).

758 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 56, 58, 120.

759 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p. 288, quoting Colonel Campbell’s _Report_.

760 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 126. The elephant represented the Earth Goddess herself, who was here conceived in elephant-form (Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 51, 126). In the hill tracts of Goomsur she was represented in peacock-form, and the post to which the victim was bound bore the effigy of a peacock (Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 54).

761 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 130. In Mexico also the tears of the human victims were sometimes regarded as an omen of rain (B. de Sahagun, _Histoire générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon, Paris, 1880, bk. ii. ch. 20, p. 86).

M209 Flesh of the victim used to fertilise the fields.

762 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 288, referring to Colonel Campbell’s _Report_.

763 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 129. Compare J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 55, 58, 113, 121, 187.

764 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 182.

765 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 128; E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 288.

766 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 55, 182.

767 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 187.

768 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), iii. 381-385.

M210 In these Khond sacrifices the human victims appear to have been regarded as divine.

769 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 112.

770 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 118.

M211 Traces of an identification of the human victim with the god in other sacrifices.

771 Above, pp. 239, 240, 244.

M212 Analogy of these barbarous rites to the harvest customs of Europe.

772 Above, p. 134.

773 Above, pp. 134, 157 _sqq._

774 Above, p. 223.

775 Above, p. 224.

776 Above, p. 170, with the references in note 1; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 195-197.

M213 Human representative of the corn-spirit slain on the harvest-field. M214 The victim who represented the corn-spirit may have been a passing stranger or the reaper, binder, or thresher of the last corn.

777 See above, p. 217.

778 Above, p. 224.

779 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 5.

780 H. Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), p. 98.

M215 Perhaps the victim annually sacrificed in the character of the corn-spirit may have been the king himself.

781 Above, p. 217. It is not expressly said that he was wrapt in a sheaf.

782 Above, pp. 225 _sq._, 229 _sq._

783 See _The Dying God_, pp. 160 _sqq._

M216 Relation of Lityerses to Attis: both may have been originally corn-spirits, or the one a corn-spirit and the other a tree-spirit. Human representatives both of Lityerses and Attis annually slain.

784 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 231 _sqq._, 239 _sq._

785 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sqq._

786 I do not know when the corn is reaped in Phrygia; but the high upland character of the country makes it likely that harvest is later there than on the coasts of the Mediterranean.

787 See above, pp. 240 _sqq._; and _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 247-249. As to head-hunting in British Borneo see H. L. Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), ii. 140 _sqq._; in Central Celebes, see A. C. Kruijt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeelung Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. part 2 (Amsterdam, 1899), pp. 147-229; among the Igorot of Bontoc in Luzon, see A. E. Jenks, _The Bontoc Igorot_ (Manilla, 1905), pp. 172 _sqq._; among the Naga tribes of Assam, see Miss G. M. Godden, “Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-East India”, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898) pp. 12-17. It must not, however, be thought that among these tribes the custom of procuring human heads is practised merely as a means to ensure the growth of the crops; it is apparently supposed to exert a salutary influence on the whole life of the people by providing them with guardian spirits in the shape of the ghosts of the men to whom in their lifetime the heads belonged. The Scythians of Central Europe in antiquity set great store on the heads of the enemies whom they had slain in war. See Herodotus, iv. 64 _sq._

788 There are traces in Greece itself of an old custom of sacrificing human victims to promote the fertility of the earth. See Pausanias, vii. 19. 3 _sq._ compared with vii. 20. 1; _id._, viii. 53. 3; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, ii. (Oxford, 1896) p. 455; and _The Dying God_, pp. 161 _sq._

M217 Similarity of the Bithynian Bormus to the Phrygian Attis.

789 Above, pp. 215 _sq._

790 Above, p. 216.

791 Hesychius, _s.v._ Βῶρμον.

M218 The Phoenician Linus song at the vintage. Linus identified with Adonis, who may have been annually represented by a human victim.

