CHAPTER XVII. TYPES OF ANIMAL SACRAMENT.

§ 1. The Egyptian and the Aino Types of Sacrament.

(M228) We are now perhaps in a position to understand the ambiguous behaviour of the Aino and Gilyaks towards the bear. It has been shewn that the sharp line of demarcation which we draw between mankind and the lower animals does not exist for the savage. To him many of the other animals appear as his equals or even his superiors, not merely in brute force but in intelligence; and if choice or necessity leads him to take their lives, he feels bound, out of regard to his own safety, to do it in a way which will be as inoffensive as possible not merely to the living animal, but to its departed spirit and to all the other animals of the same species, which would resent an affront put upon one of their kind much as a tribe of savages would revenge an injury or insult offered to a tribesman. We have seen that among the many devices by which the savage seeks to atone for the wrong done by him to his animal victims one is to shew marked deference to a few chosen individuals of the species, for such behaviour is apparently regarded as entitling him to exterminate with impunity all the rest of the species upon which he can lay hands. This principle perhaps explains the attitude, at first sight puzzling and contradictory, of the Aino towards the bear. The flesh and skin of the bear regularly afford them food and clothing; but since the bear is an intelligent and powerful animal, it is necessary to offer some satisfaction or atonement to the bear species for the loss which it sustains in the death of so many of its members. This satisfaction or atonement is made by rearing young bears, treating them, so long as they live, with respect, and killing them with extraordinary marks of sorrow and devotion. So the other bears are appeased, and do not resent the slaughter of their kind by attacking the slayers or deserting the country, which would deprive the Aino of one of their means of subsistence.

(M229) Thus the primitive worship of animals assumes two forms, which are in some respects the converse of each other. On the one hand, animals are worshipped, and are therefore neither killed nor eaten. On the other hand, animals are worshipped because they are habitually killed and eaten. In both forms of worship the animal is revered on account of some benefit, positive or negative, which the savage hopes to receive from it. In the former worship the benefit comes either in the positive form of protection, advice, and help which the animal affords the man, or in the negative one of abstinence from injuries which it is in the power of the animal to inflict. In the latter worship the benefit takes the material form of the animal’s flesh and skin. The two forms of worship are in some measure antithetical: in the one, the animal is not eaten because it is revered; in the other, it is revered because it is eaten. But both may be practised by the same people, as we see in the case of the North American Indians, who, while they apparently revere and spare their totem animals,(926) also revere the animals and fish upon which they subsist. The aborigines of Australia have totemism in the most primitive form known to us; but, so far as I am aware, there is no clear evidence that they attempt, like the North American Indians, to conciliate the animals which they kill and eat. The means which the Australians adopt to secure a plentiful supply of game appear to be primarily based, not on conciliation, but on sympathetic magic,(927) a principle to which the North American Indians also resort for the same purpose.(928) Hence, as the Australians undoubtedly represent a ruder and earlier stage of human progress than the American Indians, it would seem that before hunters think of worshipping the game as a means of ensuring an abundant supply of it, they seek to attain the same end by sympathetic magic. This, again, would shew—what there is good reason for believing—that sympathetic magic is one of the earliest means by which man endeavours to adapt the agencies of nature to his needs.

(M230) Corresponding to the two distinct types of animal worship, there are two distinct types of the custom of killing the animal god. On the one hand, when the revered animal is habitually spared, it is nevertheless killed—and sometimes eaten—on rare and solemn occasions. Examples of this custom have been already given and an explanation of them offered. On the other hand, when the revered animal is habitually killed, the slaughter of any one of the species involves the killing of the god, and is atoned for on the spot by apologies and sacrifices, especially when the animal is a powerful and dangerous one; and, in addition to this ordinary and everyday atonement, there is a special annual atonement, at which a select individual of the species is slain with extraordinary marks of respect and devotion. Clearly the two types of sacramental killing—the Egyptian and the Aino types, as we may call them for distinction—are liable to be confounded by an observer; and, before we can say to which type any particular example belongs, it is necessary to ascertain whether the animal sacramentally slain belongs to a species which is habitually spared, or to one which is habitually killed by the tribe. In the former case the example belongs to the Egyptian type of sacrament, in the latter to the Aino type.

(M231) The practice of pastoral tribes appears to furnish examples of both types of sacrament. “Pastoral tribes,” says a learned ethnologist, “being sometimes obliged to sell their herds to strangers who may handle the bones disrespectfully, seek to avert the danger which such a sacrilege would entail by consecrating one of the herd as an object of worship, eating it sacramentally in the family circle with closed doors, and afterwards treating the bones with all the ceremonious respect which, strictly speaking, should be accorded to every head of cattle, but which, being punctually paid to the representative animal, is deemed to be paid to all. Such family meals are found among various peoples, especially those of the Caucasus. When amongst the Abchases the shepherds in spring eat their common meal with their loins girt and their staves in their hands, this may be looked upon both as a sacrament and as an oath of mutual help and support. For the strongest of all oaths is that which is accompanied with the eating of a sacred substance, since the perjured person cannot possibly escape the avenging god whom he has taken into his body and assimilated.”(929) This kind of sacrament is of the Aino or expiatory type, since it is meant to atone to the species for the possible ill-usage of individuals. An expiation, similar in principle but different in details, is offered by the Kalmucks to the sheep, whose flesh is one of their staple foods. Rich Kalmucks are in the habit of consecrating a white ram under the title of “the ram of heaven” or “the ram of the spirit.” The animal is never shorn and never sold; but when it grows old and its owner wishes to consecrate a new one, the old ram must be killed and eaten at a feast to which the neighbours are invited. On a lucky day, generally in autumn when the sheep are fat, a sorcerer kills the old ram, after sprinkling it with milk. Its flesh is eaten; the skeleton, with a portion of the fat, is burned on a turf altar; and the skin, with the head and feet, is hung up.(930)

(M232) An example of a sacrament of the Egyptian type is furnished by the Todas, a pastoral people of Southern India, who subsist largely upon the milk of their buffaloes. Amongst them “the buffalo is to a certain degree held sacred” and “is treated with great kindness, even with a degree of adoration, by the people.”(931) They never eat the flesh of the cow buffalo, and as a rule abstain from the flesh of the male. But to the latter rule there is a single exception. Once a year all the adult males of the village join in the ceremony of killing and eating a very young male calf,—seemingly under a month old. They take the animal into the dark recesses of the village wood, where it is killed with a club made from the sacred tree of the Todas (the _tûde_ or _Millingtonia_). A sacred fire having been made by the rubbing of sticks, the flesh of the calf is roasted on the embers of certain trees, and is eaten by the men alone, women being excluded from the assembly. This is the only occasion on which the Todas eat buffalo flesh.(932) The Madi or Moru tribe of Central Africa, whose chief wealth is their cattle, though they also practise agriculture, appear to kill a lamb sacramentally on certain solemn occasions. The custom is thus described by Dr. Felkin: “A remarkable custom is observed at stated times—once a year, I am led to believe. I have not been able to ascertain what exact meaning is attached to it. It appears, however, to relieve the people’s minds, for beforehand they evince much sadness, and seem very joyful when the ceremony is duly accomplished. The following is what takes place: A large concourse of people of all ages assemble, and sit down round a circle of stones, which is erected by the side of a road (really a narrow path). A very choice lamb is then fetched by a boy, who leads it four times round the assembled people. As it passes they pluck off little bits of its fleece and place them in their hair, or on to some other part of their body. The lamb is then led up to the stones, and there killed by a man belonging to a kind of priestly order, who takes some of the blood and sprinkles it four times over the people. He then applies it individually. On the children he makes a small ring of blood over the lower end of the breast bone, on women and girls he makes a mark above the breasts, and the men he touches on each shoulder. He then proceeds to explain the ceremony, and to exhort the people to show kindness.... When this discourse, which is at times of great length, is over, the people rise, each places a leaf on or by the circle of stones, and then they depart with signs of great joy. The lamb’s skull is hung on a tree near the stones, and its flesh is eaten by the poor. This ceremony is observed on a small scale at other times. If a family is in any great trouble, through illness or bereavement, their friends and neighbours come together and a lamb is killed; this is thought to avert further evil. The same custom prevails at the grave of departed friends, and also on joyful occasions, such as the return of a son home after a very prolonged absence.”(933) The sorrow thus manifested by the people at the annual slaughter of the lamb clearly indicates that the lamb slain is a sacred or divine animal, whose death is mourned by his worshippers,(934) just as the death of the sacred buzzard was mourned by the Californians and the death of the Theban ram by the Egyptians. The smearing each of the worshippers with the blood of the lamb is a form of communion with the divinity;(935) the vehicle of the divine life is applied externally instead of being taken internally, as when the blood is drunk or the flesh eaten.

§ 2. Processions with Sacred Animals.

(M233) The form of communion in which the sacred animal is taken from house to house, that all may enjoy a share of its divine influence, has been exemplified by the Gilyak custom of promenading the bear through the village before it is slain.(936) A similar form of communion with the sacred snake is observed by a Snake tribe in the Punjaub. Once a year in the month of September the snake is worshipped by all castes and religions for nine days only. At the end of August the Mirasans, especially those of the Snake tribe, make a snake of dough which they paint black and red, and place on a winnowing basket. This basket they carry round the village, and on entering any house they say:—

“_God be with you all!_ _May every ill be far!_ _May our patron’s (Gugga’s) word thrive!_”

Then they present the basket with the snake, saying:—

“_A small cake of flour:_ _A little bit of butter:_ _If you obey the snake,_ _You and yours shall thrive!_”

Strictly speaking, a cake and butter should be given, but it is seldom done. Every one, however, gives something, generally a handful of dough or some corn. In houses where there is a new bride or whence a bride has gone, or where a son has been born, it is usual to give a rupee and a quarter, or some cloth. Sometimes the bearers of the snake also sing:—

“_Give the snake a piece of cloth,_ _And he will send a lively bride!_”

When every house has been thus visited, the dough snake is buried and a small grave is erected over it. Thither during the nine days of September the women come to worship. They bring a basin of curds, a small portion of which they offer at the snake’s grave, kneeling on the ground and touching the earth with their foreheads. Then they go home and divide the rest of the curds among the children. Here the dough snake is clearly a substitute for a real snake. Indeed, in districts where snakes abound the worship is offered, not at the grave of the dough snake, but in the jungles where snakes are known to be. Besides this yearly worship, performed by all the people, the members of the Snake tribe worship in the same way every morning after a new moon. The Snake tribe is not uncommon in the Punjaub. Members of it will not kill a snake, and they say that its bite does not hurt them. If they find a dead snake, they put clothes on it and give it a regular funeral.(937)

(M234) Ceremonies closely analogous to this Indian worship of the snake have survived in Europe into recent times, and doubtless date from a very primitive paganism. The best-known example is the “hunting of the wren.” By many European peoples—the ancient Greeks and Romans, the modern Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, Dutch, Danes, Swedes, English, and Welsh—the wren has been designated the king, the little king, the king of birds, the hedge king, and so forth,(938) and has been reckoned amongst those birds which it is extremely unlucky to kill. In England it is supposed that if any one kills a wren or harries its nest, he will infallibly break a bone or meet with some dreadful misfortune within the year;(939) sometimes it is thought that the cows will give bloody milk.(940) In Scotland the wren is called “the Lady of Heaven’s hen,” and boys say:—

“_Malisons, malisons, mair than ten,_ _That harry the Ladye of Heaven’s hen!_”(941)

At Saint Donan, in Brittany, people believe that if children touch the young wrens in the nest, they will suffer from the fire of St. Lawrence, that is, from pimples on the face, legs, and so on.(942) In other parts of France it is thought that if a person kills a wren or harries its nest, his house will be struck by lightning, or that the fingers with which he did the deed will shrivel up and drop off, or at least be maimed, or that his cattle will suffer in their feet.(943)

(M235) Notwithstanding such beliefs, the custom of annually killing the wren has prevailed widely both in this country and in France. In the Isle of Man down to the eighteenth century the custom was observed on Christmas Eve or rather Christmas morning. On the twenty-fourth of December, towards evening, all the servants got a holiday; they did not go to bed all night, but rambled about till the bells rang in all the churches at midnight. When prayers were over, they went to hunt the wren, and having found one of these birds they killed it and fastened it to the top of a long pole with its wings extended. Thus they carried it in procession to every house chanting the following rhyme:—

“_We hunted the wren for Robin the Bobbin,_ _We hunted the wren for Jack of the Can,_ _We hunted the wren for Robin the Bobbin,_ _We hunted the wren for every one._”

When they had gone from house to house and collected all the money they could, they laid the wren on a bier and carried it in procession to the parish churchyard, where they made a grave and buried it “with the utmost solemnity, singing dirges over her in the Manks language, which they call her knell; after which Christmas begins.” The burial over, the company outside the churchyard formed a circle and danced to music. About the middle of the nineteenth century the burial of the wren took place in the Isle of Man on St. Stephen’s Day (the twenty-sixth of December). Boys went from door to door with a wren suspended by the legs in the centre of two hoops, which crossed each other at right angles and were decorated with evergreens and ribbons. The bearers sang certain lines in which reference was made to boiling and eating the bird. If at the close of the song they received a small coin, they gave in return a feather of the wren; so that before the end of the day the bird often hung almost featherless. The wren was then buried, no longer in the churchyard, but on the sea-shore or in some waste place. The feathers distributed were preserved with religious care, it being believed that every feather was an effectual preservative from shipwreck for a year, and a fisherman would have been thought very foolhardy who had not one of them.(944) Even to the present time, in the twentieth century, the custom is generally observed, at least in name, on St. Stephen’s Day, throughout the Isle of Man.(945)

(M236) A writer of the eighteenth century says that in Ireland the wren “is still hunted and killed by the peasants on Christmas Day, and on the following (St. Stephen’s Day) he is carried about, hung by the leg, in the centre of two hoops, crossing each other at right angles, and a procession made in every village, of men, women, and children, singing an Irish catch, importing him to be the king of all birds.”(946) Down to the present time the “hunting of the wren” still takes place in parts of Leinster and Connaught. On Christmas Day or St. Stephen’s Day the boys hunt and kill the wren, fasten it in the middle of a mass of holly and ivy on the top of a broomstick, and on St. Stephen’s Day go about with it from house to house, singing:—

“_The wren, the wren, the king of all birds,_ _St. Stephen’s Day was caught in the furze;_ _Although he is little, his family’s great,_ _I pray you, good landlady, give us a treat._”

Money or food (bread, butter, eggs, etc.) were given them, upon which they feasted in the evening.(947) In Essex a similar custom used to be observed at Christmas, and the verses sung by the boys were almost identical with those sung in Ireland.(948) In Pembrokeshire a wren, called the King, used to be carried about on Twelfth Day in a box with glass windows surmounted by a wheel, from which hung various coloured ribbons. The men and boys who carried it from house to house sang songs, in one of which they wished joy, health, love, and peace to the inmates of the house.(949)

(M237) In the first half of the nineteenth century similar customs were still observed in various parts of the south of France. Thus at Carcassone, every year on the first Sunday of December the young people of the street Saint Jean used to go out of the town armed with sticks, with which they beat the bushes, looking for wrens. The first to strike down one of these birds was proclaimed King. Then they returned to the town in procession, headed by the King, who carried the wren on a pole. On the evening of the last day of the year the King and all who had hunted the wren marched through the streets of the town to the light of torches, with drums beating and fifes playing in front of them. At the door of every house they stopped, and one of them wrote with chalk on the door _vive le roi!_ with the number of the year which was about to begin. On the morning of Twelfth Day the King again marched in procession with great pomp, wearing a crown and a blue mantle and carrying a sceptre. In front of him was borne the wren fastened to the top of a pole, which was adorned with a verdant wreath of olive, of oak, and sometimes of mistletoe grown on an oak. After hearing high mass in the parish church of St. Vincent, surrounded by his officers and guards, the King visited the bishop, the mayor, the magistrates, and the chief inhabitants, collecting money to defray the expenses of the royal banquet which took place in the evening and wound up with a dance.(950) At Entraigues men and boys used to hunt the wren on Christmas Eve. When they caught one alive they presented it to the priest, who, after the midnight mass, set the bird free in the church. At Mirabeau the priest blessed the bird. If the men failed to catch a wren and the women succeeded in doing so, the women had the right to mock and insult the men, and to blacken their faces with mud and soot, when they caught them.(951) At La Ciotat, near Marseilles, a large body of men armed with swords and pistols used to hunt the wren every year about the end of December. When a wren was caught it was hung on the middle of a pole, which two men carried, as if it were a heavy burden. Thus they paraded round the town; the bird was weighed in a great pair of scales; and then the company sat down to table and made merry.(952)

(M238) The parallelism between this custom of “hunting the wren” and some of those which we have considered, especially the Gilyak procession with the bear, and the Indian one with the snake, seems too close to allow us to doubt that they all belong to the same circle of ideas. The worshipful animal is killed with special solemnity once a year; and before or immediately after death he is promenaded from door to door, that each of his worshippers may receive a portion of the divine virtues that are supposed to emanate from the dead or dying god. Religious processions of this sort must have had a great place in the ritual of European peoples in prehistoric times, if we may judge from the numerous traces of them which have survived in folk-custom. A well-preserved specimen is the following, which lasted in the Highlands of Scotland and in St. Kilda down at least to the latter half of the eighteenth century. It was described to Dr. Samuel Johnson in the island of Coll.(953) Another description of it runs as follows: “On the evening before New Year’s Day it is usual for the cowherd and the young people to meet together, and one of them is covered with a cow’s hide. The rest of the company are provided with staves, to the end of which bits of raw hide are tied. The person covered with the hide runs thrice round the dwelling-house, _deiseil_—_i.e._ according to the course of the sun; the rest pursue, beating the hide with their staves, and crying [here follows the Gaelic], ‘Let us raise the noise louder and louder; let us beat the hide.’ They then come to the door of each dwelling-house, and one of them repeats some verses composed for the purpose. When admission is granted, one of them pronounces within the threshold the _beannachadthurlair_, or verses by which he pretends to draw down a blessing upon the whole family [here follows the Gaelic], ‘May God bless the house and all that belongs to it, cattle, stones, and timber! In plenty of meat, of bed and body-clothes, and health of men, may it ever abound!’ Then each burns in the fire a little of the bit of hide which is tied to the end of the staff. It is applied to the nose of every person and domestic animal that belongs to the house. This, they imagine, will tend much to secure them from diseases and other misfortunes during the ensuing year. The whole of the ceremony is called _colluinn_, from the great noise which the hide makes. It is the principal remnant of superstition among the inhabitants of St. Kilda.”(954)

(M239) A more recent writer has described the old Highland custom as follows. Towards evening on the last day of the year, or Hogmanay, as the day is called in Scotland, “men began to gather and boys ran about shouting and laughing, playing shinty, and rolling ‘pigs of snow’ (_mucan sneachda_), _i.e._ large snowballs. The hide of the mart or winter cow (_seiche a mhairt gheamhraidh_) was wrapped round the head of one of the men, and he made off, followed by the rest, belabouring the hide, which made a noise like a drum, with switches. The disorderly procession went three times _deiseal_, according to the course of the sun (_i.e._ keeping the house on the right hand) round each house in the village, striking the walls and shouting on coming to a door:

‘_The_ calluinn _of the yellow bag of hide,_ _Strike the skin (upon the wall)_ _An old wife in the graveyard,_ _An old wife in the corner,_ _Another old wife beside the fire,_ _A pointed stick in her two eyes,_ _A pointed stick in her stomach,_ _Let me in, open this._’

“Before this request was complied with, each of the revellers had to repeat a rhyme, called _Rann Calluinn_ (_i.e._ a Christmas rhyme), though, as might be expected when the door opened for one, several pushed their way in, till it was ultimately left open for all. On entering each of the party was offered refreshments, oatmeal bread, cheese, flesh, and a dram of whisky. Their leader gave to the goodman of the house that indispensable adjunct of the evening’s mummeries, the _Caisein-uchd_, the breast-stripe of a sheep wrapped round the point of a shinty stick. This was then singed in the fire (_teallach_), put three times with the right-hand turn (_deiseal_) round the family, and held to the noses of all. Not a drop of drink was given till this ceremony was performed. The _Caisein-uchd_ was also made of the breast-stripe or tail of a deer, sheep, or goat, and as many as chose had one with them.”(955) Another writer who gives a similar account of the ceremony and of the verses sung by the performers, tells us that the intention of putting the burnt sheep-skin to the noses of the people was to protect them against witchcraft and every infection.(956) The explanation, which is doubtless correct, reminds us of the extraordinarily persistent hold which the belief in sorcery and witchcraft has retained on the minds of the European peasantry. Formerly, perhaps, pieces of the cow-hide in which the man was clad were singed and put to the noses of the people, just as in the Isle of Man a feather of the wren used to be given to each household. Similarly, as we have seen, the human victim whom the Khonds slew as a divinity was taken from house to house, and every one strove to obtain a relic of his sacred person.(957) Such customs are only another form of that communion with the deity which is attained most completely by eating the body and drinking the blood of the god.

§ 3. The Rites of Plough Monday.

(M240) In the “hunting of the wren,” and the procession with the man clad in a cow-skin, there is nothing to shew that the customs in question have any relation to agriculture. So far as appears, they may date from a time before the invention of husbandry when animals were revered as divine in themselves, not merely as divine because they embodied the corn-spirit; and the analogy of the Gilyak procession of the bear and the Indian procession of the snake is in favour of assigning the corresponding European customs to this very early date. On the other hand, there are certain European processions of animals, or of men disguised as animals, which may perhaps be purely agricultural in their origin; in other words, the animals which figure in them may have been from the first nothing but representatives of the corn-spirit conceived in animal shape. Examples of such dramatic and at the same time religious rites have been collected by W. Mannhardt, who says of them in general: “Not only on the harvest field and on the threshing-floor but also quite apart from them people loved to represent the corn-spirit dramatically, especially in solemn processions in spring and about the winter solstice, whereby they meant to depict the return of the beneficent powers of summer to the desolate realm of nature.”(958) Thus, for example, in country districts of Bohemia it is, or used to be, customary during the last days of the Carnival for young men to go about in procession from house to house collecting gratuities. Usually a man or boy is swathed from head to foot in pease-straw and wrapt round in straw-ropes: thus attired he goes by the name of the Shrovetide or Carnival Bear (_Fastnachtsbär_) and is led from house to house to the accompaniment of music and singing. In every house he dances with the girls, the maids, and the housewife herself, and drinks to the health of the good man, the good wife, and the girls. For this performance the mummer is regaled with food by the good wife, while the good man puts money in his box. When the mummers have gone the round of the village, they betake themselves to the ale-house, whither also all the peasants repair with their wives; “for at Shrovetide, but especially on Shrove Tuesday, every one must dance, if the flax, the vegetables, and the corn are to thrive; and the more and the higher they dance, the greater the blessing which the people expect to crown their exertions.” In the Leitmeritz district the Shrovetide Bear, besides being wrapt in straw, sometimes wears a bear’s mask to emphasise his resemblance to the animal. In the Czech villages the housewives pluck the pease-straw and other straw from the Shrovetide Bear and put it in the nests of their geese, believing that the geese will lay more eggs and hatch their broods better for the addition of this straw to their nests. For a similar purpose in the Saaz district the women put the straw of the Shrovetide Bear in the nests of their hens.(959) In these customs the dancing for the express purpose of making the crops grow high,(960) and the use of the straw to make the geese and hens lay more eggs, sufficiently prove that the Shrovetide Bear is conceived to represent the spirit of fertility both animal and vegetable; and we may reasonably conjecture that the dances of the mummer with the women and girls are especially intended to convey to them the fertilising powers of the spirit whom the mummer personates.(961)

(M241) In some parts of Bohemia the straw-clad man in these Shrovetide processions is called, not the Bear, but the Oats-goat, and he wears horns on his head to give point to the name.(962) These different names and disguises indicate that in some places the corn-spirit is conceived as a bear and in others as a goat. Many examples of the conception of the corn-spirit as a goat have already been cited;(963) the conception of him as a bear seems to be less common. In the neighbourhood of Gniewkowo, in Prussian Lithuania, the two ideas are combined, for on Twelfth Day a man wrapt in pease-straw to represent a Bear and another wrapt in oats-straw to represent a Goat go together about the village; they imitate the actions of the two animals and perform dances, for which they receive a present in every house.(964) At Marburg in Steiermark the corn-spirit figures now as a wolf and now as a bear. The man who gave the last stroke at threshing is called the Wolf. All the other men flee from the barn, and wait till the Wolf comes forth; whereupon they pounce on him, wrap him in straw to resemble a wolf, and so lead him about the village. He keeps the name of Wolf till Christmas, when he is wrapt in a goat’s skin and led from house to house as a Pease-bear at the end of a rope.(965) In this custom the dressing of the mummer in a goat’s skin seems to mark him out as the representative of a goat; so that here the mythical fancy of the people apparently hesitates between a goat, a bear, and a wolf as the proper embodiment of the corn-spirit. In Scandinavia the conception of the spirit as a goat who appears at Christmas (_Julbuck_) appears to be common. Thus, for example, in Bergslagshärad (Sweden) it used to be customary at Christmas to lead about a man completely wrapt in corn-straw and wearing a goat’s horns on his head: he personated the Yule-goat.(966) In some parts of Sweden a regular feature of the little Christmas drama is a pretence of slaughtering the Yule-goat, who, however, comes to life again. The actor, hidden by a coverlet made of skins and wearing a pair of formidable horns, is led into the room by two men, who make believe to slaughter him, while they sing verses referring to the mantles of various colours, red, blue, white, and yellow, which they laid on him, one after the other. At the conclusion of the song, the Yule-goat, after feigning death, jumps up and skips about to the amusement of the spectators.(967) In Willstad after supper on Christmas evening, while the people are dancing “the angel dance” for the sake of ensuring a good crop of flax, some long stalks of the Yule straw, either of wheat or rye, are made up into the likeness of a goat, which is thrown among the dancers with the cry, “Catch the Yule-goat!” The custom in Dalarne is similar, except that there the straw-animal goes by the name of the Yule-ram.(968) In these customs the identification of the Yule-goat or the Yule-ram with the corn-spirit seems unmistakable. As if to clinch the argument it is customary in Denmark and Sweden to bake cakes of fine meal at Christmas in the form of goats, rams, or boars. These are called Yule-goats, Yule-rams, or Yule-boars; they are often made out of the last sheaf of corn at harvest and kept till sowing-time, when they are partly mixed with the seed-corn and partly eaten by the people and the plough-oxen in the hope thereby of securing a good harvest.(969) It would seem scarcely possible to represent the identification of the corn-spirit with an animal, whether goat, ram, or boar, more graphically; for the last corn cut at harvest is regularly supposed to house the corn-spirit, who is accordingly caught, kept through the winter in the shape of an animal, and then mixed with the seed in spring to quicken the grain before it is committed to the ground. Examples of the corn-spirit conceived as a wether and a boar have met us in a preceding part of this work.(970) The pretence of killing the Yule-goat and bringing him to life again was probably in origin a magical rite to ensure the rebirth of the corn-spirit in spring.

(M242) In England a custom like some of the preceding still prevails at Whittlesey in Cambridgeshire on the Tuesday after Plough Monday, as I learn from an obliging communication of Professor G. C. Moore Smith of Sheffield University. He writes: “When I was at Whittlesey yesterday I had the pleasure of meeting a ‘Straw-bear,’ if not two, in the street. I had not been at Whittlesey on the day for nearly forty years, and feared the custom had died out. In my boyhood the Straw-bear was a man completely swathed in straw, led by a string by another and made to dance in front of people’s houses, in return for which money was expected. This always took place on the Tuesday following Plough-Monday. Yesterday the Straw-bear was a boy, and I saw no dancing. Otherwise there was no change.”(971)

(M243) A comparison of this English custom with the similar Continental customs which have been described above, raises a presumption that the Straw-bear, who is thus led about from house to house, represents the corn-spirit bestowing his blessing on every homestead in the village. This interpretation is strongly confirmed by the date at which the ceremony takes place. For the date is the day after Plough Monday, and it can hardly be doubted that the old popular celebration of Plough Monday has a direct reference to agriculture. Plough Monday is the first Monday of January after Twelfth Day. On that day it used to be the custom in various parts of England for a band of sturdy swains to drag a gaily decorated plough from house to house and village to village, collecting contributions which were afterwards spent in rustic revelry at a tavern. The men who drew the plough were called Plough Bullocks; they wore their shirts over their coats, and bunches of ribbons flaunted from their hats and persons. Among them there was always one who personated a much bedizened old woman called Bessy; under his gown he formerly had a bullock’s tail fastened to him behind, but this appendage was afterwards discarded. He skipped, danced and cut capers, and carried a money-box soliciting contributions from the onlookers. Some of the band, in addition to their ribbons, “also wore small bunches of corn in their hats, from which the wheat was soon shaken out by the ungainly jumping which they called dancing. Occasionally, if the winter was severe, the procession was joined by threshers carrying their flails, reapers bearing their sickles, and carters with their long whips, which they were ever cracking to add to the noise, while even the smith and the miller were among the number, for the one sharpened the plough-shares and the other ground the corn; and Bessy rattled his box and danced so high that he shewed his worsted stockings and corduroy breeches; and very often, if there was a thaw, tucked up his gown skirts under his waistcoat, and shook the bonnet off his head, and disarranged the long ringlets that ought to have concealed his whiskers.” Sometimes among the mummers there was a Fool, who wore the skin of a calf with the tail hanging down behind, and wielded a stick with an inflated bladder tied to it, which he applied with rude vigour to the heads and shoulders of the human team. Another mummer generally wore a fox’s skin in the form of a hood with the tail dangling on his back. If any churl refused to contribute to the money-box, the plough-bullocks put their shoulders to the plough and ploughed up the ground in front of his door.(972)

(M244) The clue to the meaning of these curious rites is probably furnished by the dances or rather jumps of the men who wore bunches of corn in their hats. When we remember how often on the Continent about the same time of year the peasants dance and jump for the express purpose of making the crops grow tall, we may conjecture with some probability that the intention of the dancers on Plough Monday was similar; the original notion, we may suppose, was that the corn would grow that year just as high as the dancers leaped. If that was so, we need not wonder at the agility displayed on these occasions by the yokels in general and by Bessy in particular. What stronger incentive could they have to exert themselves than the belief that the higher they leaped into the air the higher would sprout the corn-stalks? In short, the whole ceremony was probably a magical rite intended to procure a good crop. The principle on which it rested was the familiar one of homoeopathic or imitative magic: by mimicking the act of ploughing and the growth of the corn the mummers hoped to ensure the success of the real ploughing, which was soon to take place.

(M245) If such was the real meaning of the ritual of Plough Monday, we may the more confidently assume that the Straw-bear who makes his appearance at Whittlesey in Cambridgeshire on the day after Plough Monday represents indeed the corn-spirit. What could be more appropriate than for that beneficent being to manifest himself from house to house the very day after a magical ceremony had been performed to quicken the growth of the corn?

(M246) The foregoing interpretation of the rites observed in England on Plough Monday tallies well with the explanation which I have given of the very similar rites annually performed at the end of the Carnival in Thrace.(973) The mock ploughing is probably practised for the same purpose in both cases, and what that purpose is may be safely inferred from the act of sowing and the offering of prayers for abundant crops which accompany and explain the Thracian ceremony. It deserves to be noted that ceremonies of the same sort and closely resembling those of Plough Monday are not confined to the Greek villages of Thrace but are observed also by the Bulgarians of that province at the same time, namely, on the Monday of the last week in Carnival. Thus at Malko-Tirnovsko, in the district of Adrianople, a procession of mummers goes through the streets on that day. The principal personages in it bear the names of the _Kuker_ and _Kukerica_. The _Kuker_ is a man clad in a goatskin. His face is blackened with soot and he wears on his head a high shaggy hat made of an entire skin. Bells jingle at his girdle, and in his hand he carries a club. The _Kukerica_, who sometimes goes by the name of _Baba_, that is, “Old Woman,” is a man disguised in petticoats with his face blackened. Other figures in the procession are young men dressed as girls, and girls dressed as men and wearing masks. Bears are represented by dogs wrapt in bearskins. A king, a judge, and other officials are personated by other mummers; they hold a mock court and those whom they condemn receive a bastinado. Some of the maskers carry clubs; it is their duty to beat all who fall into their hands and to levy contributions from them. The play and gestures of the _Kuker_ and _Kukerica_ are wanton and lascivious: the songs and cries addressed to the _Kuker_ are also very cynical. Towards evening two of the company are yoked to a plough, and the _Kuker_ ploughs a few furrows, which he thereupon sows with corn. After sunset he puts off his disguise, is paid for his trouble, and carouses with his fellows. The people believe that the man who plays the part of _Kuker_ commits a deadly sin, and the priests make vain efforts to abolish the custom. At the village of Kuria, in the district of Losengrad, the custom is in general the same, but there are some significant variations. The money collected by the mummers is used to buy wine, which is distributed among all the villagers at a banquet in the evening. On this occasion a cake in which an old coin has been baked is produced by the _Kuker_, broken into bits, and so divided among all present. If the bit with the coin in it falls to a farmer, then the crops will be good that year; but if it falls to a herdsman, then the cattle will thrive. Finally, the _Kuker_ ploughs a small patch of ground, “bending his body to right and left in order to indicate symbolically the ears of corn bending under the weight of the grain.” The others lay hold of the man with whom the coin was found, bind him by the feet, and drag him over the land that has just been ploughed.(974) In these observances the intention of promoting the fertility of the ground is unmistakable; the ploughman’s imitation of the cornstalks bending under their own weight is a simple case of homoeopathic or imitative magic, while the omens drawn from the occupation of the person who obtains the piece of cake with the coin in it indicate that the ceremony is designed to quicken the herds as well as the crops. We can hardly doubt that the same serious motive underlies the seemingly wanton gestures of the principal actors and explains the loose character of the songs and words which accompany the ceremony. Nor is it hard to divine the reason for dragging over the fresh furrows the man who is lucky enough to get the coin in the cake. He is probably looked on as an embodiment of the corn-spirit, and in that character is compelled to fertilise the ground by bodily contact with the newly-ploughed earth.

(M247) Similar customs are observed at the Carnival not only by Bulgarian peasants in Thrace but also here and there in Bulgaria itself. In that country the leading personage of the masquerade is the _Baba_, that is, the Old Woman or Mother. The part is played by a man in woman’s clothes; she, or rather he, wears no mask, but in many villages she carries a spindle with which she spins. The _Kuker_ and the _Kukerica_ also figure in the performance, but they are subordinate to the Old Woman or Mother. Their costume varies in different villages. Usually they are clad in skins with a girdle of lime-tree bark and five or six bells fastened to it; on their back they wear a hump made up of rags. But the principal feature in their attire consists of their masks, which represent the heads of animals and men in fantastic combinations, such as the horned head of a man or a bird, the head of a ram, a bull, and so on. Much labour is spent on the manufacture of these masks. Early in the morning of Cheese Monday (the Monday of the last week in Carnival) the mummers go about the village levying contributions. Towards noon they form a procession and go from house to house. In every house they dance a round dance, while the Old Woman spins. It is believed that if any house-holder contrives to carry off the Old Woman and secrete her, a blessing and prosperity will enter into his dwelling; but the maskers defend the Old Woman stoutly against all such attempts of individuals to appropriate her beneficent presence. After the dance the mummers receive gifts of money, eggs, meal, and so on. Towards evening a round dance is danced in the village square, and there the Old Woman yokes the _Kuker_ and _Kukerica_ to a plough, ploughs with it a small piece of ground, and sows the ground with corn. Next day the performers reassemble, sell the presents they had collected, and with the produce hold a feast in the house of the Old Woman. It is supposed that if strange maskers make their way into a village, fertility will be drawn away to the village from which they have come; hence the villagers resist an inroad of strange maskers at any price. In general the people believe that the masquerade is performed for the purpose of increasing the luck and fertility of the village.(975)

(M248) In these Bulgarian rites, accordingly, we are not left to form conjectures as to the intention with which they are practised; that intention is plainly avowed, and it is no other than the one which we have inferred for the similar rites observed in Thrace at the same season and in England on Plough Monday. In all these cases it is reasonable to suppose that the real aim of the ceremonial ploughing and sowing of the ground is thereby, on the principles of homoeopathic or imitative magic, to ensure the growth of the corn on all the fields of the community. Perhaps we may go a step further and suggest that in the Bulgarian Old Woman or Mother, who guides the plough and sows the seed, and whose presence is believed to bring a blessing to any household that can contrive to appropriate her, we have the rustic prototype of Demeter, the Corn-Mother, who in the likeness of an Old Woman brought a blessing to the house of Celeus, king of Eleusis, and restored their lost fertility to the fallow Eleusinian fields. And in the pair of mummers, man and woman, who draw the plough, may we not discern the rude originals of Pluto and Persephone? If that is so, the gods of Greece are not wholly dead; they still hide their diminished heads in the cottages of the peasantry, to come forth on sunshine holidays and parade, with a simple but expressive pageantry, among a gazing crowd of rustics, at the very moment of the year when their help is most wanted by the husbandman.

(M249) Be that as it may, these rites still practised by the peasantry at opposite ends of Europe, no doubt date from an extremely early age in the history of agriculture. They are probably far older than Christianity, older even than those highly developed forms of Greek religion with which ancient writers and artists have made us familiar, but which have been for so many centuries a thing of the past. Thus it happens that, while the fine flower of the religious consciousness in myth, ritual, and art is fleeting and evanescent, its simpler forms are comparatively stable and permanent, being rooted deep in those principles of common minds which bid fair to outlive all the splendid but transient creations of genius. It may be that the elaborate theologies, the solemn rites, the stately temples, which now attract the reverence or the wonder of mankind, are destined themselves to pass away like “all Olympus’ faded hierarchy,” and that simple folk will still cherish the simple faiths of their nameless and dateless forefathers, will still believe in witches and fairies, in ghosts and hobgoblins, will still mumble the old spells and make the old magic passes, when the muezzin shall have ceased to call the faithful to prayer from the minarets of St. Sophia, and when the worshippers shall gather no more in the long-drawn aisles of Nôtre Dame and under the dome of St. Peter’s.

NOTE: THE CEREMONY OF THE HORSE AT RICE-HARVEST AMONG THE GAROS.

(M250) Among the Garos, an agricultural tribe of Assam, the close of the rice-harvest is celebrated by a festival in which the effigy of a horse figures prominently. The intention of the ceremony is not stated, but possibly it may be to ensure a good rice crop in the following year. If so, the artificial horse of the Garos would be analogous to the October horse of the Romans, as that animal has been explained by W. Mannhardt. For the sake of comparison it may be well to subjoin Major A. Playfair’s account of the Garo ceremony:—(976)

(M251) “When the rice harvest has been fully gathered in, the great sacrifice and festival of the year, the _Wangala_ or _Guréwata_, takes place. This is the most festive observance of the year, and combines religious sacrifice with much conviviality. It is celebrated by all sections of the tribe except the Duals and some Plains Garos. The cost of the entertainment falls principally on the _nokma_ [headman] of the village, who provides a pig to be eaten by his guests, and plenty of liquor. Among the Akawés and Chisaks of the north and north-eastern hills a curious feature of the ceremony is the manufacture of _guré_ or ‘horses’ out of pieces of plantain-stem for the body, and of bamboo for the head and legs. The image of the ‘horse’ is laid on the floor of the _nokma’s_ house, and the assembled guests dance and sing around it the whole night long, with the usual intervals for refreshments. Early the next morning, the ‘horse’ is taken to the nearest river and launched on the water to find its way down stream on the current. For those who possess the necessary paraphernalia, the _guré_ takes the shape of a horse’s head of large size, made of straw, and covered with cloth. I once saw one in the village of Rongrong, which, when in use, was ornamented with discs of brass on both sides of the face. Its eyes and ears were made of the same metal, and between the ears were fixed a pair of wild goat’s horns. To the head were attached a number of bronze bells similar to those hawked about by Bhutia pedlars. The owner, a _laskar_, was unable to tell me whence they came, but said that they were inherited from his wife’s mother, and were many generations old.

(M252) “The manner in which this form of _guré_ is used is the following. The head is mounted on a stick, which a man holds before him in such a way that the head comes up to the level of his chest. Two straps pass over his shoulders to relieve his hands of the weight. The body of the ‘horse’ is then built round his own body with cane and cloth. For a tail, yak’s tails are fastened in with his own hair, which, for the occasion, is allowed to hang down instead of being tied up. The performer thus apparelled, commences to dance a shuffling step to the usual music. In front of him dances the priest, who goes through the pantomime of beckoning the animal to come to him. The remaining guests of the _nokma_ [headman] form a _queue_ behind the ’horse,’ and dance after it. When the first man gets tired, another takes his place, and the dancing goes on right through the night. A pleasant part of the performance is the pelting of the _guré_ with eggs. A piece of egg-shell was still sticking to the horn of the _guré_ which was shown to me.

“Strictly speaking, this festival should last for three days and two nights. When it is over, the _guré_ is taken to a stream and the body thrown into the water, the head being preserved for another year. The people who come to see it off, bring rice with them, and a meal by the water’s edge closes the proceedings.

“At the _Wangala_, it is the custom to mix flour with water, and for the assembled people to dip their hands into the mixture and make white hand-marks on the posts and walls of the house and on the backs of the guests.”

(M253) Can it be that the horse whose effigy is thus made at rice-harvest and thrown into the water, while the head is kept for another year, represents the spirit of the rice? If that were so, the pelting of the head with eggs would be a charm to ensure fertility and the throwing of it into water would be a rain-charm. And on the same theory the horse’s head would be comparable to the horse-headed Demeter of Phigalia(977) as well as to the head of the October horse at Rome, which was nailed to a wall, probably to be kept there till next October. If we knew more about the rites of the horse-headed Demeter at Phigalia, we might find that amongst them was a dance of a man or woman who wore the mask of a horse’s head and personated the goddess herself, just as, if I am right, the man who dances disguised as a horse at the harvest festival of the Garos, represents the spirit of the rice dancing among the garnered sheaves. The conjecture is to some extent supported by the remains of the magnificent marble drapery, which once adorned the colossal statue of Demeter or Persephone in the sanctuary of the two goddesses at Lycosura, in Arcadia; for on that drapery are carved rows of semi-human, semi-bestial figures dancing and playing musical instruments; the bodies of the figures are those of women, but their heads, paws, and feet are those of animals. Among the heads set on the figures are those of a horse, a pig, a cat or a hare, and apparently an ass.(978) It is reasonable to suppose that these dancing figures represent a ritual dance which was actually performed in the rites of Demeter and Persephone by masked men or women, who personated the goddesses in their character of beasts.

INDEX.

Ab, a Jewish month, i. 259 _n._ 1

Ababu, a tribe of the Congo, ii. 288

Abchases of the Caucasus, ii. 105, 313

Abdication, temporary, of chief, ii. 66, 68

Aberdeenshire, harvest customs in, i. 158 _sqq._

Abipones, the, of Paraguay, i. 308, ii. 140

Acagchemem tribe of California, ii. 170

Achinese, the, i. 315

Acosta, J. de, quoted, i. 171 _sq._, ii. 86 _sqq._

Acropolis of Athens, ii. 40 _sq._

Actium, games celebrated at, i. 80, 85

Adair, James, ii. 264

Adeli, the, of the Slave Coast, ii. 116

Adonis, i. 214, 216, 258, 263; and the boar, ii. 22 _sq._

_Aegis_, ii. 40

Aesculapius at Pergamus, ii. 85

Aeson and Medea, ii. 143

Agbasia, a Ewe god, ii. 59, 60

Agni, Indian god, ii. 120

_Agnus castus_, i. 116 _n._ 2

Agricultural year determined by observation of the Pleiades, i. 313 _sqq._

Agriculture, magical significance of games in primitive, i. 92 _sqq._; origin of, 128 _sq._; woman’s part in primitive, 113 _sqq._

Aino, the, ii. 144, 251, their ceremony at eating new millet, 52; their worship of eagle-owls, eagles, and hawks, 199 _sq._; their propitiation of mice, 278; their ambiguous attitude towards the bear, 310 _sq._; type of animal sacrament, 312 _sq._

—— of Japan, their custom of killing bears ceremonially, ii. 180 _sqq._

—— of Saghalien, their bear-festivals, ii. 188 _sqq._

Aïsawa or Isowa, order of saints in Morocco, i. 21

Ajumba hunter, ii. 235

A-Kamba, the, ii. 113

Alaskan hunters, ii. 238

Albania, custom as to locusts and beetles in, ii. 279

Alcyonian Lake, the, i. 15

Alder branches, sacrificial, ii. 232

Alectrona, daughter of the Sun, ii. 45

Alfoors of Minahassa, ii. 100

Alligators, souls of dead in, ii. 297

All Souls, Feast of, i. 30

Alur tribe, ii. 214

Alus, custom at, i. 25

Amambwe, the, ii. 287

Amaxosa Caffres, ii. 227

Amazons of Dahomey, ii. 149

Amazulu, the, i. 316

Amboyna, ii. 123

Amedzowe, the spirit land, ii. 105

Amei Awi, i. 93

American Indians, women’s agricultural work among the, i. 120 _sqq._; their ceremonies at hunting bears, ii. 224 _sqq._; personification of maize, i. 171 _sqq._

Ammon, ram sacrificed to, ii. 41; the Theban, 172 _sq._

Ancestors, prayers to, i. 105; images of, ii. 53; offerings to spirits of, 111, 117, 119, 121, 123, 124, 125

Ancestral Contest at the _Haloa_, i. 61; at the Eleusinian Games, 71, 74, 77; at the Festival of the Threshing-floor, 75

Ancient deities of vegetation as animals, ii. 1 _sqq._

Andaman Islanders, ii. 164

Andree, Dr. Richard, i. 307

Angamis (Angami), a Naga tribe of Assam, i. 244, ii. 291

Angel dance, the, ii. 328

Angoni, the, ii. 149; burial custom among the, 99

Anhalt, harvest customs in, i. 226, 233, 279

Animal, corn-spirit as an, i. 270 _sqq._; killing the divine, ii. 169 _sqq._; worshipful, killed once a year and promenaded from door to door, 322

Animal embodiments of the corn-spirit, on the, i. 303 _sqq._

—— form, god killed in, i. 22 _sq._

—— god, two types of the custom of killing the, ii. 312 _sq._

—— masks worn by Egyptian kings, i. 260 _sq._

—— sacrament, types of, ii. 310 _sqq._

Animals torn to pieces and devoured raw in religious rites, i. 20 _sqq._; language of, acquired by eating serpent’s flesh, ii. 146; resurrection of, 200 _sq._, 256 _sqq._; and men, savages fail to distinguish accurately between, 204 _sqq._; wild, propitiation of, by hunters, 204 _sqq._; bones of, not to be broken, 258 _sq._; bones of, not allowed to be gnawed by dogs, 259; savage faith in the immortality of, 260 _sqq._; transmigration of human souls into, 285 _sqq._; two forms of the worship of, 311; processions with sacred, 316 _sqq._

_Anitos_, souls of ancestors, ii. 124

Anna Kuari, i. 244

Anointing the body as a means of acquiring certain qualities, ii. 162 _sqq._

Antankarana tribe of Madagascar, ii. 290

Anthesteria, the, i. 30 _sqq._

Anthropomorphism, i. 212

Antinous, games in honour of, i. 80, 85

Antiquity of the cultivation of the cereals in Europe, i. 79

Antrim, harvest customs in, i. 144, 154 _sq._

Ants, superstitious precaution against the ravages of, ii. 276

Apaches, the, ii. 242

Apes, ceremony after killing, ii. 235 _sq._

Apis, sacred bull, ii. 34 _sqq._

Apollo surnamed Locust and Mildew, ii. 282; the Mouse, 282 _sq._; Wolfish, 283 _sq._

Apollonius of Tyana, ii. 280

Apologies offered by savages to the animals they kill, ii. 215, 217, 218, 221, 222 _sqq._, 235 _sqq._, 243

Apple-tree, straw-man placed on oldest, ii. 6

Arabs, ii. 146, 164; of Moab, harvest custom of the, i. 138

Arawak Indians, ii. 154

Arcturus, i. 47 _n._ 2, 51, 52

Ardennes, precautions against rats in the, ii. 277

Argyleshire, harvest customs in, i. 155 _sq._

Ariadne, Cyprian worship of, i. 209 _n._ 2

Aricia, many Manii at, ii. 94 _sqq._; sacred grove at, 95

Arician grove, horses excluded from, ii. 40 _sqq._

Aristides, the rhetorician, on first-fruit offerings, i. 56; on Eleusinian Games, 71

Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_, i. 79; on men of genius, ii. 302 _n._ 5

Arkansas Indians, ii. 134

Arriaga, J. de, i. 173 _n._

Art, Demeter and Persephone in, i. 43 _sq._

Artemis, Brauronian, ii. 41 _n._ 3

Artemisia and Mausolus, ii. 158

Artemision, a Greek month, ii. 8

Artificers, worship of the, ii. 60 _sq._

Aru Islands, ii. 145

Aryans of Europe, agriculture among the early, i. 129 _sq._; totemism not proved for the, ii. 4

Ash Wednesday, i. 300

Ashantees, the, ii. 149; their festivals of new yams, 62 _sq._

Ashes as manure, i. 117

—— of dead swallowed, ii. 156 _sqq._; smeared on mourner, 164; of human victim scattered on earth to fertilise it, i. 240; scattered on fields, 249, 250, 251; scattered with winnowing-fans, 260, 262

Assam, ii. 116; agriculture in, i. 123; _genna_ in, 109 _n._ 2; head-hunting in, 256

Asses, transmigration of sinners into, ii. 299, 308

Assimilation of victims to gods, i. 261 _sq._; of men to their totems or guardian animals, ii. 207 _sq._

Assiniboins, the, ii. 225

Assinie, W. African kingdom, ii. 63

Astronomy, origin of, i. 307

Asuras, the, ii. 120

Athamanes, the, of Epirus, i. 129

Athamas, King, i. 24, 25

Athena, sacrifices to, i. 56; and the goat, ii. 40 _sq._

Athens, Queen of, married to Dionysus, i. 30 _sq._; called “the Metropolis of the Corn,” 58; ceremony at killing a wolf at, ii. 221; the Lyceum at, 283, 284

Athletic competitions among harvesters, i. 76 _sq._

Atonement to animals for wrong done to them, ii. 310 _sq._

Attic months lunar, i. 52

Attica, vintage custom in, ii. 133

Attis, i. 2, 14, 214; his relation to Lityerses, 255 _sq._; and the pig, ii. 22

Attraction and repulsion, forces of, ii. 303 _sqq._

Augustine, i. 88

Augustus celebrates games at Actium, i. 80

Australia, totemism in, ii. 311

—— Northern, ii. 145

Australian aborigines, i. 126, 307 _sq._; their mutilations of the dead, ii. 272

Australians, the Central, ii. 165

Austria, harvest customs in, i. 276, 292

Awe, Loch, i. 142

Awemba, the, i. 115; of Northern Rhodesia, ii. 272 _sq._

Ayrshire, harvest customs in, i. 279

Aztecs, their festival at end of fifty-two years, i. 310 _sq._; eating the god among the, ii. 86 _sqq._

Baba or Boba, name given to last sheaf, i. 144 _sq._; “the Old Woman,” at the Carnival, ii. 332, 333

Bacchanals of Thrace, i. 17

Badagas, the, ii. 55

Baden, harvest customs in, i. 283, 286, 292, 298

Baganda, the, i. 118, ii. 64, 70 _n._ 1, 227, 253, 271 _sq._; their offerings of first-fruits, 113; their fear of the ghosts of animals, 231 _sq._

Bagobos, the, ii. 124; of Mindanao, i. 240

Bahaus or Kayans of central Borneo, i. 92 _sqq._ _See_ Kayans

Bahima, their belief in transmigration, ii. 288

Bakongs, a tribe of Borneo, ii. 294

Bakundu of the Cameroons, burial custom of the, ii. 99

Bali, i. 314, ii. 278; rice spirit in, i. 201 _sqq._

Ball, game of, played as a rite, ii. 76, 79

Balquhidder, cutting the Maiden at, i. 157

_Balum_, spirits of the dead, i. 104

Ba-Mbala, the, i. 119

Bananas, cultivated by women, i. 115, 118; cultivated in South America, 120, 121; cultivated in New Britain, 123; cultivated in New Guinea, 123; soul of dead man in, ii. 298

Banars, the, of Cambodia, ii. 33

Bangala, the, i. 119

Banks’ islanders, i. 313

—— Islands, burial custom in the, ii. 97

Barley awarded as a prize in the Eleusinian games, i. 73, 74, 75; oldest cereal cultivated by the Aryans, 132

—— Bride among the Berbers, i. 178 _sq._

—— -cow, i. 289, 290

—— -mother, the, i. 131, 135

—— -sow, i. 298

—— -wolf, i. 271, 273

Baronga, the, ii. 280; women’s part in agriculture among the, i. 114 _sq._

Barotsé, the, i. 115, ii. 159

Bassari, the, ii. 116

_Bassia latifolia_, ii. 119

Bastian, Adolph, quoted, ii. 313

Basutoland, i. 116; inoculation in, ii. 158, 160

Basutos, the, ii. 148; their customs as to the new corn, 110

Batari Sri, a goddess, i. 202

Batchelor, Rev. J., ii. 180 _n._ 2, 182 _n._ 2, 183, 184, 186 _n._, 198, 201

Bathing forbidden, i. 94

Bats, souls of dead in, ii. 287

Battas or Bataks of Sumatra, i. 196, 315, ii. 293; their ceremonies at catching tigers, 216 _sq._

Battle, mock, ii. 75

Bavaria, harvest customs in, i. 147, 221 _sq._, 232, 282, 286, 287, 289, 296, 298, 299

Bean-cock, i. 276

—— -goat, i. 282

Beans, Spirit of, i. 177; cultivated in Burma, 242; forbidden as food by Empedocles, ii. 301

Bear, importance of the, for people of Siberia, ii. 191; ambiguous attitude of the Aino towards the, 310 _sq._; the corn-spirit as a, 325 _sqq._

—— -cats, souls of dead in, ii. 294

—— -dances, ii. 191, 195

—— -festivals of the Aino, ii. 182 _sqq._; of the Gilyaks, 190 _sqq._; of the Goldi, 197; of the Orotchis, 197

—— -skin worn by woman dancer, ii. 223

—— the Great, constellation, i. 315

Bear’s liver, i. 187 _sq._; heart eaten, ii. 146

“Beard of Volos,” i. 233

Bears killed ceremonially by the Aino, ii. 180 _sqq._; souls of dead in, 286 _sq._; processions with, in Europe, 326 _n._ 3