792 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 6. 3.

793 The scurrilities exchanged both in ancient and modern times between vine-dressers, vintagers, and passers-by seem to belong to a different category. See W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 53 _sq._

794 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 188 _sqq._

795 Above, pp. 236 _sq._, 240, 243, 244, 248 _sq._

796 The probable correspondence of the months, which supplies so welcome a confirmation of the conjecture in the text, was pointed out to me by my friend W. Robertson Smith, who furnished me with the following note: “In the Syro-Macedonian calendar Lous represents Ab, not Tammuz. Was it different in Babylon? I think it was, and one month different, at least in the early times of the Greek monarchy in Asia. For we know from a Babylonian observation in the Almagest (_Ideler_, i. 396) that in 229 B.C. Xanthicus began on February 26. It was therefore the month before the equinoctial moon, not Nisan but Adar, and consequently Lous answered to the lunar month Tammuz.”

M219 The corn-spirit in Egypt (Osiris) annually represented by a human victim.

797 Above, p. 215.

798 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 5. 11; Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, _Argon._ iv. 1396; Plutarch, _Parall._ 38. Herodotus (ii. 45) discredits the idea that the Egyptians ever offered human sacrifices. But his authority is not to be weighed against that of Manetho (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73), who affirms that they did. See further Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), i. 210 _sqq._, who says (pp. 210, 212): “There is abundant proof for the statement that the Egyptians offered up sacrifices of human beings, and that, in common with many African tribes at the present day, their customs in dealing with vanquished enemies were bloodthirsty and savage.... The passages from Egyptian works quoted earlier in this chapter prove that human sacrifices were offered up at Heliopolis as well as at Tetu, or Busiris, and the rumour of such sacrifices has found expression in the works of Greek writers.”

799 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, i. (Stuttgart, 1884), § 57, p. 68.

800 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1909), p. 97; G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l’Orient Classique, Les Origines_ (Paris, 1895), pp. 129 _sqq._ Both these eminent historians have abandoned their former theory that Osiris was the Sun-god. Professor E. Meyer now speaks of Osiris as “the great vegetation god” and, on the same page, as “an earth-god” (_op. cit._ i. 2. p. 70). I am happy to find the view of the nature of Osiris, which I advocated many years ago, supported by the authority of so distinguished an Oriental scholar. Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge holds that Busiris was the oldest shrine of Osiris in the north of Egypt, but that it was less ancient than his shrine at Abydos in the south. See E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), ii. 1.

801 Diodorus Siculus, i. 88; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73, compare 30, 33.

802 Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), p. 30, referring to Mariette, _Dendereh_, iv. plates xxxi., lvi., and lxxxi. The passage of Diodorus Siculus referred to is i. 62. 4. As to masks of animals worn by Egyptian men and women in religious rites see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 133; _The Dying God_, p. 72.

M220 Assimilation of human victims to the corn which they represent.

803 Above, pp. 237 _sq._, 240, 251.

804 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford, 1892) p. 422.

805 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 535.

806 Festus, _s.v._ _Catularia_, p. 45 ed. C. O. Müller. Compare _id._, _s.v._ _Rutilae canes_, p. 285; Columella, _De re rustica_, x. 342 _sq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 905 _sqq._; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 14.

807 D. Chwolsohn, _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_ (St. Petersburg, 1856), ii. 388 _sq._ Compare _ibid._, pp. 384 _sq._, 386 _sq._, 391, 393, 395, 397. For other instances of the assimilation of the victim to the god, see H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 77 _sq._, 357-359.

M221 Remains of victims scattered over the fields to fertilise them.

808 Above, pp. 240, 249.

809 Above, pp. 149 _sq._, 237 _sq._, 239.

810 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18.

811 See above, p. 248; and compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 331 _sqq._

812 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 323.

M222 The black and green Osiris like the black and green Demeter.

813 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 22, 30, 31, 33, 73.