—— slain, propitiated by Kamtchatkans, Ostiaks, Koryak, Finns, and Lapps, ii. 222 _sqq._; by American Indians, 224 _sqq._

Beating a man clad in a cow’s hide, ii. 322 _sqq._

—— boys with leg-bone of eagle-hawk, ii. 165 _n._ 2

—— effigy of ox with rods in China, ii. 11 _sq._

—— people for good luck, i. 309

Beavers, their bones not allowed to be gnawed by dogs, ii. 238 _sqq._

Bechuanas, the, i. 316, ii. 28, 164; their ceremonies before eating the new fruits, 69 _sq._; ceremony observed after a battle by the, 271

Beer in relation to Dionysus, i. 2 _n._ 1

Bees, transmigration of quiet people into, ii. 308

Beetles, superstitious precautions against, ii. 279, 280

Beggar, name given to last sheaf, i. 231 _sq._

Beku, the, of West Africa, ii. 163

Bells worn by mummers, i. 26, 28, ii. 332, 333; attached to hobby-horse, 337 _sq._

Benin, ii. 64; human sacrifice at, i. 240

Bera Pennu, the Earth Goddess, i. 245

Berbers, the Barley Bride among the, i. 178 _sq._

Berosus, Babylonian historian, i. 258 _sq._

Berry, harvest customs in, i. 292, 294

Berwickshire, harvest customs in, i. 153 _sq._

Bessy, one of the mummers on Plough Monday, ii. 329, 331

Betsileo, the, of Madagascar, ii. 116; their belief in the transmigration of souls, 289 _sq._

Bhils, the, of Central India, ii. 29

Bhímsen, an Indian deity, ii. 118

Bhumiya, a Himalayan deity, ii. 117

Bhutan, ii. 103

Biennial cycle, i. 87

—— festivals, i. 14, i. 86

Binder of last sheaf represents the Corn-mother, i. 150, 253

Binders of corn, contests between, i. 136, 137, 138, 218 _sq._, 220, 221, 222, 253

Binding the corn, contests in, i. 218 _sq._

_Binsenschneider_, i. 230 _n._ 5

Bird, soul as a, i. 181, 182 _n._ 1; corn-spirit as a, 295 _sq._

—— of prey, inoculation with a, ii. 162

Birds, migratory, as representatives of a divinity, i. 204 _sq._; language of, ii. 146; tongues of, eaten, 147

Birth of child on harvest-field, pretended, i. 150 _sq._

Bisaltae, a Thracian tribe, i. 5

Bizya in Thrace, i. 26, 30

Black Drink, an emetic, ii. 76

—— Goat-skin, in relation to Dionysus, i. 17

Blackened faces, i. 291, 299; of actors, 27

Blackfeet Indians, i. 311, ii. 236

Bladders of sea-beasts returned by the Esquimaux to the sea, ii. 247 _sqq._

Blindfolded, reapers, i. 144, 153 _sq._

Blood drawn from men as a religious rite, ii. 75, 91 _sq._; as a means of communion with a deity, 316

—— of bear drunk, ii. 146

—— of beavers not allowed to fall on ground, ii. 240 _n._ 2

—— of dragon, ii. 146

—— of human victim sprinkled on seed, i. 239, 251; scattered on field, 244, 251

—— of lamb sprinkled on people, ii. 315

—— of slain men tasted by their slayers, ii. 154 _sqq._

Blood-covenant, ii. 154 _sqq._

Boa-constrictor, soul of a, ii. 296

Boa-constrictors, souls of dead in, ii. 289 _sq._

Boar, corn-spirit as, i. 298 _sqq._; the Yule, 300 _sqq._, 302 _sq._; and Adonis, ii. 22 _sq._

Boars, wild, their ravages in the corn, ii. 31 _sqq._

Boba or Baba, name given to the last sheaf, i. 144 _sq._

Bock, C., quoted, i. 8

Boedromion, an Attic month, i. 52, 77

Bogadjim in German New Guinea, ii. 251

Bohemia, harvest customs in, i. 138, 145, 149, 150, 225 _sq._, 232, 286, 289; Carnival custom in, ii. 325; custom as to mice in, 279, 283

Böhmer Wald Mountains, i. 284

Bolivia, ii. 235, 286

Bombay, burial custom in, ii. 100

Bone of old animal eaten to make the eater old, ii. 143

Bones and skulls of enemies destroyed, ii. 260

—— of animals preserved in order that the animals may come to life again, ii. 256 _sqq._; burned or thrown into water, 257; not to be broken, 258 _sq._; not allowed to be gnawed by dogs, 225, 238 _sqq._, 243, 259

—— of the dead, virtues acquired by contact with the, ii. 153 _sq._; preserved for the resurrection, 259

—— of deer not given to the dogs, ii. 241, 242, 243

—— of fish not burned, ii. 250, 251; thrown into the sea or a river, 250, 254; not to be broken, 255

Bontoc, province of Luzon, i. 240

Bordeaux, harvest custom at, i. 291

Bormus or Borimus, i. 216, 257, 264

Borneo, ii. 122; agricultural communities of central, i. 92

Bororos, the, of Brazil, ii. 71 _sq._, 208

Boscana, Father G., ii. 169; quoted, i. 125

Botocudos, the, of Brazil, ii. 156

Bougainville Straits, i. 313

_Bouphonia_, ii. 4 _sqq._

_Bouphonion_, a Greek month, ii. 6 _n._

Bourbourg, Brasseur de, i. 237

Bourke, Captain J. G., ii. 178 _n._ 4

Bouzygai, the, at Eleusis, i. 108

Boxing, i. 71 _n._ 5, ii. 131

Brahman boys sacrificed, i. 244

Brahmans, the, on transubstantiation, ii. 89

Brain, drippings of, used to acquire wisdom of dead, ii. 163 _sq._

Brains of enemies eaten, ii. 152

Brand, John, quoted, i. 146

Brazen serpent, the, ii. 281

Brazil, Indians of, i. 111, ii. 235; their flesh diet, ii. 139

Bridal pair at rice-harvest in Java, i. 200 _sq._

Bride, name given to last sheaf, i. 162, 163

British Columbia, Indians of, ii. 253

Brittany, harvest customs in, i. 135

_Bromios_, epithet of Dionysus, i. 2 _n._ 1

Brooke, Rajah, ii. 211

Brown, Dr. Burton, ii. 100 _n._ 2

Bubui river, in New Guinea, ii. 295

Buckwheat cultivated in Burma, i. 242

Bucolium at Athens, i. 30

Buddha, transmigrations of, ii. 299, 301

Budge, Dr. E. A. Wallis, i. 259 _n._ 3, 260 _n._ 2

Buffalo sacrificed for human victim, i. 249

Buffaloes, propitiation of dead, ii. 229, 231; their death bewailed, 242; revered by the Todas, 314

Bukaua, the, of German New Guinea, i. 103, 105, 313, ii. 124

Bulawayo, ii. 70

Bulgarians, the Carnival among the, ii. 331 _sqq._

Bull, corn-spirit as, i. 288 _sqq._, ii. 8; in relation to Dionysus, i. 16 _sq._, 31

——, live, torn to pieces in rites of Dionysus, i. 15, 17, ii. 16

——, sacrifice of, ii. 68 _n._ 3; at Magnesia, 7 _sq._; in Mithraic religion, 10; at tomb of dead chief, 113

—— -fights, ii. 66

—— -roarers, i. 19 _n._ 1, ii. 295; as magical instruments, i. 104, 106 _sq._, 110

—— -shaped deities, i. 3 _sqq._

Bulls, sacred, of ancient Egypt, ii. 34 _sqq._

Burghers or Badagas, the, ii. 55

Burial rites intended to deceive ghosts or demons, ii. 97 _sqq._

Burials, fictitious, to divert the attention of demons from the real burials, ii. 98 _sqq._

Buring Une, a goddess, i. 93

Burma, ii. 116; securing the rice-soul in, i. 190 _sq._; custom at threshing rice in, 203 _sq._; head-hunting in, i. 256

Burmese cure, ii. 103

Burne, Miss C. S., i. 266

Burning last sheaf of corn, i. 146

—— the Old Witch, i. 224

Buru, island, ii. 54, 145

Bush negroes of Surinam, ii. 26

Bushmen, ii. 29, 206, 266 _n._ 1; their customs as to diet, 140 _sq._

Busiris, i. 259 _sq._

_Busk_, festival of first-fruits, ii. 72

_Butea frondosa_, ii. 119

Butterflies, souls of dead in, ii. 290, 291, 296 _sq._

Butterfly of the rice, i. 190

Button snake root, emetic made from, ii. 73, 75

Buzzard, killing the sacred, ii. 169 _sqq._

Caffre elephant-hunters, ii. 227

Caffres, their festival of new fruits, ii. 64 _sqq._; their custom of fumigating infants, 166 _sq._; of South Africa, their observation of the Pleiades, i. 315; of the Zambesi region, ii. 289

_Cailleach_ (Old Wife), name given to last corn cut, i. 140 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._

Caingua Indians of Paraguay, ii. 285

Cakes in obscene shapes, i. 62

Calabash, ceremony of breaking the, ii. 68 _n._ 3

Calabria, custom observed by murderers in, ii. 156

Calendar, regulation of, an affair of religion, i. 83; the Roman, 83 _sq._; primitive, 125 _sq._

Calendars, the Pleiades in primitive, i. 307 _sqq._

Calf sacrificed to Dionysus, i. 33; killed at harvest, 290; sacrifice of buffalo, ii. 314

California, Indians of, i. 125, ii. 169, 286

Californian missions, the Spanish, ii. 171 _n._ 1

Callaway, Rev. H., i. 316

Callias, the Eleusinian Torch-bearer, i. 54, 73 _n._ 3

Cambodia, ii. 103

Cameron, Hugh E., i. 162 _n._ 3

Campbell, Major J., i. 248, 250

Campbell, Rev. J. G., i. 140

Cancer, Tropic of, i. 125

Candlemas, i. 300

Canelos Indians of Ecuador, ii. 285

Cannibal orgies, i. 18 _sqq._

—— Spirit, i. 21

Cannibals, a secret society of the Kwakiutl Indians, i. 20

Canopus, i. 308

Capricorn, Tropic of, i. 125

Carcassone, hunting the wren at, ii. 320 _sq._

Carian Chersonese, ii. 85

Carib warriors, ii. 162

Caribs, the, i. 120, ii. 139

Carinthia, harvest custom in, i. 224 _sq._

Carley, the, i. 144

Carlin or Carline, the, i. 140

Carnival, modern Thracian drama at the, i. 26 _sqq._, ii. 331

—— Bear, ii. 325

—— custom in Bohemia, ii. 325

Carolina, Indians of, ii. 217

Carrier Indians, ii. 238 _sq._

Cassava (manioc) bread, i. 120 _sq._

Cassowaries, souls of dead in, ii. 295

Cassowary totem, ii. 207

Castabus, ii. 85

Cat, corn-spirit as, i. 280 _sq._; killed at harvest, i. 281

Cat’s cradle, i. 101, 103

—— tail, name given to last standing corn, i. 268

Catalangans, the, ii. 124

Caterpillars, superstitious precautions against, ii. 275 _sq._, 279, 280

Catholic custom of eating effigies of the Madonna, ii. 94

Cattle, last sheaf given to, i. 134, 155, 158, 161, 170; (plough oxen) Yule or Christmas Boar given to, the, 301, 302, 303; worship of, ii. 35, 37 _sqq._; first-fruits offered to, 118

Caul-fat, human, rubbed on body, ii. 162

Cayenne, Indians of, 285 _sqq._

Celebes, i. 313, ii. 54, 122, 123; precautions against mice in, 277

Celeus, king of Eleusis, i. 37

Censorinus, i. 86, 87

Central Provinces of India, ii. 118 _sq._

Ceram, ii. 54, 123

Cereal deity, ii. 52, 83

Cereals in Europe, antiquity of the cultivation of, i. 79; cultivated by the early Aryans, 132

Ceremony of the Horse at rice-harvest among the Garos, ii. 337 _sqq._

Ceres, i. 42; festival of, 297 _n._ 5; the, in France, 135; Roman sacrifices to, ii. 133

Chadwars, the, ii. 28

Chaka, Zulu despot, ii. 67

Chambéry, harvest customs at, i. 275, 288, 291 _sq._

Chams, the, of Indo-China, ii. 283; their agricultural ceremonies, 56 _sqq._; their belief in transmigration, 291 _sq._

Changes of shape, magical, i. 305

Chasas, the, of Orissa, ii. 26

“Chasms of Demeter and Persephone,” ii. 17

Chastity required in sower of seed, i. 115 _sq._; of hunter before hunting bears, ii. 226

Chateaubriand, his description of the Natchez festival, ii. 135 _sqq._

Cheese Monday, i. 26, ii. 333

Cheremiss, the, ii. 51

Cherokee hunters, ii. 236, 241

—— mythology, ii. 204 _sq._

Cherokees, the, ii. 72 _n._ 2, 139, 220; their respect for rattlesnakes, 218 _sq._; their custom of removing the hamstring of deer, 266

Chicome couatl, Mexican Maize-goddess i. 176

Chief, sacred, ii. 28; acting as priest, 126; sacrifices to dead, 113

Chiefs, spirits of dead, give rain, ii. 109; deified after death, 125; souls of dead, in lions, 287 _sq._

Child born on harvest-field, pretence of, i. 150 _sq._

Childbed, deceiving the ghosts of women who have died in, ii. 97 _sq._

Children at birth placed in winnowing-fans, i. 6 _sqq._; guarded against evil spirits, 6 _sqq._; employed to sow seed, 115 _sq._; sacrificed at harvest, 236

China, ceremony at beginning of spring in, ii. 10 _sqq._

Chinese, their theory as to courage, ii. 145 _sq._

—— of Amoy, their use of effigies, ii. 104

—— ceremony of ploughing, ii. 14 _sq._

—— use of sieve or winnowing-fan, i. 6, 9 _sq._

Chinigchinich, a Californian god, ii. 170

Chinna Kimedy, i. 247, 249

Chins, the, of Upper Burma, ii. 121

Chiquites of Paraguay, ii. 241

Chiriguanos, the, Indians of Bolivia, ii. 140, 286

Chota Nagpur, i. 244

Christmas, i. 134; boar sacrificed at, 302. _See also_ Yule

—— Day, ii. 319, 320

—— drama, ii. 327 _sq._

—— Eve, i. 302, ii. 318, 321

Chuckchees, the, ii. 221

_Churn_, last corn cut, i. 151, 153, 154 _sq._

Cicero, on the gift of the corn, i. 58; on transubstantiation, ii. 167

Cinteotl, Mexican Maize-god, i. 176

Circumcision, i. 316, ii. 153

Clarke, E. D., at Eleusis, i. 64; quoted, 146

Clement of Alexandria on the Eleusinian mysteries, i. 39

Cleostratus of Tenedos, i. 81

_Clyack-kebback_, i. 160

_Clyack_ sheaf, i. 158 _sqq._, ii. 43

Cnossus, i. 82, 85

Cobra-capella, guardian-deity of Issapoo, ii. 174

Cochin China, tigers respected in, ii. 217

Cock, corn-spirit as, i. 276 _sqq._; killed on harvest field, 277 _sq._; white, sacrificed, ii. 117, 118

—— -sheaf, i. 276

_Cogiour_, a sacred pontiff, ii. 114

Cohabitation of husband and wife enjoined as a matter of ritual, ii. 69, 70 _n._ 1

_Colluinn_, custom of beating a cow’s hide, ii. 323, 324

Colombian Indians, ii. 286

Communal taboos, i. 109 _n._ 2

Communion with deity, ii. 83, 325

Compitalia, a Roman festival, ii. 94, 96, 107

Complexity of religious phenomena, ii. 36

Confession of sin, ii. 69

Congo, the Lower, i. 115; the Upper, 119

Conjunction of sun and moon, ii. 15 _n._ 1

Conservation of energy, ii. 262

Constantinople protected against flies and gnats, ii. 281

Contact with sacred things is deemed dangerous, ii. 27 _sqq._

—— between certain foods in stomach of eater forbidden, ii. 83 _sqq._, 90

Contest, Ancestral, at the Eleusinian Games, i. 71, 74, 77

Contests for possession of the corn-spirit, i. 74 _sq._, 180; between binders of corn, 136, 137, 138, 218 _sq._, 220, 221, 222, 253; between reapers, 74 _sq._, 136, 140, 141, 142, 144, 152, 153 _sq._, 164 _sq._, 219, 253; between threshers, 147 _sqq._, 218, 219 _sq._, 221 _sq._, 223 _sq._, 253

Continence, ceremonial, ii. 75, 81, 93; prescribed at festival, 248

—— and fasting, ii. 14

Coomassie, ii. 62, 63

Coorgs, the, ii. 55

Corea, ii. 122; use of effigies in, 105

Corn, ear of, revealed to initiates at the rites of Eleusis, i. 38; personified as Demeter, 42; first-fruits of, offered to Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis, 53 _sqq._; first bestowed on the Athenians by Demeter, 54; personified as female, 130; wreath of, 134; double personification of, as mother and daughter, 207 _sqq._; the first corn cut, customs connected with, 214 _sq._; the new, eaten sacramentally, ii. 48 _sqq._; sanctity of the, 110

—— and poppies as symbols of Demeter, i. 43 _sq._

—— Baby, i. 152, 292

—— -bull, i. 291

—— -cow, i. 289

—— -ears, Queen of the, i. 146; crown of, 163, 221, 283

—— -fool, i. 148

—— -goat, i. 282, 283, 286, 287

—— -maiden, i. 150; in Northern Europe, 129 _sqq._

—— -mallet at threshing, i. 148

—— -man, i. 223; the goal of a women’s race at harvest, 76 _sq._

Corn-mother, i. 150; in Northern Europe, 131 _sqq._; in last sheaf, 133 _sqq._; in America, 171 _sqq._; in many lands, 171 _sqq._

—— -pug, i. 273

—— -reapers, songs of the, i. 214 _sqq._

—— -sow, i. 298

Corn-spirit, contests for possession of the, i. 74 _sq._, 180; conceived as old, 136 _sqq._; in last sheaf threshed, i. 139, 147, 168, ii. 48; represented in duplicate, i. 139; conceived as young, 150 _sqq._; as Bride and Bridegroom, 162 _sqq._; as male and female, 164, ii. 9; as female, both old and young, i. 164 _sqq._; represented by person who cuts, binds, or threshes the last corn, 167 _sq._, 220 _sqq._, 236, 253 _sq._; fertilising influence of, 168; its influence on women, 168; represented by human beings, 168, 204 _sqq._, ii. 333; in form of an old man, i. 206 _sq._; in first corn cut, 215; personal representative of, killed in mimicry, 216; killing the, 216 _sqq._, 223 _sqq._; represented by a puppet, 224; represented by a stranger, 225 _sqq._; conceived as poor and robbed by the reapers, 231 _sqq._; slain in his human representatives, 251 _sqq._; the neck of the, 268; as animal, 270 _sqq._; on the animal embodiments of the, 303 _sqq._; as wolf or dog, 271, _sqq._, ii. 327; the tail of the, i. 268, 272, 300, ii. 10, 43; as cock, i. 276 _sqq._, 277 _sq._; as hare, 279 _sq._; as cat, 280 _sq._; as goat, 281 _sqq._, ii. 327; lame, i. 284; slain in the form of a goat, 284 _sq._, 287; as bull, cow, or ox, 288 _sqq._, ii. 8; killed in form of bull, i. 290, 291 _sq._; killed at threshing, 291 _sq._; as horse or mare, 292 _sqq._; in form of calf, 292; as a bird, 295; as fox, 296 _sq._; as pig (boar, sow), 298 _sqq._; represented by an ox, ii. 9 _sqq._; killed in animal form and eaten sacramentally, 20; as a bear, 325 _sqq._; represented dramatically, 325; as a boar, 328; represented by a man called the Straw-bear, 329

—— -stalks, harvesters wrapt up in, i. 220 _sqq._

—— -wolf, i. 272, 273, 275

—— -woman, i. 230, 233; at threshing, 149

Corners of fields not to be reaped, i. 234 _sq._

Corpus Christi Day, i. 310

Cos, harvest-home in, i. 47

Cotton, treatment of first cotton picked, ii. 119

Courage seated in gall-bladder, ii. 145 _sq._

Cow, corn-spirit as, i. 288 _sqq._

Cow’s hide, thresher of last corn wrapt in, i. 291; custom of beating the, ii. 322 _sqq._

Cows milked by women, i. 118; and their milk, superstitions as to, ii. 84 _n._ 1 and 2

Cranes, trumpeting of the, signal for ploughing, i. 45

Creek Indians, ii. 72, 139

Cretan festival of Dionysus, i. 14 _sq._

—— myth of Dionysus, i. 13

Crete, ancient seat of worship of Demeter, i. 131; pig not eaten in, ii. 21 _n._ 1

Cries of reapers, i. 263 _sqq._

Cripple Goat, the, i. 284

Crocodile, clay image of, ii. 279

—— -catchers, rules observed by, ii. 209 _sq._

Crocodiles hunted by savages for their flesh, ii. 208 _n._ 2; often spared by savages out of respect, 208 _sqq._; ceremonies observed at catching, 209 _sqq._; kinship of men with, 212 _sq._, 214 _sq._; respected in Africa and Madagascar, 213 _sqq._; sacred at Dix Cove, 287; souls of dead in, 289, 290, 291, 295

Cronion, a Greek month, ii. 7, 8 _n._ 1

Crooke, W., i. 118 _n._, 234 _n._ 2, ii. 56 _n._ 3

Crops, charms and spells for growth of, i. 100; rotation of, 117; human sacrifices for the, 236 _sqq._

Cross River natives, ii. 115

Crow, head of, eaten to prolong life, ii. 143; transmigration of sinner into, 299

—— Song, the Greek, ii. 322 _n._

Crown of corn-ears, i. 163, 221, 283; worn by Demeter and Persephone, 43

“Crying the Mare” in Hertfordshire, i. 292 _sq._; in Shropshire, 293

“Crying the neck,” i. 264 _sqq._

Cultivation, shifting, i. 99; _see_ Agriculture

“Cup of offering,” ii. 184

Curcho, old Prussian god, ii. 133

Curetes, their war-dance, i. 13

Curses uttered by Bouzygai, i. 108

Cuscuses, souls of dead in, ii. 296, 298

Cushing, Frank H., quoted, ii. 175 _sqq._

Cuzco, i. 310

Cycle, the octennial in Greece, i. 80 _sqq._

Cynaetha, i. 16

Cyzicus, i. 16

Dacotas, the, ii. 256

Dama, island of, ii. 101

Damatrius, a Boeotian month, i. 46

Dance at harvest supper, i. 134, 135, 145; of harvesters with or round the last sheaf, 135, 141, 145, 160, 219, 220 _sq._; of masked men before sowing, 186; of Dyaks to secure soul of rice, 188 _sq._; of old women as representatives of the corn-goddess, 205; Pawnee, before human sacrifice, 238; before the king at ceremony of first-fruits, ii. 70 _sq._; of Zulu king, 66, 68 _n._ 3; of medicine-man, 72; the Green Corn Dance, 76; war, 79; by torchlight, 79; of Kansas Indians, 145 “the angel dance,” 328; of mummers at Carnival, 333, 334; of mummer wearing a horse-headed mask, 338

Dances, i. 246, 247; at sowing festival, 95; masked, 95 _sq._, 111, 186, ii. 208 _n._ 1; at the reappearance of the Pleiades, i. 307, 309, 311, 312, 317; in imitation of totemic animals, ii. 76; Mexican, 88; in connexion with offerings of first-fruits, 113, 116, 126, 131, 134; of men personifying deities, 179; of women at bear-festival, 185, 186 _sq._, 191, 195; of women at catching a crocodile, 211; round dead tigers, 216; of the Koryak at the slaughter of bears or wolves, 223; in honour of slain leopards, 228; of Koryak women at slaughter of whales, 232 _sq._; to amuse the souls of dead sea-beasts, 248; of Shrovetide Bear, 325 _sq._; to make the crops thrive, 326, 328, 330 _sq._; of masked men and women in ritual, 339

Dancing for salmon, ii. 255

Danger Island, i. 312

Danzig, harvest customs at, i. 133, 218 _sq._

Darfur, ii. 147

Darwin and Empedocles, ii. 306

Daughter-in-law in ritual, ii. 121 _sq._

Dawkins, R. M., i. 25 _n._ 4, 29 _n._ 2

Dead, rebirth of the, i. 84; fear of the, ii. 36 _sq._; souls of the, 64; festival in honour of, at end of harvest, 110; buried in the houses, 115; bones of the, 153 _sq._; mourners rub themselves with the fat or putrefying juices of the, 162 _sq._; souls of the human, supposed to be in caterpillars, 275 _sq._; and in other animals, 285 _sqq._

—— men mutilated in order to disable their ghosts, ii. 271 _sqq._

—— spirits of the, supposed to influence the crops, i. 104; give rain, ii. 109 _sq._; first-fruits offered to, 109 _sq._, 111 _sqq._, 115, 116, 119, 121, 123, 124 _sqq._; prayers to, 112, 113, 124 _sq._; in trees, 113

Deane, Mrs. J. H., ii. 319 _n._ 2

Death and resurrection of the gods, i. 1, 12 _sqq._, 15

—— pollution of, ii. 85 _n._ 3

Deer, flesh of, eaten to prolong life or to avoid fever, ii. 143; not eaten by warriors, 144; treated with respect by American Indians, 240 _sqq._; their bones not given to dogs, 241, 242, 243; Indian custom of cutting out the sinew of the thighs of, 264 _sqq._; souls of dead in, 286, 293 _sq._

_Deiseil_ or _deiseal_, according to the course of the sun, ii. 323, 324

Deities of vegetation as animals, ii. 1 _sqq._

Deity, communion with, ii. 325

Delagoa Bay, i. 114, ii. 280

Delaware Indians, ii. 218

Delphi, grave of Dionysus at, i. 14

Delphic oracle, i. 55, 58

Demeter, mother of Dionysus by Zeus, i. 14, 66; Homeric Hymn to, 35 _sqq._, 70; a personification of the corn, 39, 40 _sq._; distinguished from the Earth-goddess, 41, 43; at the threshing-floor, 41 _sq._, 47; in art, 43 _sq._, 88 _sq._; offering of first-fruits to, 46 _sqq._; surnamed Proerosia, 51; bestows corn on the Athenians, 54; worshipped in Sicily, 56 _sqq._; bestows corn on the Sicilians, 56 _sq._; sacrifices to her at sowing, 57; associated with seed-corn, 58; her epithets, 63 _sq._; her image at Eleusis, 64; her intrigue with Zeus, 66; etymology of name, 131; in relation to the pig, ii. 16 _sqq._; horse-headed, of Phigalia, 21, 338; rustic prototype of, 334

—— and Iasion, i. 208

—— and Pelops, ii. 263

—— and Persephone, i. 35 _sqq._; resemblance of their artistic types, 67 _sq._; their essential identity, 90; associated with death and immortality, 90 _sq._; double personification of the corn as, 208 _sqq._

—— and Zeus, ii. 9; marriage of, i. 65 _sqq._

—— Black, i. 263; of Phigalia, ii. 21

—— Green, i. 42, 263

—— Yellow, i. 41 _sq._

Demeter’s corn, i. 42

Democritus, ii. 146

Demons or ghosts deceived by dummies, ii. 96 _sqq._; repelled by gun-shots, 99

Dendereh, sculptures at, i. 260

Dengdit, high god of the Dinka, ii. 40 _n._, 114 _n._ 2

Denmark, harvest customs in, i. 139 _sq._, 231; the Yule Boar in, i. 300 _sq._

De Smet, J., i. 239 _n._ 1

Descent of Persephone, i. 46, ii. 17

Devonshire reapers, cries of, i. 264 _sqq._

Diasia, an Athenian sacrifice, ii. 95 _n._ 2

Dieri, the, of Central Australia, i. 106, ii. 151

Digger Indians, the, ii. 164

Digging-sticks used by women, i. 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 128

Dijon, harvest custom near, i. 290

Dinka, the, ii. 37 _sqq._, 114

Diocles, i. 37

Diodorus Siculus, on worship of Demeter and Persephone, i. 56 _sqq._

Dionysus, i. 1 _sqq._; god of the vine, 2 _sq._; god of trees, 3 _sq._; a god of agriculture and corn, 5; and the winnowing-fan, 5 _sqq._; as Zagreus, 12; horned, 12; son of Zeus by Persephone, Demeter, or Semele, 12, 14; death and resurrection of, 12 _sqq._, 32; ritual of, 14 _sq._; grave of, 14; as a bull, 16 _sq._, 31; as a goat, 17 _sq._; torn to pieces at Thebes, 25; his marriage to the Queen of Athens, 30 _sq._; son of Zeus and Demeter, 66; and the bull-roarer, 110 _n._ 4; his relation to Pan, Satyrs, and Silenuses, ii. 1 _sqq._; as a bull, 3 _sq._; live animals rent in rites of, 16; the Foxy, 282

Dittenberger, W., i. 77 _n._ 4

Dius, a Macedonian month, i. 46 _n._ 2

Divination, ii. 210; magic dwindles into, i. 110 _n._; by shoulder-blade, ii. 234

Diviners, ancient, their rules of diet, ii. 143

Dodwell, E., at Eleusis, i. 64

Dog, corn-spirit as, i. 271 _sqq._; of the harvest, 273; feast on flesh of, ii. 256; sacrifice of the White, 258 _n._ 2; transmigration of sinner into, 299

—— -eating Spirit, i. 21

—— -star, i. 261

Dog’s flesh or liver eaten to acquire bravery, ii. 145

Dogs devoured in religious rites, i. 20, 21, 22; sacrificed, ii. 196, 202; not allowed to gnaw bones of slain animals, 225, 238 _sqq._, 243, 259; bones of deer not given to, 241, 242, 243

Doll made of last corn at harvest, i. 140, 151, 153, 155, 157, 162

D’Orbigny, A., quoted, i. 120

Dormice, charm against, ii. 281

Door of house protected against fiends, ii. 96

Dough image of god eaten sacramentally, ii. 86 _sqq._, 90 _sq._

—— images of animals sacrificed instead of the animals, ii. 95 _n._ 2

—— puppets as substitutes for live human beings, ii. 101 _sq._

Dragon’s blood, ii. 146

Drama, modern Thracian, at the Carnival, i. 25 _sqq._; magical, 187 _sq._

Dramatic representations of the corn-spirit, ii. 325

—— rites practised with magical intention, i. 1

Dreams as a source of belief in immortality, ii. 260 _sq._

Drinking juices of dead kinsfolk, ii. 163 _n._ 3

Dryas, son of Lycurgus, i. 24, 25

Du Pratz, Le Page, ii. 77 _sqq._

Duke of York Islands, ii. 252

Dumbartonshire, harvest customs in, i. 157 _sq._

Dummies to avert attention of ghosts or demons, ii. 96 _sqq._

“Dumping” people on harvest field, i. 226 _sq._

Dumplings in human form at threshing, i. 148; in form of pigs, 299

Duplication of deities, i. 212 _sq._

Durham, harvest customs in, i. 151

Dyaks, the, i. 313, 314, ii. 100, 101, 102, 152; their ceremonies to secure the rice-soul, i. 188 _sq._; of Borneo, ii. 122, 144, 209, 211; of Sarawak, 279

Dying and Reviving God, i. 1, 33

Eagle-owl worshipped by the Aino, ii. 199

Eagles worshipped by the Aino, ii. 200; propitiation of dead, 236

Ears regarded as the seat of intelligence, ii. 148; of dead enemies cut out, 271 _sq._

Earth, Mother, ii. 105

—— the spirit of the, ii. 120

—— -God, i. 69

—— -goddess, ii. 115; distinguished from Demeter, i. 41, 43, 89; in Greek art, 89; human sacrifices offered to, 245, 246, 249, 250

—— -gods, slaves of the, ii. 61, 62 _n._ 1

—— -mothers, i. 173 _n._

Easing nature, a charm used by robbers, i. 235

East Indies, the Rice-mother in the, i. 180 _sqq._

Easter, i. 300

—— Eve, i. 134

—— Islanders, ii. 133

—— Sunday, i. 33

Eater of animals, as epithet of a god, i. 23

Eating the god, ii. 48 _sqq._, 167; among the Aztecs, 86 _sqq._

—— the soul of the rice, ii. 54

Eckstein, Miss L., ii. 317 _n._ 2

Ecstasy induced by smoking, ii. 72

Edonians, the, i. 24

Eels, souls of dead in, ii. 289, 290, 292

Effigies of men and women hung at doors of houses, ii. 94; buried with the dead to deceive their ghosts, 97 _sq._; used to cure or prevent sickness, 100 _sqq._ _See also_ Doll, Images, Puppet

Effigy of an ox broken as a spring ceremony in China, ii. 10 _sqq._

Eggs not eaten, ii. 140; charm to make hens lay, 326

Egypt, ancient, stratification of religion in, ii. 35

Egyptian kings, their animal masks, i. 260

—— reapers, their cries, i. 263

—— type of animal sacrament, ii. 312 _sq._, 314

Egyptians, human sacrifices offered by the ancient, i. 259 _sq._; the ancient, their religious attitude to pigs, ii. 24 _sqq._

El Kiboron clan of the Masai, ii. 288

Elans treated with respect by American Indians, ii. 240

Elephant’s flesh thought to make eater strong, ii. 143

Elephants, ceremonies observed at the slaughter of, ii. 227 _sq._, 237; souls of dead in, 289

Eleusine grain, i. 117

Eleusinian Games, i. 70 _sqq._, 110, 180; less ancient than the Eleusinian mysteries, 87 _sq._

—— inscription dealing with first-fruits, i. 55 _sq._

—— mysteries, i. 35, 37 _sqq._, 65 _sqq._ 69 _sq._, 78 _sq._, 161 _sq._, 188; instituted by Demeter, 70

Eleusis, Demeter at, i. 36 _sq._; offerings of first-fruits at, 53 _sqq._; image of Demeter at, 64; prayer for rain at, 69; the Rarian plain at, 36, 70, 74, 234, ii. 15

Eleutherian games at Plataea, i. 80

Elijah, the prophet, i. 233

Elis, Dionysus at, i. 17

Elk treated with respect, ii. 240; embryos of, not eaten, 243

Ellis, William, quoted, i. 312

Elopango, i. 237

Embodiment, human, of the corn-spirit, ii. 333

Emboq Sri, rice-bride, i. 200 _sq._

Embryos of elk not eaten, ii. 243

Emetics used before eating new corn, ii. 73, 75 _sq._, 76; sacred, 74

Empedocles, his doctrine of transmigration, ii. 300 _sqq._; his resemblance to Buddha, 302; his theory of the material universe like that of Herbert Spencer, 303 _sqq._; as a forerunner of Darwin, 306; his posing as a god, 307

Enchanters of crops, foods forbidden to, i. 100

Encounter Bay tribe, i. 126

Enemies, mutilation of dead, ii. 271 _sq._

Energy, the conservation of, ii. 226

En-jemusi, the, of East Africa, i. 118

Epiphany, i. 302

Epithets applied to Demeter, i. 63 _sq._

Equinox, human sacrifice offered soon after the spring equinox, i. 239

Erigone and Icarius, ii. 133

Esquimaux, the Central, ii. 246; dietary rules of, 84

—— of Baffin Land, ii. 257

—— of Bering Strait, i. 150, ii. 247, 272

—— of Hudson Bay, ii. 245 _sq._

Essex, hunting the wren in, ii. 320

Esthonia, i. 302

Esthonian reapers, i. 285; peasants, their treatment of weevils, ii. 274

Esthonians, the, i. 298, 300, ii. 51

Etna, Mount, i. 57

Etymology, its uncertainty as a base for mythological theories, i. 41 _n._

Eubuleus, ii. 19

Eubulus, i. 56

Eudoxus of Cnidus, i. 81, ii. 30

Eumolpids, i. 56

Eumolpus, i. 37, 70, 73

Euphorbus the Trojan, ii. 300

Europe, Corn-mother and Corn-maiden in Northern, i. 131 _sqq._

Evolution and dissolution, ii. 305 _sq._

Ewe hunters, ii. 244

—— negroes, ii. 45, 115, 143, 149; their festival of new yams, 58 _sqq._; their belief as to the spirit-land, 105 _sq._; their ceremonies after killing leopards, 228 _sqq._

Exclusion of strangers, i. 94, 111

Eyes shut at prayer, ii. 81; of men eaten, 153; of slaughtered animals cut out, 267 _sqq._, 271; of dead enemies gouged out, 271 _sq._

Faces of bear-hunters painted red and black, ii. 226; blackened, i. 291, 299

_Fady_, taboo, ii. 46

Fafnir, the dragon, ii. 146

Falcon’s eye used as charm, ii. 164

Faleshas, a Jewish sect, ii. 266 _n._ 1

Fallow, thrice-ploughed, i. 66, 69; lands allowed to lie, 117, 123

Fanning away ill luck, i. 10

Fans, the, of West Africa, ii. 140

Farmer’s wife, pretence of threshing, i. 149 _sq._

Farmers, propitiation of vermin by, ii. 274 _sqq._

Farnell, Dr. L. R., i. 3 _n._ 1, 15 _n._, 68 _n._ 1, ii. 2 _n._ 9

Fast before eating new fruits, ii. 73 _sq._, 76 _sq._

Fasting and continence, ii. 14

_Fastnachtsbär_, ii. 325

Fat, anointing the body with, from superstitious motives, ii. 162 _sq._, 164, 165

Fatigue of the Horse, i. 294

Fauns, ii. 1 _sqq._

Feathers of cock mixed with seed-corn, i. 278; of wren, virtue attributed to, ii. 319

Feet of enemies eaten, ii. 151

Felkin, Dr. R. W., ii. 314 _sq._

Fernando Po, ii. 174

Fertilising influence of the corn-spirit, i. 168

Festival before Ploughing (_Proerosia_), i. 51 _sqq._, 60; of the Cornstalks at Eleusis, 63; of the Threshing-floor (_Haloa_) at Eleusis, 60 _sqq._, 75; of winter solstice, ii. 90; of New Fire, 135; of bladders among the Esquimaux, 247 _sqq._

Festivals of new yams, ii. 58 _sqq._

Fewkes, J. Walter, quoted, i. 312

Fez, orgiastic rites at, i. 21

Fictitious burials to divert the attention of demons from the real burials, ii. 98 _sqq._

“Field of God,” ii. 14, 15

“Field of secret tillage,” ii. 57

Fields, miniature, dedicated to spirits, i. 233 _sq._

Fife, harvest custom in, i. 227

Fifty-two years, Aztec cycle of, i. 310 _sq._

Fig Dionysus, i. 4

—— trees, sacred wild, ii. 113

Fiji, sacrifice of first-fruits in, ii. 125

Finns, their propitiation of slain bears, ii. 223 _sq._

Fire not given out, i. 249; god of, ii. 93; made by friction of wood, 127, 136, 314; purification by, 249; not to be blown upon, 254; new, ii. 65, 74, 75, 78; sacred, i. 311, ii. 255, 314; festival of, ii. 135

“Fireless and Homeless,” a mythical giant, ii. 265, 266

Fire-sticks called “husband and wife,” ii. 65

Fires extinguished, ii. 73

Firing guns to repel demons, ii. 99

Firmicus Maternus, i. 13

First-fruits offered to Demeter, i. 46 _sqq._; offered to Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis, 53 _sqq._; offered to the sun, 237; primitive reluctance to taste, ii. 6; sacrament of, 48 _sqq._; offered to goddess of agriculture, 56; why savages scruple to eat the, 82 _sq._; sacrifice of, 109 _sqq._; presented to the king, 109, 116, 122; offered to the spirits of the dead, 109 _sq._, 111 _sqq._, 115, 116, 119, 121, 123, 124 _sqq._

Fish, sacred, ii. 26; the first caught, sacrificed, 132; not eaten, 140; treated with respect by fishing tribes, 249 _sqq._; compensated by fishermen, 252; first of the season, treated ceremoniously, 253 _sqq._; souls of dead in, 285, 291, 295

—— bones of, not burned, ii. 250, 251; not to be broken, 255

Fison, Rev. Lorimer, quoted, ii. 125

Flail, pretence of throttling persons with flail at threshing, i. 149, 150

Flamen Dialis, inaugurates the vintage, ii. 133

Flax-mother, i. 133

Flesh of human victim eaten, i. 240, 244, 251; buried in field, 248, 250

—— diet, homoeopathic magic of a, ii. 138 _sqq._

Flies, charms against, ii. 281; souls of dead in, 290 _sq._

Florida, one of the Solomon Islands, ii. 85, 126

Flowery Dionysus, i. 4

Fly-catcher Zeus, ii. 282

Flying-fish, the first of the season, ii. 127

—— fox, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Folk-tales, tongues of wild beasts cut out in, ii. 269

Foods forbidden to enchanters of crops, i. 100; certain, forbidden to meet in stomach of eater, ii. 83 _sqq._

Fool, one of the mummers on Plough Monday, ii. 330

—— -hen, heart of, not eaten, ii. 140

Foot, limping on one, i. 232, 284

Foucart, P., i. 32 _n._ 6

Foulahs of Senegambia, ii. 214

Fox, stuffed, i. 287, 297; corn-spirit as, 296 _sq._; carried from house to house in spring, 297; Koryak ceremony at killing a, ii. 223; Esquimau and Aino treatment of dead, 244, 267; soul of dead in a, 286

Fox’s tail, name given to last standing corn, i. 268

—— tongue as amulet, ii. 270

Foxy Dionysus, ii. 282

France, harvest customs in, i. 135, 271, 275, 280, 295, 296; hunting the wren in, ii. 320 _sq._

Franche-Comté, harvest customs in, i. 281, 286 _sq._

Franken (Franconia), harvest customs in, i. 148

Friction of wood, fire made by, ii. 127, 136; new fire made by, i. 311, ii. 74, 78; sacred fire made by, 314

Frog, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Fruit-trees bound with Yule straw, i. 301; Dionysus a god of, i. 3 _sq._; presided over by dead chiefs, ii. 125

Fruits and roots, wild, ceremonies at gathering the first of the season, ii. 80 _sqq._

Fumigation as mode of cultivating moral virtues, ii. 166 _sq._

Funeral of caterpillars, ii. 279; of dead snake, 317

Furnivall, J. S., i. 190 _sq._

Gadbas, the, ii. 118

Galelareese, their burial custom, ii. 97

Galicia, harvest customs in, i. 135, 277

Gall-bladders, the seat of courage, ii. 145 _sq._

Gallas, the, ii. 154, 266 _n._ 2, 270

Galloway, harvest customs in, i. 279

Game of ball played as a rite, ii. 76, 79

Games held by harvesters, i. 75 _sqq._; quadriennial period of Greek, 77 _sqq._; octennial period of Greek, 80; in primitive agriculture, magical significance of, 92 _sqq._; played at the sowing festival among the Kayans, 94 _sqq._, 97 _sq._; played for the good of the crops, 101; magical, 102; athletic, ii. 66

—— the Eleusinian, i. 70 _sqq._, 110, 180

Gander’s neck, name given to last standing corn, i. 268

Gaṇeṣa, ii. 56

Gaolis, the, i. 7

Gardner, Percy, quoted, i. 44

Gareloch, harvest customs on the, i. 157 _sq._, 218 _n._ 2, 268

Garos, the, of Assam, ii. 43 _n._ 1, 116; ceremony of the Horse at rice-harvest among the, 337 _sqq._

Gayo-land, ii. 33

Gazelle Peninsula, i. 123

Gazelles, souls of dead in, ii. 289

Geminus, on the supposed influence of the stars, i. 318 _sq._

Generalisations of science inadequate to cover all particular facts, ii. 37

Generation, male organ of, as emblem of Dionysus, i. 12; effigy of male organ of, in Thracian ceremony, 26, 29

Genius, Aristotle on men of, ii. 302 _n._ 5

—— or patron of animals, ii. 243

_Genna_, taboo, in Assam, i. 109 _n._ 2

Germans, the ancient, i. 129

Germany, the Corn-mother in, i. 132 _sqq._; cries of reapers in, 269; the corn-spirit as an animal in, 271, 277, 279, 296, 300

Ghosts or demons deceived by dummies, ii. 96 _sqq._; offerings to ancestral, 127; of animals feared, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 223, 224, 227 _sq._, 229, 231 _sq._, 235, 236, 237, 241, 245, 267 _sq._, 269, 271; disabled by the mutilation of their bodies, 271 _sqq._

Gilgit, ii. 56

Gill, W. W., quoted, i. 312

Gilyak procession with bear, ii. 322, 325

—— shaman, ii. 103

Gilyaks, the, of Siberia, ii. 206, 238, 267; their bear-festivals, 190 _sqq._

Ginger cultivated, i. 123

Girls sacrificed for the crops, i. 237, 239

Gnats, charm against, ii. 281

Goat in relation to Dionysus, i. 17 _sq._; sacrificed for human victim, 249; corn-spirit as, 281 _sqq._, ii. 327; the Cripple or Lame, i. 284; killed on harvest-field, 285; stuffed, 287; killed at sowing, 288

—— and Athena, ii. 40 _sq._

—— -formed deities, ii. 1 _sqq._

—— live, torn to pieces in rites of Dionysus, i. 18, ii. 16

—— skin, mask of, i. 26; worn by farmer at harvest, 285

—— skins, mummers clad in, i. 26 _sqq._

Goat’s neck, name given to last standing corn, i. 268

Goats torn to pieces by fanatics in Morocco, i. 21 _sq._; sacrificed to wolves, ii. 284

God, the Dying and Reviving, i. 1, 33; killed in animal form, 22 _sq._; eating the, ii. 48 _sqq._

Gods, death and resurrection of, i. 1, 12 _sqq._; distinguished from spirits, 169; in the likeness of foreigners, 236

Goldi, bear-festivals of the, ii. 197

—— shaman, ii. 103

Goldsmith, transmigration of thief into, ii. 299

Gonds, human sacrifices among the, i. 244

Good Friday, i. 33

—— Spirit, the, i. 206

Goose, to lose the, i. 277 _n._ 3

Gorillas, souls of dead in, ii. 289

Grandmother, name given to last sheaf, i. 136

Grapes, the last, not to be stript, i. 234 _sq._

Grasshoppers, charm against, ii. 281

Grave of Dionysus, i. 14

Graves, sacrifices at, ii. 113; false, to deceive demons, ii. 99 _sq._

Great Bassam, in Guinea, ii. 9

—— Eleusinian Games, i. 71, 79

—— Mother, the, name given to the last sheaf, i. 135 _sq._

—— Mysteries of Eleusis, their date, i. 51

Great Sun, title of head chief of the Natchez, ii. 77 _sqq._

—— Vigil, i. 176

Greece, theory of the transmigration of souls in ancient, ii. 300

Greek divinities who died and rose again, i. 2; farmers, their seasons for sowing and reaping, i. 318

—— months lunar, i. 52

—— summer rainless, i. 69

Green Corn Dance, ii. 76

—— Festival at Eleusis, i. 63

Greenlanders, the, ii. 246

Gregor, Rev. Walter, i. 158 _sqq._

Gregory of Tours, ii. 281

Grey, Sir George, quoted, i. 127

Ground, last sheaf not allowed to touch the, i. 158, 159, 161

Guadacanal, island of, ii. 127

Guaranis, the, of Paraguay, i. 309

“Guardian gods” of the Hos, i. 234

Guardian-spirit, ii. 60; of family, i. 121

—— spirits of American Indians, ii. 207

Guayaquil, in Ecuador, i. 236

Guaycurus of the Gran Chaco, i. 309

Guazacualco, ii. 259

Guiana, Indians of British, i. 120, ii. 236; their animism, 204

Guinea-fowl gives signal for planting, i. 117

Guns fired to repel demons, ii. 99

_Guré_, a hobby-horse, ii. 337 _sq._

Haddon, Dr. A. C., i. 106 _n._ 1

Hadrian institutes games at Mantinea, i. 80

Hag (_wrach_), name given to last corn cut in Wales, i. 142 _sqq._

Hahn, Theophilus, i. 317

Haida Indians, i. 20

Hair of slain foes, use made of, ii. 153

Halibut, the first of the season, treatment of, ii. 253

Hallowmas, i. 140

Halmahera, i. 183

_Haloa_, Attic festival, i. 60 _sqq._

Hamstring of deer, custom of removing, ii. 266

Hamstringing dead animals, ii. 267, 271, 273

—— men to disable their ghosts, ii. 272, 273

Hand-marks, white, ii. 338

Hands of enemies eaten, ii. 151, 152

Hanover, harvest customs in, i. 133, 135, 283

Hare, corn-spirit as, i. 279 _sq._

Hare-skin Indians, ii. 265

Hare’s tail, name given to last standing corn, i. 268

Hares not eaten, ii. 141

Harran, sacrifices offered by the heathen of, i. 261 _sq._

—— legend of Tammuz, i. 258

Harrison, Miss J. E., i. 5 _n._ 4, 60 _n._ 1, 62 _n._ 6

Harte, Bret, ii. 171 _n._ 1

Hartland, E. S., i. 143 _n._ 1, 224 _n._ 4

Harvest, festival of the dead at the close of, ii. 110; in Greece, date of, i. 48

—— -child, i. 151

—— -cock, i. 276, 277

—— -crown, i. 221, 277

—— -customs and spring customs compared, i. 167 _sqq._

—— -goat, i. 282, 283

—— -man, i. 221

—— -mother, i. 135

—— -Queen, i. 146 _sq._

—— -supper, i. 134, 138, 156, 157, 159 _sq._, 161 _sq._, 297; sacramental character of, 303

—— -woman, i. 145

—— -wreath, i. 283

Harvesters, athletic competitions among, i. 76 _sq._; wrapt up in corn-stalks, 220 _sqq._

_Hawkie_, i. 146, 147 _n._ 1

Hawks, revered by the Aino, ii. 200

Hay, Sir John Drummond, i. 179

Head of horse, ii. 42, 43 _n._ 1, 337

—— -hunting, human, i. 240 _sqq._; practice of, 256

Headlam, Walter, i. 2 _n._ 1

Heads shaved, ii. 161

Heart of Dionysus, the sacred, i. 13, 14, 15; of human victim torn out, ii. 92; of lion or leopard eaten to make the eater brave, 142 _sq._; of water-ousel eaten in order to acquire wisdom and eloquence, 144; of bear eaten to acquire courage, 146; of serpent eaten to acquire language of animals, 146; of wolf eaten to acquire courage, 146; regarded as the seat of intellect, 149

Hearts of men sacrificed, i. 236; of crows, moles, or hawks eaten, ii. 143; of men eaten to acquire their qualities, 148 _sqq._

Heaven-herds among the Zulus, ii. 160

Hebrews forbidden to reap corners of fields and glean, last grapes, i. 234 _sq._

Heckewelder, Rev. J., quoted, ii. 205 _sq._

Hedgehog, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Hemithea, sanctuary of, ii. 85

Hen, heart of, not eaten, ii. 142, 147; hens not eaten, ii. 140

Henna, image of Demeter at, i. 65

Hephaestius, a Greek month, i. 46 _n._ 2

Heraeon, a Greek month, ii. 7

Heralds and tongues, ii. 271

Hercules and Busiris, i. 259

Hercules and Lityerses, i. 217

—— and Syleus, i. 258

—— and Zeus, ii. 172

—— surnamed Locust, ii. 282

Hermes, tongues of victims assigned to, ii. 270

Herrick, i. 147 _n._ 1

Herring, superstitions as to, ii. 251 _sq._

Hertfordshire, “crying the Mare,” in, i. 292 _sq._

Hervey Islands, i. 312

Hesiod on time for ploughing, i. 45; on time of vintage, 47 _n._ 2; on the farmer’s calendar, 53

Hierapolis on the Euphrates, ii. 23

Hierophant at Eleusis, i. 55, 65

Highlands of Scotland, beating the cow’s hide in the, ii. 322 _sqq._

Hill-Tout, C., ii. 80 _sq._, 134

Himerius, on the gift of the corn, i. 58

Hindoos, sacrifice of first-fruits among the ancient, ii. 119 _sq._

Hippolytus and Virbius, ii. 40

—— on mysteries of Eleusis, i. 38

Hippopotamus, ceremony after killing a, ii. 235

Hippopotamuses, souls of dead in, ii. 289

_Hockey_ cart, i. 147 _n._ 1

Hodson, T. C., i. 109 _n._ 2

Hoeing, rites at, i. 96; done by women, 113 _sq._

Hoensbroech, Count von, ii. 94

Hoes used by women in agriculture, i. 114, 115, 116, 118, 119

Hoggan, Frances, i. 267

Hogmanay, the last day of the year, ii. 323

Holiness conceived as a dangerous virus, ii. 29

Hollis, A. C., ii. 155

Homer on Demeter, i. 41 _sq._; on loves of Zeus and Demeter, 66; on gods in likeness of foreigners, 236

Homeric Greeks, ii. 270

—— _Hymn to Demeter_, i. 35 _sqq._

Homoeopathic or imitative magic, i. 62, 262, ii. 267, 331, 333, 334; of a flesh diet, ii. 138 _sqq._

Honduras, Indians of, ii. 241

Hone, W., quoted, i. 264 _sq._

Hop-picking, custom at, i. 226

Horned Dionysus, i. 12, 16

Horse, “seeing the Horse,” i. 294; “Cross of the Horse,” 294; “fatigue of the Horse,” 294; sacrificed to Mars at Rome, ii. 42 _sqq._; ceremony of the, at rice-harvest among the Garos, 337 _sqq._

—— and Virbius, ii. 40 _sqq._

—— -headed Demeter of Phigalia, ii. 21, 338

—— or mare, corn-spirit as, i. 292 _sqq._

Horse-races, i. 71, ii. 114; at harvest, i. 76

Horse’s head, ii. 42, 43 _n._ 1, 337 _sq._

Horses, Lycurgus torn to pieces by, i. 24; excluded from Arician grove, ii. 40 _sqq._; excluded from sanctuaries, 45 _sq._

Horus, eye of, ii. 30

Hos of Togoland, the, i. 130, 234, ii. 59; a tribe of Ewe negroes, i. 115, 116; of Bengal, ii. 117

Hottentots, the, i. 316 _sq._

Huahine, island of, ii. 132

Huichol Indians, the, ii. 93

Huitzilopochtli, a Mexican god, ii. 86, 90, 95

Human beings torn to pieces in rites of Dionysus, i. 24

Human sacrifices for crops, i. 236 _sqq._; offered by ancient Egyptians, 259 _sq._; in Mexico, ii. 88

—— victims, substitutes for, i. 249; treated as divine, 250

Hunters, propitiation of wild animals by, ii. 204 _sqq._; of grisly bears, chastity observed by, 226