814 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (ed. 1878), iii. 81.

815 Pausanias, i. 22. 3, viii. 5. 8, viii. 42. i.

816 Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28. See above, p. 42.

M223 The key to the mysteries of Osiris furnished by the lamentations of the reapers for the annual death of the corn-spirit. M224 Crying “the neck” at harvest in Devonshire.

817 W. Hone, _Every-day Book_ (London, N.D.), ii. coll. 1170 _sq._

818 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), pp. 372 _sq._, referring to Mrs. Bray’s _Traditions of Devon_, i. 330.

819 W. Hone, _op. cit._ ii. 1172.

820 The Rev. Sydney Cooper, of 80 Gloucester Street, Cirencester, wrote to me (4th February 1893) that his wife remembers the “neck” being kept on the mantelpiece of the parlour in a Cornish farmhouse; it generally stayed there throughout the year.

M225 Other accounts of cutting and crying “the neck” in Devonshire.

821 “Old Harvest Customs in Devon and Cornwall,” _Folk-lore_, i. (1890) p. 280.

_ 822 Ibid._

M226 Cutting “the neck” in Pembrokeshire.

823 Frances Hoggan, M.D., “The Neck Feast,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) p. 123. In Pembrokeshire the last sheaf of corn seems to have been commonly known as “the Hag” (_wrach_) rather than as “the Neck.” See above, pp. 142-144.

M227 Cutting “the neck” in Shropshire. Why the last corn cut is called “the neck.”

824 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 20 (Bohn’s edition); Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 371.

825 Burne and Jackson, _l.c._

826 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 185.

827 See above, p. 158.

828 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 185.

_ 829 Ibid._

_ 830 Revue des Traditions populaires_, ii. (1887) p. 500.

831 Above, p. 150.

M228 Cries of the reapers in Germany.

832 E. Meier, in _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) pp. 170-173; U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 166-169; H. Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), pp. 104 _sq._; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp. 177 _sq._, §§ 491, 492; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 395), § 97; K. Lynker, _Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen_ (Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), p. 256, § 340.

M229 The corn-spirit as an animal. M230 The corn-spirit in the form of an animal is supposed to be present in the last corn cut or threshed, and to be caught or killed by the reaper or thresher.

833 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), pp. 1-6.

M231 The corn-spirit as a wolf or a dog, supposed to run through the corn.

834 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_2 (Danzig, 1866), pp. 6 _sqq._; _id._, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 318 _sq._; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 103; A. Witzchel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 213; O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150; W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 327; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii, 60.

835 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 10 _sqq._; _id._, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 319.

836 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 14 _sq._

M232 The corn-spirit as a dog at reaping and threshing.

837 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 104; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, ii. 64.

838 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 104.

_ 839 Ibid._ pp. 104 _sq._ On the Harvest-May, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sq._

840 L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

841 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 105.

_ 842 Ibid._ p. 30.

_ 843 Ibid._ pp. 30, 105.

_ 844 Ibid._ pp. 105 _sq._

M233 The corn-spirit as a wolf at reaping.

845 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64.

846 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33, 39; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1498.

847 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 320.

848 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 p. 33.

849 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33 _sq._; K. Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1500, 1501.

850 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33, 34.

851 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 p. 38; _id._, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 320.

852 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 34 _sq._

853 K. Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 311, § 1505.

854 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 35-37; K. Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1499, 1501, p. 311, §§ 1506, 1507.

M234 The corn-spirit as a wolf killed at threshing.

855 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 321.

_ 856 Ibid._ pp. 321 _sq._

M235 The corn-wolf at harvest in France. The corn-wolf killed on the harvest-field.

_ 857 Ibid._ p. 320.

_ 858 Ibid._ pp. 320 _sq._

M236 The corn-wolf at midwinter.

_ 859 Ibid._ p. 322.

_ 860 Ibid._ p. 323.

M237 The corn-spirit as a cock at harvest.

861 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 13.