Hunting the wren, ii. 317 _sqq._

Hurons, the, ii. 250 _sq._

Huts, miniature, for ghosts, ii. 113

Huzuls, the, of the Carpathians, ii. 43 _n._ 1, 275

Hyaenas, souls of dead in, ii. 289

Hyes Attes, ii. 22

_Hymn to Demeter_, Homeric, i. 35 _sqq._, 70

Ialysus in Rhodes, ii. 45

Iasion and Demeter, i. 208

Ibans (Sea Dyaks) of Sarawak, ii. 279

Iberians, the, i. 129

Icarius and Erigone, ii. 133

Ichneumon, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Ida Batara, i. 202

Idah, ii. 228

Ideler, L., i. 86

Igaras of the Niger, ii. 228

Igbiras, the, ii. 115

Igorrots of the Philippines, ii. 292

Image of god made of dough and eaten sacramentally, ii. 86 _sqq._, 90 _sq._; of snake carried about, 316 _sq._

Images of ancestors, ii. 53; of animals sacrificed instead of the animals, 95 _n._ 2; vicarious use of, 96 _sqq._; of gods, suggested origin of, 173 _sq._; of vermin made as a protection against them, 280 _sq._ _See also_ Effigies, Puppets

Imitation of spirits, i. 186

Immortality, hope of, associated with Eleusinian mysteries, i. 90 _sq._

—— of animals, savage faith in the, ii. 260 _sqq._

Immortality of soul revealed in mysteries of Dionysus, i. 15

_Inachi_, an offering of first-fruits, ii. 128, 131

_Inao_, sacred wands of the Aino, ii. 185, 186 _n._, 189

Inari, Japanese rice-god, i. 297

Incantations for growth of crops, i. 100

Incas, the, i. 310

India, the last sheaf of corn in, 222 _sq._; doctrine of the transmigration of souls in ancient, ii. 298 _sq._

Indian Archipelago, the, i. 124

Indians of British Columbia, their cannibal orgies, i. 18 _sq._; of South America, women’s agricultural work among the, 119 _sqq._

Indonesian ideas of rice-soul, i. 181 _sq._

Indra, Indian god, ii. 120

Ingiald, son of King Aunund, ii. 146

Inoculation with moral and other virtues, ii. 158 _sqq._

Inscription, Eleusinian, dealing with first-fruits, i. 55 _sq._

Intercalation in Greek calendar, i. 81

Invulnerability, ii. 160

Iowa Indians, ii. 217

Irayas, the, of Luzon, ii. 124

Ireland, hunting the wren in, ii. 319 _sq._

Iron axe, use of, forbidden, ii. 248

Iroquois, their sacrifice of a white dog, ii. 258 _n._ 1

_Isilimela_, the Pleiades, i. 316

Isis, i. 262; dirge of, 215; at Tithorea, festivals of, ii. 18 _n._ 1; in relation to cows, 35

Islay, harvest customs in, i. 141 _sq._

Isle de France, harvest customs in, i. 221, 226

Isle of Man, hunting the wren in the, ii. 318 _sq._

Isocrates, on Demeter’s gift of the corn, i. 54 _sq._

Isowa or Aïsawa, order of saints in Morocco, i. 21

Israelites, their brazen serpent, ii. 281

Isthmian games, i. 86

Italy, vintage custom in, ii. 133

Ivy Girl, i. 153

Jabme-Aimo, the abode of the dead, ii. 257

Jackal, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Jackal’s heart not eaten, ii. 141

Jacob, the wrestling of, ii. 264

—— of Edessa, 280 _n._

Jaguars eaten to inspire courage, ii. 140; souls of dead in, 285, 286

Ja-luo, the, Nilotic negroes, ii. 142

Jankari, a god, i. 244

Japan, rice-god in, i. 297

Japanese deities of the Sun, i. 212

_Jatakas_, ii. 299 _n._ 5

Java, use of winnowing-basket in, i. 6; ceremony at rice-harvest in, 199 _sqq._

Jawbones of slain beasts propitiated by hunters, ii. 244 _sq._

Jebel-Nuba, ii. 221

Jewish high priest, ii. 27

Jews, their attitude to the pig, ii. 23 _sq._; their ablutions, 27

Jochelson, W., ii. 232

Johnson, Dr. Samuel, ii. 322

Jukos, the, of Nigeria, ii. 160

_Julbuck_ in Scandinavia, ii. 327

Jumping over a woman, ceremony of, ii. 64, 70 _n._ 1, 253

Jupiter, lamb sacrificed to, at vintage, ii. 133

Kachins, the, of Upper Burma, ii. 120

Kai, the, of German New Guinea, i. 99 _sqq._, 313, ii. 33; their belief in transmigration, 296

Kaimani Bay, i. 123

Kalamantans of Borneo, ii. 293 _sq._

Kalmucks, their consecration of a white ram, ii. 313 _sq._

Kamilaroi, the, of New South Wales, ii. 151, 162; burial custom of the, 99 _sq._

Kamtchatka, ii. 195

Kamtchatkans, the, i. 315, ii. 257, 268; their propitiation of slain animals, 222

_Kamui_, ii. 180, 198

Kandhs or Khonds. _See_ Khonds

Kangean archipelago, ii. 278

Kansas Indians, ii. 149

Karels of Finland, the, ii. 258 _n._ 2

Karens of Burma, i. 10; their ceremonies to secure the rice-soul, 189 _sq._

Karo-Bataks of Sumatra, i. 196

Karoks of California, ii. 255

_Kashim_, ii. 247

Kaua Indians, i. 111

Kavirondo, ii. 26

Kayans or Bahaus, the, of central Borneo, i. 92 _sqq._, 107, 109, 111, 234, 314, ii. 54; their ceremonies in connexion with rice, 184 _sqq._; their custom as to eating deer, ii. 144; their belief in transmigration, 293

—— of the Mahakam river, i. 186

—— of the Mendalam river, i. 97, 98

Kei Islands, ii. 123

Kekchis of Guatemala, ii. 241

_Kelah_, soul, i. 189

_Kemping_, i. 152

Kent, harvest custom in, i. 153

Kenyahs, the, of Borneo, i. 314

Key of the field, i. 226

Khön-ma, a Tibetan goddess, ii. 96

Khonds or Kandhs, human sacrifices for crops among the, i. 245 _sqq._

Kid, surname of Dionysus, i. 17

Kikuyu, i. 317

Killing a god in the form of an animal, i. 22 _sq._; two types of the custom of, ii. 312 _sq._

—— the corn-spirit, i. 216 _sqq._

—— the divine animal, ii. 169 _sqq._

Kimbunda, the, of West Africa, ii. 152

King, title of Carnival mummer, i. 28 _sq._; eats of new fruits before his people, ii. 63, 70; first-fruits presented to the, 109, 116, 122; so called, at Carcassone, 320 _sq._

—— of the Calf, i. 290

—— of the harvesters, i. 294

—— of the Rice, i. 197

King’s son sacrificed for his father, i. 13, 24 _sq._

Kings, trace of custom of slaying them annually, i. 254 _sq._; turned at death into lions, ii. 288

Kings’ wives turned at death into leopards, ii. 288

Kingsmill Islands, ii. 127

Kinross, harvest custom in, i. 227

Kinship of men with crocodiles, ii. 212 _sq._, 214 _sq._; of men with tigers, 216

_Kirn_ or _kern_, last corn cut, i. 151, 152 _sqq._; name of the harvest-supper, 158

—— -baby, i. 151, 153

—— -doll, i. 151, 153, 154

—— -supper, i. 154

Kiwaii, i. 106

Kiziba, district of Central Africa, i. 118, ii. 219

_Klöppel_ (mallet), at threshing, i. 148

Kobeua Indians, the, i. 111, ii. 164

Kochs of Assam, ii. 116

Kon-Meney, a tribe of Cochin China, ii. 291

_Koragia_ at Mantinea, i. 46 _n._ 2

_Kore_, title of Persephone, i. 208

Koryak, their ceremonies at killing bears and wolves, ii. 223; their ceremonies at the slaughter of whales, 232 _sqq._; their treatment of a slain fox, 244

Kothluwalawa, a sacred lake, ii. 179

Krooben, a malevolent spirit, ii. 100

Kruyt, A. C., i. 182 _sq._

Kshetrpal, a Himalayan deity, ii. 117

Kudulu, a hill tribe of India, i. 244

_Kuker_ and _Kukerica_, ii. 332, 333, 334

Κυκεών, i. 161 _n._ 4

Kukis, the, ii. 155 _n._ 4

Kull Gossaih, an Indian goddess, ii. 118

Kwakiutl Indians, i. 20, ii. 220, 250

La Ciotat, near Marseilles, hunting the wren at, ii. 321

Ladakh, ii. 117

Lagos, human sacrifice at, i. 239

Lake-dwellers of Europe, i. 132

Lamb killed sacramentally, ii. 314 _sq._

Lame, woman who pretends to be, ii. 254

—— Goat, the, i. 284

Lamentations, pretended, for insects which destroy the crops, ii. 279 _sq._

Lampsacus, coin of, i. 44

Land cleared for cultivation by men, i. 113 _sq._, 117 _sqq._

Landowners, sacrifices offered to spirits of former, i. 228

Lang, Andrew, ii. 4

Language of animals acquired by eating serpent’s flesh, ii. 146; of birds, how learned, 146

Lanuvium, sacred serpent at, ii. 18

Laos, province of Siam, i. 8

Laphystian Zeus, i. 25

Lapps, the, ii. 257; their treatment of slain bears, 224

Latuka, ii. 228

_Laws of Manu_, ii. 298

Leaf-clad dancers, i. 95

Leaps, high and long, i. 98; to make the crops grow tall, ii. 330 _sq._

Learchus, son of Athamas, i. 24

Leeches, charm against, ii. 281

Legends told as charms, i. 102 _sq._

Lenaeon, a Greek month, i. 66

Lengua Indians of Paraguay, i. 309; of the Gran Chaco, ii. 245

Lenormant, François, i. 40 _n._ 3

Leonard, Major A. G., ii. 155

Leopard’s blood drunk, or its flesh or heart eaten to make the eater brave, ii. 141 _sq._

Leopards, men inspired by, ii. 213; revered, 228; ceremonies observed after the slaughter of, 228 _sqq._; souls of dead in, 288, 289

Lepers sacrificed, i. 261

Leprosy caused by eating a sacred animal, ii. 25 _sqq._

Lesbos, harvest custom in, i. 280

Letts, swinging among the, i. 107; their sacrifices to wolves, ii. 284

Lhoosai, the, i. 122

Lhota Naga, the, i. 243

Libanius, on human life before Demeter, i. 43

Libations of beer, ii. 181, 185, 186

Liber, Father, i. 12; Roman sacrifice of new wine to, ii. 133

License, periods of, ii. 62, 63, 66 _sqq._

Lightning, eating flesh of bullock that has been struck by, ii. 161; treatment of men, animals, and houses that have been struck by, 161

_Liknites_, epithet of Dionysus, i. 5, 27

Lillooet Indians, ii. 226, 243

Limping on one foot, i. 232, 284

Lindus in Rhodes, ii. 85

Linus or Ailinus, i. 216, 257 _sq._, 263, 264

Lion-chief, ii. 228

Lion’s fat, unguent of, ii. 164

—— flesh or heart eaten to make eater brave, ii. 141, 142 _sq._, 147

Lions, men inspired by, ii. 213; respected, 228; souls of dead chiefs in, 287 _sq._

Lir majoran, god of husbandry, ii. 123

Lithuania, ii. 327; harvest customs in, i. 133, 145, 148; custom at threshing in, 223 _sq._; old Lithuanian ceremonies at eating the new corn, ii. 49 _sq._

Little Deer, chief of the deer tribe, ii. 241

—— Wood-woman, i. 232

Lityerses, i. 216 _sqq._; his relation to Attis, 255 _sq._

Liver of deer eaten, ii. 143; of dog eaten to acquire bravery, 145; of serpent eaten to acquire language of animals, 146; regarded as the seat of the soul, 147 _sq._; regarded as the seat of valour, 148; of brave men eaten, 151 _sq._; of bear, used as medicine, 187 _sq._

_Ljeschie_, Russian wood-spirits, ii. 2

Loaf made of corn of last sheaf, i. 148 _sq._

Loaves in shape of a boar, i. 300; in human shape, ii. 48 _sq._, 94, 95

Lobeck, Chr. A., ii. 17 _n._ 5, 18 _n._ 1, 20, 21

Lochaber, harvest customs in, i. 157

Locust Apollo, ii. 282

—— Hercules, ii. 282

Locusts, superstitious precautions against, ii. 276, 279, 281

Lombok, rice-spirit in, i. 201

Lothringen (Lorraine), harvest customs in, i. 223, 273, 288

Loucheux-Indians, ii. 265

Louisiana, festival of new corn in, ii. 77 _sqq._; Indians of, 239, 242

Lous, a Macedonian month, i. 258, 259

Lucian, old scholium on, ii. 17

_Lumi lali_, consecrated rice-field, i. 93, 108

Lunar calendar corrected by observation of the Pleiades, i. 314 _sq._, 315 _sq._

—— months observed by savages, i. 117, 125

—— months of Greek calendar, i. 52 _sq._, 82

—— and solar time, attempts to harmonise, i. 80 _sq._

Luritcha tribe of Australia, ii. 260

Luzon, ii. 124

Lyceum or Place of Wolves at Athens, ii. 283, 284

Lycosura, in Arcadia, ii. 46; sanctuary of the two goddesses at, 339

Lycurgus, a Thracian king, his death, i. 24, 25

Mabuaig, i. 106, ii. 207

M’Carthy, Sir Charles, ii. 149

Macdonald, Rev. James, ii. 66 _sq._

Maclagan, Dr. R. C., i. 165, 166

McClintock, Walter, i. 311

Macpherson, Major S. C., i. 250

McTaggart, Dr. J. McT. Ellis, ii. 309 _n._ 1

Madagascar, ii. 116; crocodiles respected in, 214 _sq._; belief in transmigration among the tribes of, 289 _sq._

Madder-harvest, Dutch custom at, i. 231, 235 _sq._

Madi or Moru tribe of Central Africa, ii. 314

Madonna, effigies of, sold and eaten, ii. 94

Maggots eaten as an initiatory rite, ii. 141

Magic dwindles into divination, i. 110 _n._; sympathetic, 1, 11, 102, ii. 271; homoeopathic or imitative, i. 10, 62, 262, 267, 331, 333, 334; of a flesh diet, 138 _sqq._

Magical changes of shape, i. 305

—— significance of games in primitive agriculture, i. 92 _sqq._

Magnesia on the Maeander, i. 3; sacrifice of bull at, ii. 7 _sq._

Magpies’ nests, custom of robbing the, ii. 321 _n._ 3

Magyar tale, ii. 263

Mahakam River, i. 98, 99 _n._ 1, 186, 187, 314

Mai Darat, the, ii. 102

Maiden, name given to last corn cut, i. 150, 153, 155 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._

—— Feast at end of harvest, i. 156

Maidenhead, name of last standing corn, i. 158

_Maidhdean-buain_, i. 155

Maize cultivated in Africa, i. 114, 115, 119, 130; cultivated in South America, 122, 124; cultivated in Assam, 123; American personification of, 171 _sqq._; cultivated in Burma, 242; thought to be dependent on the Pleiades, 310

—— -goddess, Mexican, i. 176

—— -mother, i. 172 _sqq._

Makalaka, the, ii. 110

Makanga, the, ii. 287

Malagasy, the, venerate crocodiles, ii. 215

Malas, the, a caste of pariahs, ii. 93

Malay Peninsula, the Rice-mother in the, i. 197 _sqq._

Malays of Patani Bay, ii. 212

Male organ, effigy of, in rites of Dionysus, i. 12; effigy of, in Thracian ceremony, 26, 29

Malko-Tirnovsko, ii. 331

Mamilian tower, ii. 42, 44

Mandans, the, i. 204

Mandeling, a district of Sumatra, i. 197, ii. 216

Maneros, i. 215, 258, 259, 261, 263, 264

Mang-Shen, god of agriculture, ii. 11, 12

Mango tree, ii. 119

Mania, the Mother or Grandmother of Ghosts, ii. 94, 96

_Maniae_, a kind of loaf, ii. 94

Manii at Aricia, many, ii. 94 _sqq._

Manioc cultivated in Africa, i. 119; cultivated in South America, 120 _sqq._

Mannewars, the, ii. 119

Mannhardt, W., i. 11, 131, 132, 135, 138, 204, 217 _n._ 1, 218 _n._ 1, 222, 258, 292, 294, ii. 2, 42 _n._ 1, 263, 325, 337

Manslayers taste the blood of their victims, ii. 154 _sq._

Mantinea, sanctuary of Demeter at, i. 46 _n._ 2; games in honour of Antinous at, 80, 85

_Manu, Laws of_, ii. 298

Manure, ashes used as, i. 117

Many Manii at Aricia, ii. 94 _sqq._

Maoris, the, i. 313, ii. 133, 156, 252

Maraves, the, ii. 111

March, the first of, ii. 322 _n._

Mare in foal, last sheaf of corn given to, i. 160, 162, 168

—— or horse, corn-spirit as, i. 292 _sqq._

Marimos, human sacrifices among the, i. 240, 251

Mariner, W., quoted, ii. 128 _sqq._

Marno, E., ii. 39

Marriage, mock, at Carnival masquerade, i. 27; of Queen of Athens to Dionysus, 30 _sq._; sacred, of Zeus and Demeter in Eleusinian mysteries, 65 _sqq._; of mice, ii. 278

Mars, red-haired men sacrificed to the planet, i. 261 _sq._; horse sacrificed to, at Rome, ii. 42

Masai, the, i. 317, ii. 83, 288

Masked dances, i. 95 _sq._, 111, 186, ii. 208 _n._ 1; in ritual, 339

Masks worn by Egyptian kings, i. 260 _sq._; worn by women, ii. 232 _sq._, 234; worn by mummers at Carnival, 333

Maskers in Thrace at Carnival, i. 26 _sqq._

Maspero, Sir G., i. 260 _n._ 2

Masquerade at sowing festival, i. 95 _sq._, 98, 186 _sq._

Master of the Fish, ii. 252

—— of Life, ii. 134, 135

Matabelé, the, i. 115, ii. 275; their festival of new fruits, 70 _sq._

Matse tribe of Ewe negroes, ii. 115

Matthes, Dr. B. F., ii. 122

Mausolus, ii. 158

Mawu Sodza, a Ewe goddess, ii. 115

May, J. D., ii. 281 _n._ 2

May, the first of, ii. 321 _n._ 3

Maypole, ii. 44

“Meal and ale,” i. 160

Meat and milk, dietary rules as to, ii. 83 _sq._

Mecklenburg, harvest customs in, i. 273, 274, 283

Medea and Aeson, ii. 143

Medicine-man, ii. 217, 220; dance of, 72

Medium inspired by crocodile spirit, ii. 213; mediums inspired by spirits of lions, leopards, and serpents, 213

Medontids, the, i. 86

_Megara_, ii. 17 _n._ 6

Meilichios, epithet of Dionysus, i. 4

Melancholy, characteristic of men of genius, ii. 302 _n._ 5

Melanesians, their observation of the Pleiades, i. 313

_Mell_, last corn cut, i. 151 _sq._

—— -doll, i. 151

—— -sheaf, i. 151 _sq._

—— -supper, i. 151

Men, parts of, eaten to acquire their qualities, ii. 148 _sqq._; disguised as animals, processions of, 325 _sqq._

Mendalam River, i. 97, 98, 187

Menstruous women, disability of, ii. 253 _sq._

Meriah, the human victim among the Khonds, i. 245, 246, 249, 250

Metageitnion, an Attic month, i. 77

“Metropolis of the Corn,” i. 58

Mexican custom of eating a man as an embodiment of a god, ii. 92 _sq._

—— customs at maize-harvest, i. 174 _sqq._

—— human sacrifices, i. 236 _sqq._

—— sacraments, ii. 86 _sqq._

Meyer, Prof. E., i. 260 _n._ 2

_Mhaighdean-Bhuana_ (or _Maighdean-Buana_), i. 156, 164 _sq._

Miamis, the, i. 206

Mice, the genius of, ii. 243; superstitious precautions taken by farmers against, 276 _sqq._, 281; superstition as to white, 279, 283; their ravages on the crops, 282

Midas, King of Phrygia, i. 217

Middleton, J. H., i. 14 _n._ 3, 266

Midsummer solstice, rainmaking ceremony performed at the, ii. 179

Mildew worshipped by the Romans, ii. 282

—— Apollo, ii. 282

Milk, taboos referring to, ii. 83 _sq._; temporary abstinence from, 161; offered to snakes, 288

Milk and meat (flesh), dietary rules as to, ii. 83 _sq._

—— of pig, ii. 24, 25

Mill, Tammuz, ground in a, i. 258

Millet cultivated in Africa, i. 115, 117; cultivated in Assam, 123; cultivated in New Guinea, 123

Milton, quoted, i. 147

Minahassa, ii. 54, 123

Minangkabauers of Sumatra, i. 191, ii. 211

Miniature fields dedicated to spirits, i. 233 _sq._

Minnetaree Indians, i. 204, ii. 256

Minotaur, the, i. 31

Miris of Assam, the, i. 123, ii. 145

Mirzapur, remedy for locusts in, ii. 276

Mistress, sanctuary of the, at Lycosura, ii. 46

Mithraic sacrifice of bull, ii. 10

Mnevis, sacred bull, ii. 34 _sq._

Moab, Arabs of, i. 138

Mock battle, ii. 75. _See_ Sham Fight

Mocobis, the, i. 309

Moffat, R., i. 316

Monbuttoo, the, of Central Africa, i. 119

_Mondard_, the great, ii. 6

Mongolian peoples, ii. 257

Monkeys sacred at Fishtown, ii. 287

Months, lunar, observed by savages, i. 117, 125; of Greek calendar, 52 _sq._, 82

Moon, reckoning by the, i. 117; human victims sacrificed to, 261; pigs sacrificed to the, ii. 25

Mooney, J., quoted, ii. 204 _sq._

Mopane country, South Africa, ii. 287

Moravia, harvest custom in, i. 162

Morgan, L. H., ii. 225 _n._ 1

Morning Star, the, i. 238, 315

Morocco, order of saints in, i. 21; the Barley Bride in, 178 _sq._

Mosquito Indians, ii. 258 _n._ 2

Mother, the Great, name given to the last sheaf, i. 135 _sq._; of the Maize, 172 _sqq._; of the Rice, 191 _sqq._

—— -corn, name given to last sheaf threshed, i. 147

—— -cotton, i. 178

—— Earth, ii. 105

—— -sheaf, i. 135

Moulton, Professor J. H., i. 41 _n._, 131 _n._ 4

Mountains, offerings to the, ii. 134

Mourning, pretended, for insects that destroy the crops, ii. 279 _sq._

Mouse Apollo, ii. 282 _sq._ _See_ Mice

Mouth of dead fox tied up, ii. 267

Mpongwe, the, i. 119

Muganda (singular of Baganda, plural), ii. 231

Mukasa, god of the Baganda, ii. 253

Mull, harvest custom in, i. 155

_Mulungu_, spirits of the dead, ii. 111 _sq._

Murray, Miss Margaret A., i. 260 _sq._

Murray, Sir James, i. 151 _n._ 3

Muskoghees, the, ii. 150

Mutilation of dead men intended to disable their ghosts, ii. 271 _sqq._; of ox, magical equivalent to mutilation of enemy, 271

_Muzimos_, spirits of the dead, ii. 111

Myconus, i. 66

Myres, Professor J. L., i. 62 _n._ 5

Mysteries at Mantinea, i. 46 _n._ 2

—— Eleusinian, i. 35, 37 _sqq._, 65 _sqq._, 69 _sq._, 78 _sq._, 111, 161 _sq._, 188; the Great, their date, 51; instituted by Eumolpus, 70; associated with belief in immortality, 90 _sq._; of Dionysus, 15; Greek, i. 110

Nagas of Assam, their burial custom, ii. 100; their belief in transmigration, 290 _sq._

Nahals, the, ii. 119

Namaquas, the, ii. 141

Nandi, the, i. 117, 317, ii. 64, 149, 155

_Nanga_, sacred enclosure in Fiji, ii. 125

Naples protected against flies and grasshoppers, ii. 281

Narrative spells, i. 104 _sqq._

Natchez Indians, ii. 135; their festival of new corn, 77 _sqq._

Natural timekeepers, i. 53

Nauras Indians, ii. 150

Navel-string, term applied to last handful of corn, i. 150

Neck, crying the, i. 264 _sqq._

—— of the corn-spirit, i. 268

Neil, R. A., ii. 22 _n._ 4

Nemean games, i. 86

Nets treated as living beings, ii. 240 _n._ 1

New corn, eaten sacramentally, ii. 48 _sqq._

—— fire, ii. 65, 74, 75, 78; festival of, 135

—— fruits, ceremonies at eating, ii. 52 _sqq._

—— potatoes, how eaten, ii. 51

—— rice, ceremonies at eating the, ii. 54 _sqq._

—— vessels used for new fruits, ii. 81, 83

—— yams, ceremonies at eating, ii. 53, 58 _sqq._; festival of the, 115; in Tonga, festival of the, 128 _sqq._

—— Britain, i. 123

—— Caledonia, ii. 151; ceremony at eating first yams in, 53

—— Guinea, i. 313, ii. 124; German, i. 99, 103, 104; Dutch, 123

—— Hebrides, i. 313, ii. 125

—— Zealand, ii. 28

New Year festival of the Kayans, i. 96 _sq._, 98, 99; dated by the Pleiades, 116, 310, 312, 315

—— Year’s Day, i. 302; eve of, ii. 322

Niam-Niam, the, i. 119

Nias, i. 315, ii. 32, 102, 124, 276; harvest custom in, i. 233 _sq._

Nicaragua, festivals in, ii. 91

Nicolson, A., i. 164 _sq._

Nieuwenhuis, Dr. A. W., i. 93, 94 _n._ 2, 95, 96, 97 _sq._, 98, 107

Niger Delta, burial custom in the, ii. 98

Nilsson, Professor M. P., i. 58 _n._ 1, 62 _n._ 6, ii. 8 _n._ 2

Nine, the number, in ritual, i. 195

Nisan, a Jewish month, i. 259 _n._ 1

Nishga Indians, the, ii. 106

Nonnus, on death of Dionysus, i. 12 _sq._

Nootka Indians, ii. 225, 251

Normandy, harvest customs in, i. 226, 295

North American Indians, ii. 237; their theory of the lower animals, 205 _sq._

Northumberland, harvest customs in, i. 151

Norway, harvest customs in, i. 132, 223, 225, 280, 282

Nubas, the, of Jebel-Nuba, ii. 114

Nuehr, the, ii. 39

Nyanja-speaking tribes, ii. 26

Nyanza, Lake Victoria, i. 118

Nyikplă, a negro rain-god, ii. 45

Oath of women by the Pleiades, i. 311

Oaths accompanied by eating a sacred substance, ii. 313

Oats-bride, i. 162, 163, 164

—— -cow, i. 289, 290

—— -fool, i. 148

—— -goat, i. 270, 282, 283, 286, 287; mummer called the, ii. 327

—— -king, i. 164

—— -man, i. 163, 223

—— -mother, i. 135

—— -queen, i. 164

—— -sow, i. 298

—— -stallion, i. 292

—— -wolf, i. 273, 274

—— -woman, i. 163

Obscene songs sung by women on special occasions, ii. 280

Octennial cycle in Greek calendar, i. 80 _sqq._

—— period of Greek games, i. 80

—— tenure of kingship, i. 82, 85

October horse, at Rome, ii. 42 _sqq._

Oesel, island of, i. 298, 302, ii. 51

Ogun, a war-god, ii. 150

Oil, human victim anointed with, i. 246, 247; holy, ii. 123

Ointment, magical, ii. 165 _sq._

Ojibway Indians, ii. 219; their treatment of slain bears, ii. 225 _sq._

Okanaken Indians, ii. 134

Olachen fish, ceremonies at catching the first of the season, ii. 254 _sq._

Old animal, bone of, eaten to make eater old, ii. 143

—— Barley-woman, i. 139

—— Calabar, ii. 108

—— Corn-woman at threshing, i. 147

—— Man, name given to the last sheaf, i. 136 _sqq._, 218 _sqq._; at threshing, 148 _sq._

—— Potato Woman, i. 145

—— Rye-woman, i. 139, 140, 145, 223, 224, 232

—— Wheat-woman, i. 139

—— Wife (_Cailleach_), name given to last corn cut, i. 140 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._

—— Witch, burning the, i. 224

—— Woman, name given to last sheaf, i. 136 _sq._, 147, 223; Cherokee personification of corn, 177

—— Woman who Never Dies, i. 204 _sq._

—— Women as representatives of the Corn-goddess, i. 125

Oloh Ngadju, the, ii. 100

Olympia, Pelops at, ii. 85

Olympiads, beginning of reckoning by, i. 82

Olympic games, i. 80, 86

Omagua Indians of Brazil, i. 309

Omaha Indians, ii. 25, 29, 207, 269, 272

Omambos, the, ii. 149

Omen, beasts and birds of, ii. 143

_Omuongo_ tree, ii. 71

Onitsha, on the Niger, ii. 58; funeral custom at, 98 _sq._

Opium, i. 242

Oraons, human sacrifices among the, i. 244 _sq._; of Bengal, ii. 117

Organs of generation, male and female, cakes in shape of, i. 62; effigies of male, 12, 26, 29

Origin of agriculture, i. 128 _sq._; of astronomy, 307

Orinoco, Indians of the, i. 124, 310, ii. 150, 236

Orion, the constellation, i. 315

Orion’s belt, i. 313, 315, 317

—— sword, i. 317

Orotchis, bear-festivals of the, ii. 197

Osculati, G., ii. 285

Osiris, i. 214, 215, 259 _sqq._; his relation to Dionysus, 3, 32; human sacrifices at grave of, 260; black and green, 263; key to mysteries of, 263; and the pig, ii. 24 _sqq._; in relation to sacred bulls, 34 _sqq._; false graves of, 100; his missing member, 264

Ostiaks, their ceremonies at killing bears, ii. 222 _sq._

Ostrich, ghost of, deceived, ii. 245

Otawa Indians, ii. 224, 250

Otawa totem clans, ii. 225 _n._ 1

Otter’s head, Aino custom as to eating, ii. 144

Otters, their bones not allowed to be gnawed by dogs, ii. 239

Ounce, ceremony at killing an, ii. 235

Ovambo, the, ii. 71; their worship of the dead, 109 _sq._

Ox, corn-spirit as, i. 288 _sqq._; killed on harvest field, 290; slaughtered at threshing, 291 _sq._; sacrificed at the _Bouphonia_, ii. 5; as representative of the corn-spirit, 9 _sqq._; effigy of, broken as a spring ceremony in China, 10 _sqq._; Bechuana sacrifice of a black, 271; sacrificed to boa-constrictor, 290

—— -stall (Bucolium) at Athens, i. 30 _sq._

—— -yoked Ploughing at Athens, i. 31

Oxen used in ploughing, i. 129 _n._ 1

Pains in back at reaping, i. 285

Palenques, the, of South America, ii. 221

Palestine, wild boars in, ii. 31 _sq._

Panathenaic games at Athens, i. 80

_Panes_, a bird-feast, ii. 170

Panopeus, i. 48

Pans in relation to goats, ii. 1 _sqq._

Papuans, the, i. 123, ii. 145; their belief in the transmigration of souls, 295

_Paradoxurus_, souls of dead in various species of, ii. 294

Pardon of animal asked before killing it, ii. 183

Parian chronicler, i. 70

Paris protected against dormice and serpents, ii. 281

Parjas, the, ii. 27, 119

Parrots, assimilation of men to, ii. 208

Partridge, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Pasiphae and the Minotaur, i. 31

Pastoral stage of society, ii. 35, 37

—— tribes, animal sacraments among, ii. 313

Patani Bay, ii. 212

Pawnees, human sacrifices among the, i. 238 _sq._

Peacock as a totem, ii. 29; transmigration of sinner into, 299

Pea-mother, i. 132, 135

Peas-cow, i. 290

—— -pug, i. 272

Pelew Islanders, ii. 293

—— Islands, burial custom in the, ii. 98

Pelops at Olympia, ii. 85; his restoration to life, 263

Pembrokeshire, harvest customs in, i. 142 _sqq._; cutting “the neck” in, 267; hunting the wren in, ii. 320

Pentheus, death of, i. 24, 25

Pergamus, ii. 85

Permanence of simpler forms of religion, ii. 335

Persephone, mother of Zagreus by Zeus, i. 12; rape of, 36; a personification of the corn, 39 _sq._; in art, 43 _sq._; the descent of, 46, ii. 17; associated with the ripe ears of corn, 58; in Greek art, 88 _sq._

—— and Demeter, i. 35 _sqq._

—— and Pluto, ii. 9

Personification of corn as mother and daughter, i. 130, 207 _sqq._

Perthshire, harvest customs in, i. 156 _sq._

Peru, Indians of, i. 120, 122, ii. 249; their worship of the Pleiades, i. 310

Peruvians, their customs as to Mother of Maize, etc., i. 171 _sqq._

Pessinus, i. 255

Phigalia, horse-headed Demeter of, ii. 21, 338

Philippine Islands, i. 240

Philistines, their charm against mice, ii. 281, 283

Philochorus, on date of _Haloa_, i. 62

Phlius, i. 17

Phoenicia, song of Linus in, i. 216

Phrygia, Lityerses in, i. 216 _sq._

_Phyllanthus emblica_, ii. 119

Piaroas Indians of the Orinoco, ii. 285

Pig, corn-spirit as, i. 298 _sqq._; in relation to Demeter, ii. 16 _sqq._; not eaten in Crete, 21 _n._ 1; in ancient Egypt, 24 _sqq._

—— and Attis, ii. 22

—— -meat forbidden to women at sowing seed, i. 115

Pig’s flesh not eaten by field labourers, ii. 33, 139

Pigeons, souls of dead in, ii. 293

Pigs, sacrifice of, i. 74, 97; not to be eaten by enchanters of crops, 100 _sq._; sacrificed to the moon, ii. 25; souls of dead in, 286, 295, 296

_Pilae,_ human effigies, ii. 95 _n._ 1

Pindar, old scholiast on, i. 71, 74, 77, 78; on rebirth, 84

Pine-tree, sacred to Dionysus, i. 4

Piros Indians of Peru, ii. 286

_Pirua,_ granary of maize, i. 171 sqq.

Plaiting the last standing corn before cutting it, i. 142, 144, 153, 154, 157, 158

Plane-tree, Dionysus in, i. 3

Planets, human victims sacrificed to, i. 261 _sq._

Plants thought to be animated by spirits, ii. 82 _sq._

Plataea, Eleutherian games at, i. 80, 85

Plato and the doctrine of transmigration, ii. 308

Playfair, Major A., ii. 337

Pleiades, autumnal setting of, i. 45; morning rising of, the signal for reaping in Greece, 48 _sq._; in primitive calendars, 116, 307 _sqq._; associated with the rainy season, 318

Pliny, on the setting of the Pleiades, i. 318

Plough in relation to Dionysus, i. 5; in primitive agriculture, 113

—— Monday, i. 33; rites of, ii. 325 _sqq._; English celebration of, 329 _sqq._

Ploughing at Carnival, ceremony of, i. 28, 29, 331, 332, 334; at Athens, sacred ceremony of, 31; in Greece, season of, 45; with oxen, 129 _n._ 1; Chinese ceremony of, ii. 14 _sq._; ceremonies at, 57

Ploughings, three a year, i. 53 _n._ 1; Sacred, in Attica, 108

Ploughmen and plough-horses, the Yule Boar given to, i. 301, 303

Plutarch, on a Roman rite, ii. 108; on immortality, i. 15; on mourning festival of Demeter, 46; on sacrifices, ii. 31; on Apis, 36

Pluto called Subterranean Zeus, i. 66

—— and Persephone, ii. 9; rude originals of, 334

Plutus, i. 208

Poland, harvest customs in, i. 144, 145, 148, 150, 277

Pollution of death, ii. 85 _n._ 3; ceremonial, of girl at puberty, 268

Polynesia, observation of the Pleiades in, i. 313

Polynesians, ii. 28

Pomegranates sprung from blood of Dionysus, i. 14

Po-nagar, goddess of agriculture, ii. 56, 57, 58

Pondos, the, ii. 66

Pongal feast, i. 244

Pongol, a Hindoo festival, ii. 56

Pontiffs regulate Roman calendar, i. 83

Poor Old Woman, corn left on field for, i. 231 _sq._

Poppies as symbols of Demeter, i. 43 _sq._

Poppy, the, cultivated for opium, i. 242

Porcupine, a Bechuana totem, ii. 164 _sq._; respected by some Indians, 243; transmigration of sinner into, 299

Pork forbidden to enchanters of crops, i. 100 _sq._; not eaten by field labourers, ii. 33; reason for not eating, 296

Porphyry, on the _Bouphonia_, ii. 5 _n._ 1

Poseidon, first-fruits sacrificed to, ii. 133

Poso, in Celebes, i. 236, ii. 244

Potato-dog, i. 272 _sq._

—— -mother, i. 172

—— -wolf, i. 274

Potawatomi Indians, ii. 218

Prayer, the Place of, ii. 113

Prayer and spell, i. 105

Prayers to the spirits of the dead, ii. 112, 113, 124 _sq._; addressed to dead animals, 184, 197, 224, 225, 226, 235, 236, 243, 253, 293; to shark-idol, 292

Preachers to fish, ii. 250 _sq._

Pretence made by reapers of mowing down visitors to the harvest-field, i. 229 _sq._

Priest, chief acting as, ii. 126

Priests, first-fruits belong to, ii. 125; of Tetzcatlipoca, ii. 165; of shark-idols, 292

Primitive ritual, marks of, i. 169

Proarcturia, a Greek festival, i. 51

Processions with sacred animals, ii. 316 _sqq._; of men disguised as animals, 325 _sqq._

Proclus on Dionysus, i. 13

_Proerosia_, a Greek festival of Demeter, i. 50 _sqq._, 60, 108

Prophecy, spirit of, acquired by eating certain food, ii. 143

Propitiation of wild animals by hunters, ii. 204 _sqq._; of vermin by farmers, 274 _sqq._

Prussia, harvest customs in, i. 136, 137, 139, 150 _sq._, 209, 219, 280, 281 _sq._, 288, 292

Prussians, the old, ii. 133; their custom at sowing, i. 288

Pruyssenaere, E. de, ii. 38 _sq._

Psylli, a Snake clan, ii. 174

Puberty, ceremonial pollution of girl at, ii. 268

Pueblo Indians, i. 312

_Pul_, an astrologer, i. 125 _sq._

Pulse cultivated in Bengal, i. 123

_Puplem_, general council, i. 125

Puppet made out of last sheaf, i. 137, 138, 231; at threshing, 148, 149; at harvest, 150; representing the corn-spirit, 224

Puppets of rushes thrown into the Tiber, ii. 107

Purest person cuts the last corn, i. 158

Purification, ceremonies of, i. 9; before partaking of new fruits, ii. 59, 60, 63, 69 _sq._, 71, 73, 75 _sq._, 82, 83; for slaughter of a serpent, 219 _sq._; by fire, 249; before eating the first salmon, 253

Pyanepsia, an Attic festival, i. 52

Pyanepsion, an Attic month, i. 46, 52, 116

Pythagoras, his reincarnations, ii. 263; his doctrine of transmigration, 300, 301

Pythian games, i. 80

Python clan, ii. 174

Quadriennial period of Greek games, i. 77 _sqq._

Quail, cry of, i. 295; corn-spirit as, 295 _sq._

Queen of Athens married to Dionysus, i. 30 _sq._; of the Corn-ears, 146; name given to last sheaf, 146

—— Charlotte Islands, ii. 226

Quetzalcoatl, a Mexican god, ii. 90

Quiches, the, of Central America, ii. 134

Quinoa-mother, i. 172

Quixos Indians, ii. 285

Race of reapers to last sheaf, i. 291; on harvest-field, 137

Races at harvest, i. 76 _sq._; in connexion with agriculture, 98. _See_ Horse-races

Rain, prayer for, at Eleusis, i. 69; supposed to be given by the spirits of dead chiefs, ii. 109

—— -charm, i. 134, 170, 250, 252, 268

Rainless Greek summer, i. 69

Rains, autumnal, in Greece, i. 52

Rajamahall, in Bengal, ii. 118, 217

Rakelimalaza, a Malagasy god, ii. 46

Ram sacrificed to Ammon, ii. 41; killing the sacred, 172 _sqq._; consecration of a white, 313

Ram’s skull, ii. 96

Rams’ horns, ii. 117

Rape of Persephone, i. 66

Rarian Plain at Eleusis, i. 36, 70, 74, 108, 234, ii. 15

Raspberries, wild, ceremony at gathering the first, ii. 80 _sq._

Rat, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Rats, superstitious precautions of farmers against, ii. 277, 278, 283

Rattles in myth and ritual of Dionysus, i. 13, 15

Rattlesnakes respected by the North American Indians, ii. 217 _sqq._

Ravens respected by Sudanese negroes, ii. 221

Reapers, contests between, i. 136, 140, 141, 142, 144, 152, 153 _sqq._, 164 _sq._, 219, 253; blindfolded, 144, 153 _sq._; special words used by, 193; pretend to mow down visitors to harvest-field, 229 _sq._; cries of, 263 _sqq._; race of, to last corn, 291

Reaping, Indonesian mode of, i. 181 _sq._, 184; contests in, 218 _sqq._; pains in back at, 285

Rebirth of the dead, i. 84

Red and black, faces of bear-hunters painted, ii. 226

—— and white, leopard-hunters painted, ii. 230

—— and yellow, faces of human victims painted, i. 261

Red-haired men sacrificed, i. 260, 261, 263, ii. 34

—— puppies sacrificed, i. 261, ii. 34

Reef Islands, ii. 52

Reincarnation of animals, ii. 247, 249, 250

Reindeer, dogs not allowed to gnaw the leg-bones of, ii. 246

Repulsion and attraction, forces of, ii. 303 _sqq._

Rest for three days, compulsory, ii. 246

Resurrection of the gods, i. 1, 12, 14, 15; of animals, ii. 200 _sq._, 256 _sqq._; of fish, 250, 254; bones of men preserved for the, 259; in popular tales, 263 _sqq._

Revolving image, ii. 322 _n._

Ribald jests at mysteries, i. 38

Rice cultivated in Assam, i. 123; cultivated in New Guinea, 123; soul of, 180 _sqq._; treated as a woman, 183 _sq._; King of the, 197; (paddy), Father and Mother of the, 203 _sq._; spirituous liquor distilled from, 242; the new, ceremonies at eating the, ii. 54 _sqq._

—— -bride, i. 199 _sq._

—— -bridegroom, i. 199 _sq._

—— -child, i. 197 _sqq._

—— -fields, sacred, among the Kayans, i. 93, 108

—— -goddess, i. 202

—— -harvest, ceremony of the Horse at, ii. 337 _sqq._

—— -mother, i. 183 _n._ 1, 191 _sqq._, 197 _sqq._; in the East Indies, 180 _sqq._

—— -soul as bird, i. 182 _n._ 1; caught or detained, 184 _sqq._

Riddles asked at harvest, i. 194

Ridgeway, Professor W., i. 29 _n._ 2, 65, ii. 282 _n._ 5

Ring, competition for, i. 160

Rites of Plough Monday, ii. 325 _sqq._

Ritual, primitive, marks of, i. 169; magical or propitiatory, 169, 170

—— of Dionysus, i. 14 _sq._

Robbers, charm used by, i. 235

Rodents, souls of dead in, ii. 291

Rohde, E., i. 91 _n._ 2

Rollo, ii. 146

Roman calendar, i. 83 _sq._

—— deities of the corn, i. 210 _n._ 3

—— sacrifices to Ceres and Liber, ii. 133

Romans worship mildew, ii. 282

Roof, spirits enter through the, ii. 123; remains of slain bear let down through the, 189 _sq._, 196

Roots and seeds, wild, collected by women, i. 124 _sqq._

Roscher, W. H., ii. 2 _n._ 9

Roscoe, Rev. John, i. 240 _n._ 4

Rotation of crops, i. 117

Rouse, Dr. W. H. D., i. 208 _n._ 1

Rügen, harvest customs in, i. 274

Running, contests in, i. 98

Rush-cutter, i. 230 _n._ 5

Russia, harvest customs in, i. 146, 233

Russian wood-spirits, ii. 2

Rye-beggar, i. 231

—— -boar, i. 298, 300

—— -bride, i. 163

—— -goat, i. 282, 283

—— -mother, i. 132, 135

—— -pug, i. 273

—— -sow, i. 270, 298

—— -wolf, i. 270, 271, 272, 273, 274

—— -woman, i. 223; the Old, 133

Saa, island of, ii. 127

Sabarios, a Lithuanian festival, ii. 49

Sabazius, i. 2 _n._ 1

Sabbaths, agricultural, i. 109

Sable-hunters, rules observed by, ii. 238

Sacaea, a Babylonian festival, i. 258 _sq._

Sacrament of eating a god, ii. 167

—— of swine’s flesh, ii. 20, 24; totemic, 165; types of animal, 310 _sqq._; of first-fruits, 48 _sqq._; combined with a sacrifice of them, 86

Sacramental bread, ii. 95

—— character of harvest supper, i. 303

—— eating of corn-spirit in animal form, ii. 20

Sacraments among pastoral tribes, ii. 313

Sacred Marriage at Eleusis, i. 65 _sqq._

—— ploughings in Attica, i. 108

—— things deemed dangerous, ii. 27 _sqq._

—— Women, i. 32

Sacrifice not to be touched, ii. 27; of first-fruits, 109 _sqq._

Sacrifices, human, for the crops, i. 236 _sqq._; human, in Mexico, ii. 88; offered to nets, 240 _n._ 1; offered to wolves, 284; to a toad, 291

Sadana, rice-bridegroom, i. 200 _sq._

Sahagun, B. de, i. 175

St. Catherine’s Day, ii. 275

St. George’s Eve, ii. 270

St. Kilda, ii. 322

St. Mary, Isle of, ii. 235

St. Matthew’s Day, ii. 275

St. Nicholas, i. 233

St. Paul on immortality, i. 91

St. Peter’s Day, i. 300

St. Stephen’s Day, ii. 319, 320

Sakalava, the, of Madagascar, ii. 40 _n._

Sale, nominal, of children, i. 8

Salish Indians, ii. 80

Salmon, resurrection of, ii. 250; ceremonies at catching the first salmon of the season, 253 _sq._, 255

Salt, abstinence from, ii. 75, 93; use of, forbidden, 190, 195

Salzburg, harvest custom in, i. 146

Samoa, ii. 29

Samoans, their sacrifices of first-fruits, ii. 132

Samoyed, custom after killing a reindeer, ii. 268

San Juan Capistrano, ii. 169; Indians of, i. 125

Sanctity of the corn, ii. 110

Sandwich Islands, belief in transmigration among natives of the, ii. 292 _sq._

Saning Sari, rice-goddess, i. 191, 192

Sappho, i. 216

Saturnalia, ii. 62, 66

Satyrs in relation to goats, ii. 1 _sqq._

Savage, the, not illogical, ii. 202

—— faith in the immortality of animals, ii. 260 _sqq._

Saxo Grammaticus, ii. 146

Saxons of Transylvania, harvest custom of the, i. 295; their customs at sowing, ii. 274 _sq._

Saxony, harvest customs in, i. 134, 137, 149, 163, 164

Scanderbeg, Prince of Epirus, ii. 154

Scandinavian custom of the Yule Boar, i. 300 _sqq._

Scarification as a religious rite, ii. 75; from superstitious motives, 159, 160 _sq._

Scheube, Dr. B., ii. 185, 186, 187

Schleswig, harvest customs in, i. 230, 287

Schrenck, L. von, ii. 191, 192, 193, 194, 195

Schweinfurth, G., ii. 37 _sq._

Science, generalisations of, inadequate to cover all particulars, ii. 37

Scirophorion, a Greek month, ii. 8 _n._ 1

Scorpions, charm against, ii. 281; souls of dead in, 290

Scotland, harvest customs in, i. 140 _sqq._

Scratching as a religious rite, ii. 75

Scurrilities exchanged between vine-dressers and passers-by, i. 258 _n._ 1

Scurrilous language at mysteries, i. 38

Scythians, set store on heads of enemies, i. 256 _n._ 1

Sea beasts, Esquimau rules as to eating, ii. 84; their bladders restored to the sea by the Esquimaux, 247 _sqq._

—— -mammals, their mythical origin, ii. 246

Seals, care taken of the bladders and bones of, ii. 247 _sqq._, 257, 258 _n._ 2

Sedna, an Esquimau goddess, ii. 84, 246

Seed sown by women, i. 113 _sqq._; sown by children, i. 115 _sq._

Seed-corn, i. 135, 205, 278, 301, 304, ii. 20

Seed-rice, i. 189

Seeds and roots, wild, collected by women, i. 124 _sqq._

Seler, Professor E., i. 175

Seligmann, Dr. C. G., ii. 40 _n._

_Sĕmangat_, i. 181, 183

Semele, mother of Dionysus, i. 14, 15

Seminole Indians, ii. 76, 217

Senegambia, Python clan in, ii. 174

Serpent, killing the sacred, ii. 174 _sq._; ceremonies performed after killing a, 219 _sq._

Serpent’s flesh eaten to learn the language of animals, ii. 146

Serpents, offerings to, ii. 17 _sq._; men inspired by, 213; charms against, 281; souls of the dead in, 291. _See also_ Snake, Snakes

Set or Typhon, ii. 30. _See_ Typhon

Seven, the number, in ritual, i. 190, 198

—— months’ child, i. 26, 29

Sham fight, ii. 75

—— fights in connexion with agriculture, i. 98; (mimic battles) before going forth to war, ii. 207

—— graves and corpses to deceive demons, ii. 98 _sqq._

Shans of Indo-China, i. 243

Shape, magical changes of shape, i. 305

Sharks, ghosts in, ii. 127; souls of dead in, 292 _sq._, 297

Sheaf, the last, the Corn-mother in, i. 133 _sqq._; thresher tied up in, 134, 147, 148; drenched with water, 134, 137, 145; given to cattle, 134, 155, 158, 161, 170; stones fastened to, 135 _sq._, 138, 139; called the Old Woman or Old Man, 136 _sqq._; corn-spirit caught in, 139; harvester tied up in, 139, 145, 221, 222; called the _Cailleach_ (Old Wife), 140 _sqq._; representative of the corn-spirit, 168, ii. 48; in Lower Burma, i. 190 _sq._; person identified with, 138 _sq._; in India, 222 _sq._, 234 _n._ 2; race of reapers to, 291. _See also_ _Clyack_, _Kirn_, _Mell_, Maiden

Sheep not eaten, ii. 140; ghosts of, dreaded, 231

Sheep-skin, fumigation with, ii. 324

Sheep-skins, candidates at initiation seated on, i. 38

Shells of eggs preserved, ii. 258 _n._ 2

Shifting cultivation, i. 99

Shoulder-blade, divination by, ii. 234

Shropshire, “the neck” in, i. 268; “crying the Mare” in, 293 _sq._

Shrove Tuesday, i. 300, ii. 326

Shrovetide Bear, ii. 325 _sq._

Shumpaoli, an African god, ii. 110

Shuswap Indians, ii. 226, 238

Siam, ii. 103

Sicilians, Demeter’s gift of corn to the, i. 56 _sq._

Sicily, worship of Demeter and Persephone in, i. 56

Sickles thrown at last standing corn, i. 136, 142, 144, 153, 154, 165

Sickness cured or prevented by effigies, ii. 180 _sqq._

Sicyon, wolves at, ii. 283, 284

Sierra Leone, i. 317

Sieves, children at birth placed in, i. 6 _sqq._

Sigurd and the dragon, ii. 146

Silence enforced during absence of fisher, ii. 256

Silenuses, ii. 1 _sq._

Silesia, harvest customs in, i. 136, 138, 139, 148 _sq._, 163 _sq._, 231, 233, 273, 277, 281, 289

Silvanus, ii. 2

Simbang, village in German New Guinea, ii. 295

Similkameen Indians, the, ii. 146

Sinew of the thigh, customs and myths as to, ii. 264 _sqq._

Sinews of dead men cut to disable their ghosts, ii. 272

Sing Bonga, a sun god, ii. 117

Singleton, Miss A. H., ii. 320 _n._ 1

Sioux girl, sacrifice of, i. 238 _sq._

—— Indians, ii. 150, 243

Skeat, W. W., i. 197 _sq._

Skin of sacrificed animal, uses of, ii. 173 _sq._

—— -disease caused by eating a sacred animal, ii. 25 _sqq._

Skins of sacrificed animals stuffed, 257 _sq._

Skipping-rope, ii. 192

Skull, drinking out of a human, ii. 150

Skulls, human, as protection against powers of evil, i. 241; the Place of, 243; spirits of ancestors in their, ii. 123; of ancestors, offerings set beside, 127; of bears worshipped, 184; of enemies destroyed, 260

Sky God, the, i. 69

—— -god Zeus, i. 65

Skye, harvest custom in, i. 284

Slaves of the Earth Gods, ii. 61, 62 _n._ 1

Slavonic peoples, harvest customs among, i. 144 _sqq._

Slayers of leopards, rules of diet observed by, ii. 230 _sq._

Slow-footed animals not eaten by some savage tribes, ii. 139 _sq._; eaten by preference by the Bushmen, 140 _sq._

Small-pox, cure for, i. 9 _sq._

Smearing the body as a means of imparting certain qualities, ii. 162 _sqq._

—— of blood on worshippers a mode of communion with the deity, ii. 316

Smintheus Apollo, ii. 283

Smith, Professor, G. C., ii. 329

Smith, W. Robertson, i. 259 _n._ 1, ii. 5 _n._ 2, 27 _n._ 5, 31 _n._ 1, 35 _n._ 2, 251 _n._ 5, 266 _n._ 1, 280 _n._

Smoking as a means of inducing state of ecstasy, ii. 72; in honour of slain bears, 224, 226

—— first tobacco of season, ceremony at, ii. 82

Snake worshipped, ii. 316 _sq._; white, eaten to acquire supernatural knowledge, 146. _See_ Serpent

—— -bite, inoculation against, ii. 160

—— -priest, ii. 219

—— tribe, ii. 316, 317

Snake’s tongue as amulet, ii. 270

Snakes respected by the North American Indians, ii. 217 _sqq._; sacred at Whydah, 287; souls of dead in, 293, 294 _sq._; souls of dead princes in, 288