862 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._; J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Rathsel des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 398.

863 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

864 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 13. Compare A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, _l.c._

865 K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 232, No. 277 note.

866 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 13.

867 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 220.

868 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, pp. 13 _sq._; J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 180 _sq._; H. Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), p. 110.

869 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 14; H. Pfannenschmid, _op. cit._ pp. 111, 419 _sq._

870 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 15. So in Shropshire, where the corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander (see above, p. 268), the expression for overthrowing a load at harvest is “to lose the goose,” and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose at the harvest-supper (C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, London, 1883, p. 375); and in some parts of England the harvest-supper was called the Harvest Gosling, or the Inning Goose (J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 23, 26, Bohn’s edition).

871 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 14.

_ 872 Ibid._ p. 15.

M238 The corn-spirit killed in the form of a live cock.

873 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 30.

874 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 15.

_ 875 Ibid._ pp. 15 _sq._

876 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 15; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 30.

M239 The corn-spirit as a hare at harvest. The corn-spirit as a hare killed in the last corn cut.

877 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 1.

878 W. Gregor, “Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland,” _Report of the British Association for 1896_, p. 623.

_ 879 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp. 47 _sq._

880 L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

881 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 3.

882 O. Hartung, “Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 154.

883 C. Lemke, _Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 24.

884 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

885 Above, p. 268.

886 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 29.

887 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 29 _sq._; _id._, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 5.

888 Georgeakis et Pineau, _Folk-lore de Lesbos_ (Paris, 1894), p. 310.

M240 The corn-spirit as a cat sitting in the corn. The corn-spirit as a cat killed at reaping and threshing.

889 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 172-174; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 30; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, 65.

890 L. F. Sauvé, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.

891 Ch. Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), p. 102.

M241 The corn-spirit as a goat running through the corn or sitting in it. The corn-goat at reaping and binding the corn.

892 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 155 _sq._

_ 893 Ibid._ pp. 157 _sq._

_ 894 Ibid._ p. 159.

_ 895 Ibid._ pp. 161 _sq._

_ 896 Ibid._ p. 162.

897 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. pp. 232 _sq._, § 426; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 162.

898 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 228 _sq._, § 422; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 163; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. (Munich, 1865) p. 344.

899 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 163.

900 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

901 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 164.

_ 902 Ibid._ p. 164.

903 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

904 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 164 _sq._

_ 905 Ibid._ p. 165.

M242 The corn-spirit as the Cripple Goat in Skye.

906 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 24, Bohn’s edition, quoting _The Gentleman’s Magazine_ for February, 1795, p. 124; W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 165.

907 R. C. Maclagan, “Notes on folk-lore objects collected in Argyleshire,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 151, from information given by Mrs. C. Nicholson.

908 Above, p. 232.

909 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 165.

M243 The corn-spirit killed as a goat on the harvest-field.

910 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 166; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 185.

911 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 166.

912 Above, p. 281.

913 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107.

914 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 19. Compare W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 482 _sqq._

M244 The corn-spirit in the form of a goat supposed to lurk among the corn in the barn, till he is expelled by the flail at threshing.

915 E. L. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 436.

916 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 225 _sqq._, § 421; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 167 _sq._

917 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 168.

918 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 194.

919 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 168.

M245 The corn-spirit in the form of a goat passed on to a neighbour who has not finished his threshing.

920 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 169.

921 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 224 _sq._, § 420; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 169.

922 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 169.

M246 The corn-spirit in goat form killed at threshing.

_ 923 Ibid._ p. 170.

_ 924 Ibid._ p. 170. As to the custom of leaving a little corn on the field for the subsistence of the corn-spirit, see above, pp. 231 _sqq._

M247 Old Prussian custom of killing a goat at sowing.

925 M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), pp. 23 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 394 _sq._

926 A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 241.

M248 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull running through the corn or lying in it. The corn-spirit as a bull, ox, or cow at harvest.