Society, stratification of religion according to types of, ii. 35 _sqq._

—— Islanders, i. 312

Solar and lunar time, attempts to harmonise, i. 80 _sq._

Solomon Islands, ii. 85, 126, 127; belief in the transmigration of souls in the, 296 _sqq._

Solstice, the midsummer, rain-making ceremony at the, ii. 179

—— the summer, i. 117

—— the winter, ii. 325; festival of, 90

Solstices observed, i. 125

Somerville, Professor W., i. 193 _n._

Songish or Lkungen tribe of Vancouver Island, ii. 254

Songs of the corn-reapers, i. 214 _sqq._

Sophocles, his play _Triptolemus_, i. 54

Soul thought to be seated in the liver, ii. 147 _sq._

—— of rice, i. 180 _sqq._; eating the, ii. 54

—— -stuff in the East Indies, i. 182 _sq._

Souls, immortal, attributed by savages, to animals, ii. 204; of the human dead in caterpillars, 275 _sq._; transmigration of human, into animals, 285 _sqq._

South American Indians, women’s agricultural work among the, i. 120 _sqq._

Southey, R., quoted, i. 122, ii. 157

Sowing, festival of Demeter at, i. 46 _n._ 2; sacrifice to Demeter at, 57; Festival of the, 111; time of, determined by observation of the sun, 187; goat killed at, 288; ceremonies at, ii. 57; customs observed by Saxons of Transylvania at, 274 _sq._

—— and planting, time of, determined by the appearance of the Pleiades, i. 313 _sqq._

Sowing in Greece, time for, i. 45

—— festival of the Kayans, i. 93 _sqq._

—— seed to make children grow, i. 11

Sowing the seed done by women, i. 113 _sqq._; done by children, 115 _sq._

Spades and hoes, human victim killed with, i. 239, 251

Sparrows, charm to keep them from the corn, ii. 274

Spearing taro stalks, as a charm, i. 102, 103

Spell and prayer, i. 105

Spells for growth of crops, i. 100; narrative, 104 _sqq._; imperative, 105

Spencer, Herbert, his theory of the material universe compared to that of Empedocles, ii. 303 _sqq._

Spiders, ceremony at killing, ii. 236 _sq._

Spieth, J., ii. 59 _sqq._

Spindle used in ritual, ii. 119

Spinning acorns or figs, i. 102

—— tops, i. 95, 97, 187

Spirit of Beans, Iroquois, i. 177

—— of the Corn, Iroquois, i. 177. _See_ Corn-spirit

—— of Squashes, Iroquois, i. 177

Spirits, evil, averted from children, i. 6 _sqq._; of the dead supposed to influence the crops, 104; distinguished from gods, 169; imitation of, 186

Spittle, virtue of, i. 247, 250

Sports, athletic, at harvest, i. 76 _sq._ _See also_ Contests, Games

Spring, ceremony at beginning of, in China, ii. 10 _sqq._

—— customs and harvest customs compared, i. 167 _sqq._

—— festival of Dionysus, i. 15

Springbok not eaten, ii. 141

Squirrels, souls of dead in, ii. 291 _sq._

Sri, Hindoo goddess of crops, i. 182

Star, the Morning, i. 238

Stars, their supposed influence on the weather, i. 318

Stepping or jumping over a woman, ii. 70 _n._ 1

Sternberg, Leo, ii. 196, 199 _n._ 1, 201

Stettin, harvest customs near, i. 220

Stevenson, Mrs. Matilda Coxe, quoted, ii. 179

Stewart, Balfour, ii. 262 _n._ 1

Sticks. _See_ Digging-sticks

Stiens of Cambodia, ii. 237

Stomach of eater, certain foods forbidden to meet in, ii. 83 _sqq._

Stone, magic of heavy, i. 100

—— Age, agriculture in the, i. 79, 132

Stones fastened to last sheaf, i. 135 _sq._, 138, 139; the meeting of the, 237; worshipped, ii. 127 _sq._

Stories told as charms, i. 102 _sqq._

Stout, Professor G. F., 261 _n._ 1

Stranger regarded as representative of the corn-spirit, i. 225 _sqq._

Strangers excluded, i. 94, 111, 249; preferred as human victims, 242; as representatives of the corn-spirit, 253

Strata of religion and society, ii. 36 _sq._

Stratification of religion according to types of society, ii. 35 _sqq._

Straw, the Yule, i. 301 _sq._; of Shrovetide Bear used to make geese and hens lay eggs, ii. 326

—— -bear at Whittlesey, ii. 329

—— -bull, i. 289 _sq._

—— -man placed on apple-tree, ii. 6

Stubble-cock, i. 277

Styria, harvest customs in, i. 133, 134, 283

Sublician bridge at Rome, ii. 107

Substitutes for animal sacrifices, ii. 94 _n._ 2

“Substitutes for a person” in China, ii. 104

Subterranean Zeus, i. 66

Sudanese negroes respect ravens, ii. 221

Sufferings and death of Dionysus, i. 17

Sugar-cane cultivated, i. 121, 123

Suk, the, of British East Africa, i. 118, ii. 84, 142

Sumatra, i. 315; tigers respected in, ii. 215 _sqq._

Summer in Greece rainless, i. 69

Sun, time of sowing determined by observation of the, i. 187; Japanese deities of the, 212; first-fruits offered to the, 237; savage observation of the, 314; rites instituted by the, ii. 75; temple of the, 135

—— and moon conjunction of, ii. 15 _n._ 1

—— father of Alectrona, ii. 45

—— -god, the, i. 86

——, moon, and planets, human victims sacrificed to, i. 261 _sq._

——, the Great, title of head chief of the Natchez, ii. 77 _sqq._

Sunflower root, ceremony at eating the, ii. 81

Sunkalamma, a goddess, ii. 93

Superstitious practices to procure good crops, i. 100

Supper, the harvest, i. 134, 138. _See_ Harvest-supper

Survival of the fittest, doctrine of the, ii. 306

Sutherlandshire, ii. 51

Swabia, harvest customs in, i. 136, 282, 289, 290, 298 _sq._

Swallow Song, the Greek, ii. 322 _n._

Swans, transmigration of bad poets into, ii. 308

Sweat of famous warriors drunk, ii. 152

Sweden, harvest customs in, i. 149, 230, 280

Sweet potatoes cultivated in Africa, i. 117; cultivated in Assam, 123; cultivated in New Britain, 123; cultivated in South America, 121; sacred, ii. 133

Swine, wild, their ravages in the corn, ii. 31 _sqq._

Swine’s flesh sacramentally eaten, ii. 20, 24. _See also_ Pork

Swinging for good crops, i. 101, 103, 107

Switzerland, harvest customs in, i. 283, 289, 291, 295

Syleus, i. 257 _sq._

Sympathetic magic, i. 102, ii. 271, 311 _sq._

Syria, precaution against caterpillars in, ii. 279

Syrians, their religious attitude to pigs, ii. 23; esteemed fish sacred, 26

Szis, the, of Burma, i. 203

Tabooed village, ii. 122

Taboos observed at the sowing festival among the Kayans, i. 94; observed by enchanters, 100; communal, 109 _n._ 2; agricultural, 187; relating to milk, ii. 83 _sq._; observed after the capture of a ground seal, walrus, or whale, 246

Tahiti, ii. 132; funeral rites in, 97

Tail of corn-spirit, 268, 272, 300, ii. 10, 43

Talaings, the, i. 190

Tales told as charms, i. 102 _sqq._; the resurrection of the body in popular, ii. 263 _sqq._

Tamara, island of, ii. 296

Tammuz, his death in a mill, i. 258; a Babylonian month, 259

Tana, one of the New Hebrides, ii. 125

Tanala, the, of Madagascar, i. 9, ii. 290

Tanganyika plateau, the, i. 115

Tani, a god, ii. 132

Tano, a fetish, ii. 287

Tapir, custom of Indians after killing a, ii. 236

Tapirs, souls of dead in, ii. 285

Tapuiyas, the, of Brazil, i. 309

Tarahumare Indians of Mexico, i. 227 _sq._, ii. 252

Tarianos Indians, ii. 157

Taro, charms for growth of, i. 100, 102

Tarri Pennu, a Khond goddess, i. 245

Tauaré Indians, ii. 157

Taungthu, the, i. 190

Tears of human victim signs of rain, i. 248, 250; of oxen as rain-charm, ii. 10

Teasing animals before killing them, ii. 190

Telephus at Pergamus, ii. 85

Temples dedicated to sharks, ii. 292

Tenimber, island, ii. 123

Teton Indians, ii. 236

Tetzcatlipoca, a Mexican god, ii. 92, 93, 165

Thargelion, an Attic month, ii. 8

Thay, the, of Indo-China, ii. 121

Thebes, grave of Dionysus at, i. 14; Dionysus torn to pieces at, 25

Theocritus on the harvest-home, i. 46 _sq._

Thesmophoria, the, i. 14, ii. 17 _sqq._; chastity of women at the, i. 116

Thigh, sinew of the, customs and myths as to, ii. 264 _sqq._

Thlinkeet or Tlingit, the, ii. 253

Thompson Indians, ii. 81, 82, 133, 140, 207, 226, 268

Thrace, worship of Dionysus in, i. 3; the Bacchanals of, 17; modern Carnival customs in, 25 _sqq._, ii. 331 _sqq._

Thresher tied up in last sheaf, i. 134, 147, 148

Threshers, contests between, i. 147 _sqq._, 218, 219 _sq._, 221 _sq._, 223 _sq._, 253; pretend to throttle or thresh people on threshing-floor, 149 _sq._, 230; tied in straw and thrown into water, 224 _sq._

Threshing, customs at, i. 134, 147 _sqq._, 203; contests in, 218 _sqq._; corn-spirit killed at, 291 _sq._

—— -cow, i. 291

—— -dog, i. 271

—— -floor, Demeter at the, i. 41 _sq._, 47; of Triptolemus at Eleusis, 61, 72, 75; sanctity of the, ii. 110 _n._ 4

—— in Greece, date of, i. 62

Throttling farmer’s wife at threshing, pretence of, i. 150

Thumbs of dead enemies cut off, ii. 272

Thüringen, harvest customs in, i. 147, 222, 232, 276, 290, 291, 298

Thurn, E. F. im. quoted, ii. 204

Tibetans, the, ii. 96

Tiger, ghost of, ii. 155 _n._ 4

Tiger’s flesh eaten to make men brave, ii. 145

Tigers, ceremonies at killing, ii. 215, 216 _sq._; respected in Sumatra, 215 _sq._; kinship of men with, 216; souls of dead in, 293

Tilling of the earth treated as a crime, ii. 57

Timekeepers, natural, i. 53

Timor, island of, ii. 98

Timor-laut, ii. 123, 244

Tinneh Indians, ii. 80, 220

Titans attack and kill Dionysus, i. 12 _sq._, 17

Tjumba, island of, ii. 122

Tlaloc, Mexican god of thunder, i. 237

Toad, figure of, ii. 193, 194; soul of dead man in a, 291

Tobacco used as an emetic, ii. 73; first of season, ceremony at smoking, 82

Todas, their sacrament of buffalo’s flesh, ii. 314

Toepffer, J., quoted, i. 73

Toerateyas, the, i. 196 _n._

Tofoke, the, i. 119

Togoland, i. 130, ii. 59, 105, 105

Tolalaki, the, ii. 152

Tomb, sacrifices at, ii. 113

Tomori, the, of Central Celebes, i. 193 _sq._, 288

_Tondi_, soul-stuff, i. 182

Tonga Islands, ii. 28; offerings of first-fruits in the, 128 _sqq._

Tongues of birds eaten, ii. 147; of slain men eaten, 153; of dead animals cut out, 269 _sqq._; of animals worn as amulets, 270

Tonsure, the clerical, ii. 105 _n._ 1

Tooitonga, the sacred chief of Tonga, ii. 128, 129, 130, 131

Tops, spinning, i. 95, 97, 187

Toradjas, the, of Central Celebes, i. 183, 193, 194, 228, ii. 153

Torch-bearer, the Eleusinian, i. 54, 59

Torches in relation to Demeter and Persephone, i. 57

Torchlight dance, ii. 79; procession at Eleusis, i. 38

Torres Straits islands, i. 313, ii. 152, 153

Tortoises not eaten, ii. 140

Tossing successful reaper, i. 154

Totem, skin-disease supposed to be caused by eating, ii. 25 _sq._

—— sacrament, ii. 165

Totemic animals, dances in imitation of, ii. 76

Totemism, ii. 35, 37; not proved for the Aryans, 4; in Australia and America, 311

Transformation of woman into crocodile, ii. 212

Transmigration of human souls into animals, ii. 141, 285 _sqq._; into turtles, 178 _sq._; into bears, 191

—— of souls, doctrine of, in ancient India, ii. 298 _sq._; in ancient Greece, 300 _sqq._, 307 _sq._

Transmigrations of Buddha, ii. 299

Transubstantiation, ii. 89 _sq._

Transylvania, harvest customs in, i. 221, 276, 278, 280, 285, 295; customs at sowing in, ii. 274 _sq._

Travancore, i. 8; custom at executions in, ii. 272

Treasury Islanders, i. 313

Trees in relation to Dionysus, i. 3 _sq._; spirits of the dead in, ii. 124

Triptolemus, i. 37, 38, ii. 19; agent of Demeter, i. 54, 72 _sq._; sacrifices to, 56; his Threshing-floor at Eleusis, 61, 72, 75; in Greek art, 68 _n._ 1; sows seed in Rarian plain, 70; the corn-hero, 72 _sq._

Tristram, H. B., ii. 31 _sq._

Troezenians, the, ii. 133

Trumpets in rites of Dionysus, i. 15

Tschwi, the, of West Africa, ii. 98

Tsimshian Indians of British Columbia, ii. 254

Tucanos Indians, ii. 157

Tug of War, i. 103 _n._ 1, 110 _n._

Tupi Indians of Brazil, ii. 272

Tupinambas, the, i. 122

Turmeric cultivated, i. 245, 250

Turtles, killing the sacred, ii. 175 _sqq._; transmigration of human souls into, 178 _sq._

Tusayan, an ancient province of Arizona, i. 312

Twelfth Day, ii. 320, 321, 327, 329

Twelve Gods, the, ii. 8

Twin, ghost of a, ii. 98

—— girl charged with special duty, ii. 280

Two Goddesses, the, i. 56, 59, 73, 90

Types of animal sacrament, ii. 310 _sqq._

Typhon, i. 262, 263, ii. 30, 31, 33, 34, 100

Tyrol, harvest customs in the, i. 163, 224, 273, 286

Tzentales of Mexico, ii. 241

Uaupes River, tribes of the, i. 121

Uganda, ii. 213

Underground Zeus, i. 45, 50

Unleavened bread, ii. 137

Usagara hills, German East Africa, i. 240

Varro, on the rites of Eleusis, i. 88; on killing oxen in Attica, ii. 6; on sacrifice of goat, ii. 41

Vedijovis, i. 33

Venison, Esquimau rules as to eating, ii. 84; not eaten, 144; not brought into hut by door, 242 _sq._; reason for not eating, 286, 293

Vera Cruz, the tribes of, i. 310

Vermin propitiated by farmers, ii. 274 _sqq._; images of, made as a protection against them, 280 _sq._

Verres, C., i. 65

Vessels, new or specially reserved, to hold new fruits, ii. 50, 53, 65, 66, 72, 81, 83; special, reserved for eating bear’s flesh, 196, 198

Vestal virgins, ii. 42

Vicarious use of images, ii. 96 _sqq._

Victim, human, taken in procession from door to door, i. 247

Victims, human, treated as divine, i. 250; assimilated to gods, 261 _sq._

Victoria, aborigines of, i. 127

Vicuña not eaten, ii. 140

Village tabooed, ii. 122

Vine in relation to Dionysus, i. 2

Vintage, first-fruits of, ii. 133; inaugurated by priests, 133

—— in Greece, time of, i. 47

Vintagers and vine-diggers, i. 257 _sq._

Virbius and the horse, ii. 40 _sqq._

Virgil as an enchanter, ii. 281

Virgins sacrificed, i. 237

Vitzilipuztli, a Mexican god, ii. 86, 87, 88

Viza in Thrace, i. 26

Vizyenos, G. M., i. 25 _n._ 4, 26

Volos, the beard of, i. 233

Vomiting as a religious rite, ii. 73, 75

Vosges Mountains, harvest customs in the, i. 272, 279, 281

Vulture, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Wa, the Wild, i. 241 _sqq._

Wabondei, the, ii. 142

Wadowe, the, i. 118

Wagogo, the, ii. 26, 142, 149, 276

Wahehe, the, ii. 26

Waheia, the, ii. 26

Wajagga, the, of East Africa, ii. 276

—— warriors, ii. 143

_Wakan_, ii. 180 _n._ 2

Wales, harvest customs in, i. 142 _sqq._

Wallace, A. R., quoted, i. 121 _sq._

Wamegi, the, of German East Africa, i. 240

Wanyamwezi, the, i. 118, ii. 227

War dance, ii. 79

Washing as a ceremonial purification, ii. 27 _sq._, 71, 84, 85

Wataturu, the, ii. 84

Weasels, superstition of farmers as to, ii. 275

Weevils, spared by Esthonian peasants, ii. 274

Weihaiwei, ii. 11

Welsh, Miss, i. 155 _n._ 1

Wemba, the, ii. 158

Wends, harvest customs among the, i. 138, 149, 276

Wermland, harvest customs in, i. 230, ii. 48

Westphalia, harvest customs in, i. 135 _sq._, 138, 277 _sq._, 296, 297

Wetar, island, ii. 25

Whales, ceremonies observed after the slaughter of, ii. 232 _sqq._

Wheat-bride, i. 162, 163

—— -cock, i. 276

Wheat-cow, i. 289

—— -dog, i. 272

—— -mallet at threshing, i. 148

—— -man, i. 223

—— -mother, i. 135

—— -sow, i. 298

—— -wolf, i. 273, 274

Whetham, W. C. D., ii. 305 _n._ 2

White Maize, Goddess of the, i. 261

—— ram, ii. 313

Whittlesey in Cambridgeshire, the Straw-bear at, ii. 328 _sq._

Whydah, snakes sacred at, ii. 287

Widows and widowers, disability of, ii. 253 _sq._

Wiedemann, Prof. A., ii. 35 _n._ 4

Wild animals propitiated by hunters, ii. 204 _sqq._

—— fig trees, sacred, ii. 113

—— fruits and roots, ceremonies at gathering the first of the season, ii. 80 _sqq._

—— seeds and roots collected by women, i. 124 _sqq._

—— Wa, the, i. 241 _sqq._

Wilkinson, R. J., i. 181 _sq._

Winamwanga, the, ii. 112

Wine, new, offered to Liber, ii. 133

Winnowing done by women, i. 117, 128

—— -basket, image of snake in, ii. 316

—— -fan, an emblem of Dionysus, i. 5 _sqq._; as cradle, 6 _sqq._; used to scatter ashes of human victims, 260, 262

Winter, name given to man who cuts the last sheaf, i. 142; name of harvest-supper, 160

—— festival of Dionysus, i. 16 _sq._

—— solstice, ii. 325; festival of, 90

Witch, burning the Old, i. 224

Witchcraft, protection against, i. 156, ii. 324

Wolf, corn-spirit as, i. 271 _sqq._, ii. 327; stuffed, carried about, i. 275; ceremonies at killing a, ii. 220 _sq._, 223. _See also_ Wolves

Wolf’s heart eaten, ii. 146

—— skin, man clad in, i. 275

Wolfish Apollo, ii. 283 _sq._

Wollaroi, the, of New South Wales, ii. 163

Wolves, sacrifices offered to, ii. 284; transmigration of sinners into, 308

Woman’s part in primitive agriculture, i. 113 _sqq._

Women, influence of corn-spirit on, i. 168; who have died in childbed, attempts to deceive their ghosts, ii. 97 _sq._; thought to have no soul, ii. 148

—— milk cows, i. 118

—— swear by the Pleiades, i. 311

Women’s race at harvest, i. 76 _sq._

Wood-spirits in goat form, ii. 2 _sq._

—— woman, i. 232

Woodford, C. M., ii. 126

Words, special, used by reapers, i. 193

Worm, transmigration of sinner into, ii. 299

Worms, souls of dead in, ii. 289

Worship of cattle, ii. 35 _sqq._; of animals, two forms of the, 311; of snake, 316 _sq._

Worshipful animal killed once a year, ii. 322

_Wrach_ (Hag), name given to last corn cut in Wales, i. 142 _sqq._

Wreath of corn, i. 134

Wren, hunting the, ii. 317 _sqq._; called the king of birds, 317; superstitions as to the, 317 _sq._, 319

Wrestling, i. 98, ii. 131

Würtemburg, harvest customs in, i. 286, 287

Xanthicus, a Macedonian month, i. 259 _n._ 1

Xenophon, on Triptolemus, i. 54

Xochiquetzal, a Mexican goddess, i. 237

Yabim, the, of German New Guinea, i. 104 _sqq._, 228, ii. 275, 295

Yams, charm for growth of, i. 100, 101; cultivated in Africa, 119; cultivated in New Britain, 123; cultivated in South America, 120, 121; dug by Australian aborigines, 126 _sq._; ceremonies at eating the new, ii. 53, 58 _sqq._

—— festival of the new, ii. 115; in Tonga, 128 _sqq._

Yang-Seri, prayers to, ii. 33

Yaos, the, ii. 111 _sq._

Year, beginning of, marked by appearance of Pleiades, i. 309, 310, 312, 313, 314, 315; divided into thirteen moons, ii. 77

Yellow Demeter, i. 41 _sq._

Yezo or Yesso, ii. 180, 185

Yombe, the, ii. 112

Yorkshire, harvest customs in, i. 151 _sq._, 224

Yoruba negroes, ii. 149

Youngest person cuts the last corn, i. 158, 161

Yuchi Indians, ii. 75, 311 _n._ 1

Yule Boar, i. 300 _sqq._, ii. 43, 328

—— Goat, the, ii. 327 _sq._

—— ram, the, ii. 328

—— straw, i. 301 _sq._

Yuracares Indians of Bolivia, ii. 235, 257

Zabern in Alsace, harvest custom at, i. 297

Zagreus, i. 12

Zambesi, tribes of the Upper, ii. 141

—— region, Caffres of the, ii. 289

Zanzibar, custom at sowing in, i. 233

Zaparo Indians, the, ii. 139

Zapotecs of Mexico, their harvest customs, i. 174 _sq._

Zeus, his intrigue with Persephone, i. 12; father of Dionysus by Demeter, 12, 14, 66; his intrigue with Demeter, 66; surnamed Underground, 45, 50

—— and Demeter, ii. 9; marriage of, i. 65 _sqq._

—— and Hercules, ii. 172

——, Laphystian, i. 25

—— Polieus, ii. 5, 7

—— Sosipolis, ii. 7

——, Subterranean, i. 66, ii. 9

—— the Fly-catcher, ii. 282

Zulu king, dance of the, ii. 66

Zulus, the, ii. 32, 142, 143; women’s part in agriculture among the, i. 113 _sq._; their festival of first-fruits, ii. 67; their inoculation, 160 _sq._

Zuni Indians, their custom of killing sacred turtles, ii. 175 _sqq._

Zurich, harvest customs in the canton of, i. 291, 297

FOOTNOTES

M1 Ancient deities of vegetation as animals. M2 Dionysus as a goat: his association with the Pans, Satyrs, and Silenuses, who have been interpreted as semi-goat-shaped deities of the woods.

1 See above, vol. i. pp. 16 _sqq._

2 Herodotus, ii. 46; L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_,4 i. (Berlin, 1894), pp. 745 _sq._; K. Wernicke, in W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iii. 1407 _sqq._

3 L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_,3 i. 600; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 138.

4 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 139.

5 Julius Pollux, iv. 118.

6 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 142 _sq._

7 Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 361, iii. 312, v. 101; _id._, _Heroides_, iv. 49.

8 Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 22. 3.

9 Homer, _Hymn to Aphrodite_, 262 _sqq._

10 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. 3; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 392; _id._, _Fasti_, iii. 303, 309; Gloss. Isid. Mart. Cap. ii. 167, cited by W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 113.

11 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. 3; Martianus Capella, ii. 167; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, xv. 23; Aurelius Victor, _Origo gentis Romanae_, iv. 6.

12 Servius on Virgil, _Ecl._ vi. 14; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 392 _sq._; Martianus Capella, ii. 167.

13 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 138 _sq._; _id._, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 145.

14 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 10.

15 Above, vol. i. pp. 281 _sqq._

_ 16 Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, ch. iii. pp. 113-211. In the text I have allowed my former exposition of Mannhardt’s theory as to ancient semi-goat-shaped spirits of vegetation to stand as before, but I have done so with hesitation, because the evidence adduced in its favour appears to me insufficient to permit us to speak with any confidence on the subject. Pan may have been, as W. H. Roscher and L. R. Farnell think, nothing more than a herdsman’s god, the semi-human, semi-bestial representative of goats in particular. See W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iii. 1405 _sq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, v. (Oxford, 1909) pp. 431 _sqq._ And the Satyrs and Silenuses seem to have more affinity with horses than with goats. See W. H. Roscher’s _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, iv. 444 _sqq._

17 Above, vol. i. pp. 231 _sqq._

M3 Wood-spirits in the form of goats.

18 Above, vol. i. pp. 17 _sq._

M4 The bull as an embodiment of Dionysus seems to be another expression of his character as a god of vegetation.

19 Above, vol. i. pp. 16 _sq._

20 Above, vol. i. pp. 288 _sqq._

21 A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_,2 ii. 252.

22 Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 12 _sqq._

M5 The _bouphonia_, an Athenian sacrifice of an ox to Zeus Polieus.

23 Pausanias, i. 24. 4; _id._, i. 28. 10; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 29 _sq._; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ viii. 3; Scholia on Aristophanes, _Peace_, 419, and _Clouds_, 985; Hesychius, Suidas, and _Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ βούφονια; Suidas, _s.v._ Θαύλων; Im. Bekker’s _Anecdota Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), p. 238, _s.v._ Δυπόλια. The date of the sacrifice (14th Skirophorion) is given by the Scholiast on Aristophanes and the _Etymologicum Magnum_; and this date corresponds, according to W. Mannhardt (_Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 68), with the close of the threshing in Attica. No writer mentions the trial of both the axe and the knife. Pausanias speaks of the trial of the axe, Porphyry and Aelian of the trial of the knife. But from Porphyry’s description it is clear that the slaughter was carried out by two men, one wielding an axe and the other a knife, and that the former laid the blame on the latter. Perhaps the knife alone was condemned. That the King (as to whom see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 44 _sq._) presided at the trial of all lifeless objects, is mentioned by Aristotle (_Constitution of Athens_, 57) and Julius Pollux (viii. 90, compare viii. 120).

M6 The ox sacrificed at the _bouphonia_ appears to have embodied the corn-spirit.

24 The real import of the name _bouphonia_ was first perceived by W. Robertson Smith. See his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 304 _sqq._ In Cos also an ox specially chosen was sacrificed to Zeus Polieus. See Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 616; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 716; H. Collitz und F. Bechtel, _Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften_, iii. pp. 357 _sqq._, No. 3636; J. de Prott et L. Ziehen, _Leges Graecorum Sacrae e Titulis collectae_, Fasciculus i. (Leipsic, 1896) pp. 19 _sqq._, No. 5; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 17-21. A month Bouphonion, corresponding to the Attic Boedromion (September), occurred in the calendars of Delos and Tenos. See E. Bischoff, “De fastis Graecorum antiquioribus,” in _Leipziger Studien für classische Philologie_, vii. (Leipsic, 1884) p. 414.