927 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 58.

_ 928 Ibid._

_ 929 Ibid._ p. 62.

930 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.

931 Above, p. 275.

932 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 59.

933 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 440 _sq._, §§ 151, 152, 153; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 234, § 428; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.

934 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. p. 233, § 427; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.

935 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 59 _sq._

_ 936 Ibid._ p. 58.

937 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 58 _sq._

M249 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull or ox killed at the close of the reaping.

_ 938 Ibid._ p. 60.

M250 The corn-spirit as a bull or cow at threshing.

939 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, pp. 444 _sq._, § 162; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 61.

940 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 233, § 427.

941 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 61 _sq._

_ 942 Ibid._ p. 62.

_ 943 Ibid._ p. 62.

944 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, pp. 445 _sq._, § 163.

M251 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull supposed to be killed at threshing.

945 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 60.

946 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 62.

M252 The corn-spirit as a calf at harvest or in spring.

947 Above, pp. 150 _sq._

948 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875), ii. 135.

949 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 62: “_Il fait le veau._”

_ 950 Ibid._

_ 951 Ibid._ p. 63.

M253 The corn-spirit as a horse or mare running through the corn. “Crying the Mare” in Hertfordshire and Shropshire.

_ 952 Ibid._ p. 167.

953 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.

954 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 24, Bohn’s edition.

955 C. F. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), pp. 373 _sq._

M254 The corn-spirit as a horse in France.

956 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 167. We may compare the Scotch custom of giving the last sheaf to a horse or mare to eat. See above, pp. 141, 156, 158, 160 _sq._, 162.

957 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875), ii. 133; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 167 _sq._ We have seen (above, p. 267) that in South Pembrokeshire the man who cut the “Neck” used to be “shod,” that is, to have the soles of his feet severely beaten with sods. Perhaps he was thus treated as representing the corn-spirit in the form of a horse.

M255 The corn-spirit as a quail. The rice-spirit as a blue bird. The rice-spirit as a quail.

958 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.

959 A. Peter, _Völksthumliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 268.

960 J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 240.

961 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volks aberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 189, § 277; Chr. Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 238; Rev. Ch. Swainson, _The Folk Lore and Provincial Names of British Birds_ (London, 1886), p. 173.

962 Alfred Newton, _Dictionary of Birds_, New Edition (London, 1893-1896), p. 755.

963 A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp. 228, 229; _id._, “De rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen van der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v., part 3 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 374 _sq._

M256 The corn-spirit as a fox running through the corn or sitting in it. The corn-spirit as a fox at reaping the last corn. The corn-spirit as a fox at threshing. The Japanese rice-god associated with the fox.

964 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 109 note 2.

965 L. Pineau, _Folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 500 _sq._

966 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 109 _sq._, note 2.

967 J. F. L. Woeste, _Völksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_ (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 27; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 110 note.

968 Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), ii. 312 _sqq._; W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), pp. 162 _sq._ At the festival of the Roman corn-goddess Ceres, celebrated on the nineteenth of April, foxes were allowed to run about with burning torches tied to their tails, and the custom was explained as a punishment inflicted on foxes because a fox had once in this way burned down the crops (Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 679 _sqq._). Samson is said to have burned the crops of the Philistines in a similar fashion (Judges xv. 4 _sq._). Whether the custom and the tradition are connected with the idea of the fox as an embodiment of the corn-spirit is doubtful. Compare W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 108 _sq._; W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 77-79.

M257 The corn-spirit as a boar rushing through the corn. The corn-spirit as a boar or sow at reaping. The corn-spirit as a sow at threshing.

969 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 213, § 4. So at Klepzig, in Anhalt (_Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150).

970 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 187.

971 A. Birlinger, _Aus Schwaben_ (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 328.

972 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. pp. 223, 224, §§ 417, 419.

973 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 112.

974 E. L. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 428, 436.

975 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebaüche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162.

976 A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. p. 425, § 379.

977 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 221-224, §§ 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 418.

M258 The corn-spirit as a pig at sowing.

978 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 186 _sq._

979 Above, p. 272; compare 268.

980 Above, p. 298.

981 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 187.

982 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 187 _sq._; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, pp. 189, 218; W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Marburg, 1888), p. 35.

983 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 188; W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), p. 220.

M259 The corn-spirit embodied in the Yule Boar of Scandinavia. The Yule straw in Sweden.

984 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 197 _sq._; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 491; J. Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), vol. iii. pp. 206 _sq._, _s.v._ “Maiden”; Arv. Aug. Afzelius, _Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und neuerer Zeit_, übersetzt von F. H. Ungewitter (Leipsic, 1842), i. 9.

985 Above, p. 275.

986 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 169 _sq._, 182. On Christmas night children sleep on a bed of the Yule straw (_ibid._ p. 177).

987 U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche_ (Breslau, 1884), p. 215. Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 17, 27 _sq._

988 A. A. Afzelius, _op. cit._ i. 31.

989 A. A. Afzelius, _op. cit._ i. 9; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, pp. 181, 185.

M260 The Christmas Boar among the Esthonians.

990 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), pp. 55 _sq._

991 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1876), pp. 344, 485.

M261 Sacramental character of the harvest-supper.

992 Above, pp. 277 _sq._, 280, 281, 285, 290, 300, 301. In regard to the hare, the substitution of brandy for hare’s blood is probably modern.

M262 Parallelism between the conceptions of the corn-spirit in human and animal forms. M263 The reason why the corn-spirit is thought to take the forms of so many animals may be that wild creatures are commonly penned by the advance of the reapers into the last patch of standing corn, which is usually regarded as the last refuge of the corn-spirit.

993 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 1.

M264 Importance of the Pleiades in primitive calendars.

994 R. Andree, “Die Pleiaden im Mythus und in ihrer Beziehung zum Jahresbeginn und Landbau,” _Globus_, lxiv. (1893) pp. 362-366.

M265 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Australian aborigines.

995 Mr. McKellar, quoted by the Rev. W. Ridley, “Report on Australian Languages and Traditions,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 279; _id._, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p. 138. Mr. McKellar’s evidence was given before a Select Committee of the Legislative Council of Victoria in 1858; from which we may perhaps infer that his statement refers especially to the tribes of Victoria or at all events of south-eastern Australia. It seems to be a common belief among the aborigines of central and south-eastern Australia that the Pleiades are women who once lived on earth but afterwards went up into the sky. See W. E. Stanbridge, in _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. i. (1861) p. 302; P. Beveridge, “Of the Aborigines inhabiting the great Lacustrine and Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray,” etc., _Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, xvii. (Sydney, 1884) p. 61; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 566; _id._, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 628; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 429 _sq._ Some tribes of Victoria believed that the Pleiades were originally a queen and six of her attendants, but that the Crow (Waa) fell in love with the queen and ran away with her, and that since then the Pleiades have been only six in number. See James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_ (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, 1881), p. 100.

996 J. Manning, “Notes on the Aborigines of New Holland,” _Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, xvi. (Sydney, 1883) p. 168.

997 James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 75.

M266 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Indians of Paraguay and Brazil.

998 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), ii. 118.

999 M. Dobrizhoffer, _op. cit._ ii. 77 _sq._, 101-105.

1000 Pedro de Angelis, _Coleccion de Obras y Documentes relativos a la Historia antigua y moderna de las Provincias del Rio de la Plata_ (Buenos Ayres, 1836-1837), iv. 15.

1001 P. Lozano, _Descripcion chorographico del terreno, rios, arboles, y animales del Gran Chaco_ (Cordova, 1733). p. 67.

1002 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London, 1911), p. 139.

1003 Pedro de Angelis, _op. cit._ iv. 14.

1004 Th. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p. 418, referring to Marcgrav de Liebstadt, _Hist. rerum naturalium Brasil_. (Amsterdam, 1648), viii. 5 and 12.

1005 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_, ii. 104.

1006 Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 203.

1007 C. F. Phil. v. Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s, zumal Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 441.

1008 Carl Teschauer, S.J., “Mythen und alte Volkssagen aus Brasilien,” _Anthropos_, i. (1906) p. 736.

1009 J. Gumilla, _Histoire Naturelle et Civile et Géographique de l’Orenoque_ (Avignon, 1758), iii. 254 _sq._

M267 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Indians of Peru and Mexico.

1010 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford, 1892) p. 492.

1011 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima, 1621), pp. 11, 29 _sq._ According to Arriaga, the Peruvian name for the Pleiades is _Oncoy_.

1012 Garcilasso de la Vega, _First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, translated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (London, 1869-1871, Hakluyt Society), i. 275. Compare J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_ (London, 1880, Hakluyt Society), ii. 304.

1013 E. Seler, _Alt-Mexikanische Studien_, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 166 _sq._, referring to Petrus Martyr, _De nuper sub D. Carolo repertis insulis_ (Basileae, 1521), p. 15.

1014 B. de Sahagun, _Histoire Générale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_ (Paris, 1880), pp. 288 _sq._, 489 _sqq._; A. de Herrera, _General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 222; F. S. Clavigero, _History of Mexico_, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 315 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_ (Bâle, 1867), pp. 519 _sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America_ (London, 1875-1876), iii. 393-395.

M268 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the North American Indians.

1015 Jean l’Heureux, “Ethnological Notes on the Astronomical Customs and Religious Ideas of the Chokitapia or Blackfeet Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) pp. 301-303.

1016 Walter McClintock, _The Old North Trail_ (London, 1910), p. 490.

1017 J. Walter Fewkes, “The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony,” _Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History_, xxvi. (1895) p. 453.

M269 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Polynesians.

1018 Rev. W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i. 87.

1019 Rev. W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs from the South Pacific_ (London, 1876), p. 43.

1020 Rev. W. W. Gill, _op. cit._ p. 317, compare p. 44.

1021 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 279.

1022 E. Shortland, _Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders_, Second Edition (London, 1856), p. 219.

_ 1023 The United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_, by Horatio Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 170; E. Tregear, _Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary_ (Wellington, N.Z., 1891), p. 226.

M270 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Melanesians.

1024 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 348. In the island of Florida the Pleiades are called _togo ni samu_, “the company of maidens” (_op. cit._ p. 349).

1025 H. B. Guppy, _The Solomon Islands and their Natives_ (London, 1887), p. 56.

M271 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the natives of New Guinea and the Indian Archipelago.

1026 A. C. Haddon, “Legends from Torres Straits,” _Folk-lore_, i. (1890) p. 195. We may conjecture that the “new yam time” means the time for planting yams.

1027 R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 159, 431 _sq._

1028 A. F. van Spreeuwenberg, “Een blik op de Minahassa,” _Tijdschrift voor Neerlands Indië_, Vierde Deel (Batavia, 1845), p. 316; J. G. F. Riedel, “De landschappen Holontalo, Limoeto, Bone, Boalemo, en Kattinggola, of Andagile,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xix. (1869) p. 140; _id._, in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, iii. (1871) p. 404.

1029 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, Second Edition (London, 1863), i. 214. Compare H. Low, _Sarawak_ (London, 1848), p. 251.

1030 Dr. Charles Hose, “Various Modes of computing the Time for Planting among the Races of Borneo,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 42 (Singapore, 1905), pp. 1 _sq._ Compare Charles Brooke, _Ten Years in Sarawak_ (London, 1866), i. 59; Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p. 229.

1031 Dr. Charles Hose, _op. cit._ p. 4. Compare _id._, “The Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiii. (1894) pp. 168 _sq._, where the writer tells us that the Kayans and many other races in Borneo sow the rice when the Pleiades appear just above the horizon at daybreak, though the Kayans more usually determine the time for sowing by observation of the sun. As to the Kayan mode of determining the time for sowing by the length of shadow cast by an upright pole, see also W. Kükenthal, _Forschungsreise in den Molukken und in Borneo_ (Frankfort, 1896), pp. 292 _sq._ Some Dyaks employ a species of sun-dial for dating the twelve months of the year. See H. E. D. Engelhaard, “Aanteekeningen betreffende de Kindjin Dajaks in het Landschap Baloengan,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxix. (1897) pp. 484-486.

1032 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 160.

1033 F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 424.

1034 R. Friederich, “Voorloopig Verslag van het eiland Bali,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxiii. (1849) p. 49.

1035 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias en deszelfs Bewoners,” _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) p. 119.

1036 W. Marsden, _History of Sumatra_, Third Edition (London, 1811), p. 71.

1037 F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 428.

M272 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the natives of Africa, Greeks, and Romans.

1038 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo, 1766), p. 217. The three stars are probably the Belt.

1039 See above, vol. i. p. 116.

1040 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 194 _sq._ Compare J. Sechefo, “The Twelve Lunar Months among the Basuto,” _Anthropos_, iv. (1909) p. 931.

1041 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p. 418. Compare G. Thompson, _Travels and Adventures in Southern Africa_ (London, 1827), ii. 359.

1042 Rev. H. Callaway, _The Religious System of the Amazulu_, Part iii. (London, etc., 1870), p. 397.

1043 R. Moffat, _Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa_ (London, 1842), pp. 337 _sq._

1044 Stephen Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833), p. 273.

1045 Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrika’s_ (Breslau, 1872). p. 340.

1046 Theophilus Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_ (London, 1881), p. 43, quoting the Moravian missionary George Schmidt, who was sent out to the Cape of Good Hope in 1737.

1047 H. S. Stannus, “Notes on some Tribes of British Central Africa,” _Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) p. 289.

1048 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 155, 198.

1049 May.

1050 June-August.

1051 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 275, compare p. 333. The “season of showers” seems to be a name for the dry season (June, July, August), when rain falls only occasionally; it is thus distinguished from the rainy season of winter, which begins after the reappearance of the Pleiades in September.

1052 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_, pp. 275 _sq._

1053 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 100.

1054 C. W. Hobley, “Further Researches into Kikuyu and Kamba Religious Beliefs and Customs,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xli. (1911) p. 442.

1055 Thomas Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), p. 48.

1056 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 383 _sq._, 615 _sqq._ See above, pp. 45, 48.

1057 Aratus, _Phaenomena_, 264-267; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 123, 125, xviii. 280, “_Vergiliae privatim attinent ad fructus, ut quarum exortu aestas incipiat, occasu hiems, semenstri spatio intra se messes vindemiasque et omnium maturitatem conplexae._” Compare L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 241 _sq._ Pliny dated the rising of the Pleiades on the 10th of May and their setting on the 11th of November (_Nat. Hist._ ii. 123, 125).

1058 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 49 and 223.

M273 The widespread association of the Pleiades with agriculture seems to be based on the coincidence of their rising or setting with the commencement of the rainy season.

1059 See above, p. 307.

1060 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, xvii. 10 _sqq._ If “the sweet influences of the Pleiades” in the Authorised Version of the English Bible were an exact translation of the corresponding Hebrew words in Job xxxviii. 31, we should naturally explain the “sweet influences” by the belief that the autumnal setting of the constellation is the cause of rain. But the rendering of the words is doubtful; it is not even certain that the constellation referred to is the Pleiades. See the commentaries of A. B. Davidson and Professor A. S. Peak on the passage. The Revised English Version translates the words in question “the cluster of the Pleiades.” Compare H. Grimme, _Das israelitische Pfingstfest und der Plejadenkult_ (Paderborn, 1907), pp. 61 _sqq._