25 Varro, _De re rustica_, ii. 5. 4. Compare Columella, _De re rustica_, vi. praef. § 7. Perhaps, however, Varro’s statement may be merely an inference drawn from the ritual of the _bouphonia_ and the legend told to explain it.

26 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 409.

27 See _The Dying God_, p. 208.

M7 Sacrifice of an ox to Zeus Sosipolis at Magnesia on the Maeander. The bull so sacrificed seems to have been regarded as an embodiment of the corn-spirit.

28 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_2 (Leipsic, 1898-1901), vol. ii. pp. 246-248, No. 553. As to the identification of the Magnesian month Artemision with the Attic month Thargelion (May), see Dittenberger, _op. cit._ ii. p. 242, No. 552 note 4. It is interesting to observe that at Magnesia the sowing took place in Cronion, the month of Cronus, a god whom the ancients regularly identified with Saturn, the Italian god of sowing. In Samos, Perinthus, and Patmos, however, the month Cronion seems to have been equivalent to the Attic Scirophorion, a month corresponding to June or July, which could never have been a season of sowing in the hot rainless summers of Greece. See E. Bischoff, “De fastis Graecarum antiquioribus,” in _Leipziger Studien für classische Philologie_, vii. (1884) p. 400; Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 645 note 14, vol. ii. p. 449.

29 In thus interpreting the sacrifice of the bull at Magnesia I follow the excellent exposition of Professor M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 23-27.

M8 The Greek conception of the corn-spirit as both male and female.

30 See above, vol. i. pp. 36 _sq._, 65 _sqq._

M9 The ox as a representative of the corn-spirit at Great Bassam in Guinea.

31 H. Hecquard, _Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika_ (Leipsic, 1854), pp. 41-43.

32 See above, vol. i. p. 248.

33 Above, vol. i. pp. 268, 272.

34 Franz Cumont, _Textes et Monuments figurés relatifs aux Mystères de Mithra_ (Brussels, 1896-1899), ii. figures 18, 19, 20, 59 (p. 228, corn-stalks issuing from wound), 67, 70, 78, 87, 105, 143, 168, 215, also plates v. and vi.

M10 The ox as a personification of the corn-spirit in China.

_ 35 China Review_, i. (July 1872 to June 1873, Hongkong), pp. 62, 154, 162, 203 _sq._; Rev. J. Doolittle, _Social Life of the Chinese_, ed. Paxton Hood (London, 1868), pp. 375 _sq._; Rev. J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), ii. 115 _sq._

_ 36 Ostasiatischer Lloyd_, March 14, 1890, quoted by J. D. E. Schmeltz, “Das Pflugfest in China,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xi. (1898) p. 79. With this account the one given by S. W. Williams (_The Middle Kingdom_, New York and London, 1848, ii. 109) substantially agrees. In many districts, according to the _Ostasiatischer Lloyd_, the Genius of Spring is represented at this festival by a boy of blameless character, clad in green. As to the custom of going with one foot bare and the other shod, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 311-313.

37 R. F. Johnston, _Lion and Dragon in Northern China_ (London, 1910), pp. 180-182.

38 Ed. Chavannes, _Le T’ai Chan, Essai de Monographie d’un Culte Chinois_ (Paris, 1910), p. 500 (_Annales du Musée Guimet, Bibliothèque d’Études_, vol. xxi.).

39 See _The Dying God_, pp. 240 _sq._, 250.

M11 The ox as a personification of the corn-spirit in Kashgar and Annam.

40 J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, _Mission Scientifique dans la Haute Asie, 1890-1895_, i. (Paris, 1897) pp. 95 _sq._ After describing the ceremony as he witnessed it at Kashgar, the writer adds: “Probably the ox was at first a living animal which they sacrificed and distributed the flesh to the bystanders. At the present day the official who acts as pontiff has a number of small pasteboard oxen made, which he sends to the notables in order that they may participate intimately in the sacrifice, which is more than symbolical. The reason for carrying the ox a long distance is that as much as possible of the territory may be sanctified by the passage of the sacred animal, and that as many people as possible may share in the sacrifice, at least with their eyes and good wishes. The procession, which begins very early in the morning, moves eastward, that is, toward the quarter where, the winter being now over, the first sun of spring may be expected to appear, whose divinity the ceremony is intended to render propitious. It is needless to insist on the analogy between this Chinese festival and our Carnival, at which, about the same season, a fat ox is led about. Both festivals have their origin in the same conceptions of ancient natural religion.”

41 Colonel E. Diguet, _Les Annamites, Société, Coutumes, Religions_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 250-253.

42 See above, vol. i. pp. 41 _sq._, and below, pp. 21 _sq._

M12 Annual inauguration of ploughing by the Chinese emperor.

43 Du Halde, _The General History of China_, Third Edition (London, 1741), ii. 120-122; Huc, _L’Empire Chinois_5 (Paris, 1879), ii. 338-343; Rev. J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), ii. 116-118. Compare _The Sacred Books of China_, translated by James Legge, Part iii., _The Lî Kî_ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxvii., Oxford, 1885), pp. 254 _sq._: “In this month [the first month of spring] the son of Heaven on the first day prays to God for a good year; and afterwards, the day of the first conjunction of the sun and moon having been chosen, with the handle and share of the plough in the carriage, placed between the man-at-arms who is its third occupant and the driver, he conducts his three ducal ministers, his nine high ministers, the feudal princes and his Great officers, all with their own hands to plough the field of God. The son of Heaven turns up three furrows, each of the ducal ministers five, and the other ministers and feudal princes nine. When they return, he takes in his hand a cup in the great chamber, all the others being in attendance on him and the Great officers, and says, ‘Drink this cup of comfort after your toil.’ In this month the vapours of heaven descend and those of the earth ascend. Heaven and earth are in harmonious co-operation. All plants bud and grow.” Here the selection of a day in spring when sun and moon are in conjunction is significant. Such conjunctions are regarded as marriages of the great luminaries and therefore as the proper seasons for the celebration of rites designed to promote fertility. See _The Dying God_, p. 73.

M13 Analogy of the Chinese custom to the agricultural rites at Eleusis and elsewhere.

44 See above, pp. 74, 108.

45 See above, p. 93.

46 See above, pp. 94, 109; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 105 _sqq._

M14 The rending of live animals in the rites of Dionysus.

47 As to the European customs, see above, p. 12.

M15 Association of the pig with Demeter. Pigs in the ritual of the Thesmophoria. The sacred serpent at Lanuvium.

48 See above, vol. i. pp. 298 _sqq._

49 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Acharn._ 747.

50 J. Overbeck, _Griechische Kunstmythologie_, Besonderer Theil, ii. (Leipsic, 1873-1878), p. 493; Müller-Wieseler, _Denkmäler der alten Kunst_, ii. pl. viii. 94.

51 Hyginus, _Fab._ 277; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 23; Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Acharn._ 747; _id._, on _Frogs_, 338; _id._, on _Peace_, 374; Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 380; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ x. 16.

52 See above, vol. i. pp. 22 _sq._

53 As to the Thesmophoria see my article “Thesmophoria” in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, vol. xxiii, 295 _sqq._; August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 308 _sqq._; Miss J. E. Harisson, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_2 (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 120 _sqq._; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 313 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. (Oxford, 1907) pp. 75 _sqq._ At Thebes and in Delos the Thesmophoria was held in summer, in the month of Metageitnion (August). See Xenophon, _Hellenica_, v. 2. 29; M. P. Nilsson _Griechische Feste_, pp. 316 _sq._

54 Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ στήνια, speaks of the ascent of _Demeter_ from the lower world; and Clement of Alexandria speaks of both Demeter and Persephone as having been engulfed in the chasm (_Protrept._ ii. 17). The original equivalence of Demeter and Persephone must be borne steadily in mind.

55 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 69; Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ στήνια.

56 E. Rohde, “Unedirte Lucians-scholien, die attischen Thesmophorien und Haloen betreffend,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxv. (1870) p. 548; _Scholia in Lucianum_, ed. H. Rabe (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 275 _sq._ Two passages of classical writers (Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 17, and Pausanias, ix. 8. 1) refer to the rites described by the scholiast on Lucian, and had been rightly interpreted by Chr. A. Lobeck (_Aglaophamus_, pp. 827 _sqq._) before the discovery of the scholia.

57 The scholiast speaks of them as _megara_ and _adyta_. The name _megara_ is thought to be derived from a Phoenician word meaning “cavern,” “subterranean chasm,” the Hebrew מעךה. See F. C. Moyers, _Die Phoenizier_ (Bonn, 1841), i. 220. In Greek usage the _megara_ were properly subterranean vaults or chasms sacred to the gods. See Hesychius, quoted by Movers, _l.c._ (the passage does not appear in M. Schmidt’s minor edition of Hesychius); Porphyry, _De antro nympharum_, 6; and my note on Pausanias, ii. 2. 1.

58 We infer this from Pausanias, ix. 8. 1, though the passage is incomplete and apparently corrupt. For ἐν Δωδώνῃ Lobeck (_Aglaophamus_, pp. 829 _sq._) proposed to read ἀναδῦναι or ἀναδοθῆαι. At the spring and autumn festivals of Isis at Tithorea geese and goats were thrown into the _adyton_ and left there till the following festival, when the remains were removed and buried at a certain spot a little way from the temple. See Pausanias, x. 32. 14. This analogy supports the view that the pigs thrown into the caverns at the Thesmophoria were left there till the next festival.

59 Aelian, _De natura animalium_, xi. 16; Propertius, v. 8. 3-14. The feeding of the serpent is represented on a Roman coin of about 64 B.C.; on the obverse of the coin appears the head of Juno Caprotina. See E. Babelon, _Monnaies de la République Romaine_ (Paris, 1886), ii. 402. A common type of Greek art represents a woman feeding a serpent out of a saucer. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 75.

M16 Legend told to explain the ritual of the Thesmophoria.

_ 60 Scholia in Lucianum_, ed. H. Rabe, pp. 275 _sq._

61 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 461-466, upon which Gierig remarks, “_Sues melius poeta omisisset in hac narratione_.” Such is the wisdom of the commentator.

62 Pausanias, i. 14. 3.

63 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 338.

M17 Analogy of the Thesmophoria to the folk-customs of Northern Europe.

64 Above, vol. i. p. 285.

65 Above, vol. i. p. 290.

66 Above, vol. i. p. 278.

67 Above, vol. i. p. 300.

68 Above, vol. i. pp. 300 _sq._

69 In Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 17, for μεγαρίζοντες χοίρους ἐκβάλλουσι Lobeck (_Aglaophamus_, p. 831) would read μεγάροις ζῶντας χοίρους ἐμβάλλουσι. For his emendation of Pausanias, see above, p. 18 note 1.

70 It is worth nothing that in Crete, which was an ancient seat of Demeter worship (see above, vol. i. p. 131), the pig was esteemed very sacred and was not eaten (Athenaeus, ix. 18, pp. 375 F-376 A). This would not exclude the possibility of its being eaten sacramentally, as at the Thesmophoria.

M18 The horse-headed Demeter of Phigalia.

71 Pausanias, viii. 42.

72 Above, vol. i. pp. 292 _sqq._

73 Pausanias, viii. 25 and 42. At the sanctuary of the Mistress (that is, of Persephone) in Arcadia many terracotta statuettes have been found which represent draped women with the heads of cows or sheep. They are probably votive images of Demeter or Persephone, for the ritual of the sanctuary prescribed the offering of images (Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 939, vol. ii. pp. 803 _sq._). See P. Perdrizet, “Terres-cuites de Lycosoura, et mythologie arcadienne,” _Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique_, xxiii. (1899) p. 635; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 347 _sq._ On the Phigalian Demeter, see W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 244 _sqq._ I well remember how on a summer afternoon I sat at the mouth of the shallow cave, watching the play of sunshine on the lofty wooded sides of the ravine and listening to the murmur of the stream.

M19 Attis and the pig.

74 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 221. On the position of the pig in ancient Oriental and particularly Semitic religion, see F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. (Bonn, 1841), pp. 218 _sqq._

_ 75 Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 220.

76 Demosthenes, _De corona_, p. 313.

77 The suggestion was made to me in conversation by my lamented friend, the late R. A. Neil of Pembroke College, Cambridge.

M20 Adonis and the boar. Ambiguous position of pigs at Hierapolis.

78 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 8; and to the authorities there cited add Athenaeus, ii. 80, p. 69 B; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28; Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iv. 5. 3, § 8; Aristides, _Apologia_, II, p. 107, ed. J. Rendel Harris (Cambridge, 1891); Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 44; Propertius, iii. 4 (5). 53 _sq._, ed. F. A. Paley; Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._ i. 17; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vi. 7; Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 9; Macrobius, _Saturnal._ i. 21. 4. See further W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_ (Leipsic, 1911), pp. 142 _sqq._

79 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 186.

80 W. Cureton, _Spicilegium Syriacum_ (London, 1855), p. 44.

81 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 54.

82 The heathen Harranians sacrificed swine once a year and ate the flesh (En-Nedîm, in D. Chwolsohn’s _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_, St. Petersburg, 1856, ii. 42). My friend W. Robertson Smith conjectured that the wild boars annually sacrificed in Cyprus on 2nd April (Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 45) represented Adonis himself. See his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 290 _sq._, 411.

M21 Attitude of the Jews to the pig.

83 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iv. 5.

84 Isaiah lxv. 3, lxvi. 3, 17. Compare R. H. Kennett, _The Composition of the Book of Isaiah in the Light of History and Archaeology_ (London, 1910) p. 61, who suggests that the eating of the mouse as a sacrament may have been derived from the Greek worship of the Mouse Apollo (Apollo Smintheus). As to the Mouse Apollo see below, pp. 282 _sq._

M22 Attitude of the ancient Egyptians to the pig. Annual sacrifice of pigs to Osiris and the moon.

85 Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ x. 16. Josephus merely says that the Egyptian priests abstained from the flesh of swine (_Contra Apionem_, ii. 13).

86 Herodotus, _l.c._

87 Plutarch and Aelian, _ll.cc._

88 Herodotus, _l.c._ At Castabus in Chersonese there was a sacred precinct of Hemithea, which no one might approach who had touched or eaten of a pig (Diodorus Siculus, v. 62. 5).

89 Herodotus, ii. 47 _sq._; Aelian and Plutarch, _ll.cc._ Herodotus distinguishes the sacrifice to the moon from that to Osiris. According to him, at the sacrifice to the moon, the extremity of the pig’s tail, together with the spleen and the caul, was covered with fat and burned; the rest of the flesh was eaten. On the evening (not the eve, see H. Stein’s note on the passage) of the festival the sacrifice to Osiris took place. Each man slew a pig before his door, then gave it to the swineherd, from whom he had bought it, to take away.

M23 Belief that the eating of a sacred animal causes skin-disease, especially leprosy.

90 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 432, 452.

91 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p. 225; Miss A. C. Fletcher and F. la Flesche, “The Omaha Tribe,” _Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1911), p. 144. According to the latter writers, any breach of a clan taboo among the Omahas was supposed to be punished either by the breaking out of sores or white spots on the body of the offender or by his hair turning white.

92 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, _op. cit._ p. 231.

93 J. Crevaux, _Voyages dans l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1883), p. 59.

94 Plutarch, _De superstitione_, 10; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, iv. 15. As to the sanctity of fish among the Syrians, see also Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 473 _sq._; Diodorus Siculus, ii. 4.

95 R. Sutherland Rattray, _Some Folklore Stories and Songs in Chinyanja_ (London, 1907), pp. 174 _sq._

96 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 307, compare p. 317.

97 E. Nigmann, _Die Wahehe_ (Berlin, 1908), p. 42.

98 J. Kohler, “Das Banturecht in Ostafrika,” _Zeitschrift für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft_, xv. (1902) pp. 2, 3.

99 C. W. Hobley, “Anthropological Studies in Kavirondo and Nandi,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) p. 347.

_ 100 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, II. _Draft Articles on Uriya Castes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 16.

101 C. Creighton, _s.v._ “Leprosy,” _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. col. 2766.

102 2 Kings v. 27; 2 Chronicles xxvi. 16-21.

M24 Mere contact with a sacred object is deemed dangerous and calls for purification as a sort of disinfectant.

103 Leviticus xvi. 23 _sq._

104 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 44. For this and the Jewish examples I am indebted to my friend W. Robertson Smith. Compare his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 351, 426, 450 _sq._

_ 105 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, VII. _Draft Articles on Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1911), p. 97.

_ 106 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, I. _Draft Articles on Hindustani Castes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 32.

107 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 133 _sq._

_ 108 Op. cit._ pp. 134-136.

109 E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), p. 211; D. Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_ (London, 1857), p. 255; John Mackenzie, _Ten Years north of the Orange River_ (Edinburgh, 1871), p. 135 note. See further _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 372.

110 J. Mackenzie, _l.c._

111 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p. 225.

_ 112 Ibid._ p. 275.

113 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 76.

_ 114 Ibid._ p. 70.

115 Captain C. Eckford Luard, in _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xix. _Central India_, Part i. (Lucknow, 1902) pp. 299 _sq._; also _Census of India, 1901_, vol. i. _Ethnographic Appendices_ (Calcutta, 1903), p. 163.

M25 Thus the pig was probably at first a sacred animal with the Egyptians, and may have been regarded as an embodiment of the corn-god Osiris, though at a later time he was looked on as an embodiment of Typhon, the enemy of Osiris. The havoc wrought by wild boars in the corn is a reason for regarding them as foes of the corn-god.

116 Diogenes Laertius, _Vitae Philosophorum_, viii. 8.

117 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ x. 16. The story is repeated by Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 168.

118 E. Lefébure, _Le Mythe Osirien_, Première Partie, _Les yeux d’Horus_ (Paris, 1874), p. 44; _The Book of the Dead_, English translation by E. A. Wallis Budge (London, 1901), ii. 336 _sq._, chapter cxii.; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_ (London, 1904), i. 496 _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), i. 62 _sq._

119 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8. E. Lefébure (_op. cit._ p. 46) recognises that in this story the boar is Typhon himself.

120 This important principle was first recognised by W. Robertson Smith. See his article, “Sacrifice,” _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, xxi. 137 _sq._ Compare his _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 373, 410 _sq._

121 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31.

M26 Evidence of the depredations committed by wild boars on the crops.

122 H. B. Tristram, _The Natural History of the Bible_, Ninth Edition (London, 1898), pp. 54 _sq._

123 Rev. J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London, 1857), pp. 18-20.

124 Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London, 1906), pp. 182 _sq._

125 E. Modigliano, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), pp. 524 _sq._, 601.

126 A. E. Jenks, _The Bontoc Igorot_, (Manilla, 1905), pp. 100, 102.

127 A. Bastian, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Gebirgs-stämme in Kambodia,” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, i. (1866) p. 44.

128 G. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajōland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia, 1903), p. 348.

129 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), p. 125.

M27 The ravages of wild boars among the crops help us to understand the ambiguous attitude of the ancient Egyptians to swine.

130 E. Lefébure, _Le Mythe Osirien_, Première Partie, _Les yeux d’Horus_ (Paris, 1874), pp. 48 _sq._

M28 Egyptian sacrifices of red oxen and red-haired men.

131 See above, pp. 260 _sq._; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 331, 338.

132 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 33, 73; Diodorus Siculus, i. 88.

133 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31; Diodorus Siculus, i. 88. Compare Herodotus, ii. 38.

M29 Osiris identified with the sacred bulls Apis and Mnevis. Stratification of three great types of religion or superstition in ancient Egypt.

134 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20, 29, 33, 43; Strabo, xvii. 1. 31; Diodorus Siculus, i. 21, 85; Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5 i. 55 _sqq._ On Apis and Mnevis, see also Herodotus, ii. 153, with A. Wiedemann’s comment, iii. 27 _sq._; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 184 _sqq._; Solinus, xxxii. 17-21; Cicero, _De natura deorum_, i. 29; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, xviii. 5; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xi. 10 _sq._; Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ viii. 1. 3; _id._, _Isis et Osiris_, 5, 35; Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 13. 1 _sq._; Pausanias, i. 18. 4, vii. 22. 3 _sq._; W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_ (Leipsic, 1903-1905), Nos. 56, 90 (vol. i. pp. 98, 106, 159). Both Apis and Mnevis were black bulls, but Apis had certain white spots. See A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Aegypter_ (Münster i. W., 1890), pp. 95, 99-101. When Apis died, pious people used to put on mourning and to fast, drinking only water and eating only vegetables, for seventy days till the burial. See A. Erman, _Die ägyptische Religion_ (Berlin, 1905), pp. 170 _sq._

135 Diodorus Siculus, i. 21.

136 On the religious reverence of pastoral peoples for their cattle, and the possible derivation of the Apis and Isis-Hathor worship from the pastoral stage of society, see W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 296 _sqq._

137 Herodotus, ii. 41.

138 Herodotus, ii. 41, with A. Wiedemann’s commentary; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 19; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), i. 8. In his commentary on the passage of Herodotus Prof. Wiedemann observes (p. 188) that “the Egyptian name of the Isis-cow is _ḥes-t_ and is one of the few cases in which the name of the sacred animal coincides with that of the deity.”

139 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 184; Solinus, xxxii. 18; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7. The spring or well in which he was drowned was perhaps the one from which his drinking-water was procured; he might not drink the water of the Nile (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 5).

140 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 56.

141 G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne_4 (Paris, 1886), p. 31. Compare Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5 i. 56. It has been conjectured that the period of twenty-five years was determined by astronomical considerations, that being a period which harmonises the phases of the moon with the days of the Egyptian year. See L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 182 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 180 _sq._

M30 On the stratification of religions corresponding to certain social types. M31 Reverence of the Dinka for their cattle.

142 G. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_, Third Edition (London, 1878), i. 59 _sq._

143 E. de Pruyssenaere, _Reisen und Forschungen im Gebiete des Weissen und Blauen Nil_ (Gotha, 1877), pp. 22 _sq._ (_Petermann’s Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 50).

M32 Reverence of the Nuehr for their cattle.

144 Ernst Marno, _Reisen im Gebiete des Blauen und Weissen Nil_ (Vienna, 1874), p. 343. The name _Nyeledit_ is explained by the writer to mean “very great and mighty.” It is probably equivalent to _Nyalich_, which Dr. C. G. Seligmann gives as a synonym for Dengdit, the high god of the Dinka. According to Dr. Seligmann, _Nyalich_ is the locative of a word meaning “above” and, literally translated, signifies, “in the above.” See C. G. Seligmann, _s.v._ “Dinka,” in _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, edited by J. Hastings, D.D., vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 707. The Sakalava of Ampasimene, in Madagascar, are said to worship a black bull which is kept in a sacred enclosure in the island of Nosy Be. On the death of the sacred bull another is substituted for it. See A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 247 _sq._, quoting J. Carol, _Chez les Hova_ (Paris, 1898), pp. 418 _sq._ But as the Sakalava are not, so far as I know, mainly or exclusively a pastoral people, this example of bull-worship does not strictly belong to the class illustrated in the text.

M33 The tradition that Virbius had been killed in the character of Hippolytus by horses, and the custom of excluding horses from the sacred Arician grove, may point to the conclusion that the horse was regarded as an embodiment of Virbius and was annually sacrificed in the grove. Similarly at Athens the goat was usually excluded from the Acropolis but was admitted once a year for a necessary sacrifice.

145 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 19 _sqq._

146 See above, vol. i. pp 292-294.

147 Athenaeus, xiii. 51, p. 587 A; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 204. Compare W. Robertson Smith, in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, article “Sacrifice,” vol. xxi. p. 135.

148 Varro, _De agri cultura_, i. 2. 19 _sq._: “_hoc nomine etiam Athenis in arcem non inigi, praeterquam semel ad necessarium sacrificium._” By _semel_ Varro probably means once a year.

149 The force of this inference is greatly weakened, if not destroyed, by a fact which I had overlooked when I wrote this book originally. A goat was sacrificed to Brauronian Artemis at her festival called the Brauronia (Hesychius, _s.v._ Βραυρωνίοις; compare Im. Bekker’s _Anecdota Graeca_, p. 445, lines 6 _sqq._). As the Brauronian Artemis had a sanctuary on the Acropolis of Athens (Pausanias, i. 23. 7), it seems probable that the goat sacrificed once a year on the Acropolis was sacrificed to her and not to Athena. (Note to Second Edition of _The Golden Bough_.)

150 Herodotus, ii. 42.

151 It is worth noting that Hippolytus, with whom Virbius was identified, is said to have dedicated horses to Aesculapius, who had raised him from the dead (Pausanias, ii. 27. 4).

M34 Annual sacrifice of a horse at Rome in October.

152 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 178, 179, 220; Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 97; Polybius, xii. 4 B. The sacrifice is referred to by Julian, _Orat._ v. p. 176 D (p. 228 ed. F. C. Hertlein). It is the subject of a valuable essay by W. Mannhardt, whose conclusions I summarise in the text. See W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 156-201.

153 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 731 _sqq._, compare 629 _sqq._; Propertius, v. 1. 19 _sq._

M35 The horse so sacrificed seems to have embodied the corn-spirit.

154 The Huzuls of the Carpathians attribute a special virtue to a horse’s head. They think that fastened on a pole and set up in a garden it protects the cabbages from caterpillars. See R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Wienna, 1894), p. 102. At the close of the rice-harvest the Garos of Assam celebrate a festival in which the effigy of a horse plays an important part. When the festival is over, the body of the horse is thrown into a stream, but the head is preserved for another year. See Note at the end of the volume.

155 Above, pp. 9 _sq._

156 Above, vol. i. pp. 268, 272.

157 Above, vol. i. pp. 141, 155, 156, 158, 160 _sq._, 301.

M36 Archaic character of the sacrifice and its analogies in the harvest customs of Northern Europe.

158 Livy, ii. 5.

159 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 130, 131.

M37 Other examples of the exclusion of horses from sanctuaries. Uncertainty as to the reason for excluding horses from the Arician grove.

160 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 560 (vol. ii. pp. 259-261); Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_ (Brussels, 1900), No. 434, pp. 323 _sq._; P. Cauer, _Delectus Inscriptionum Graecarum propter dialectum memorabilium_2 (Leipsic, 1883), No. 177, pp. 117 _sq._ As to Alectrona or Alectryona, daughter of the Sun, see Diodorus Siculus, v. 65. 5.

161 Festus, _s.v._ “October equus,” p. 181 ed. C. O. Müller. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 315.

162 G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in West-afrika,” _Zeitschrift für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, xii. (1877) pp. 415 _sq._

163 Rev. W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, preface dated 1838), i. 402 _sq._

164 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 939 (vol. ii. p. 803).

165 Pausanias, viii. 37. 7.

M38 Custom of eating the new corn sacramentally as the body of the corn-spirit. Loaves baked of the new corn in human shape and eaten.

166 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 179.

167 W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_ (Berlin, 1875), p. 205. It is not said that the dough-man is made of the new corn; but probably this is, or once was, the case.

M39 Old Lithuanian ritual at eating the new corn.

168 M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae oder Preussische Schaubuhne, im wörtlichen Auszüge aus dem Manuscript herausgegeben_ von Dr. William Pierson (Berlin, 1871), pp. 60-64; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 249 _sqq._ Mathaeus Praetorius, the author to whom we owe the account in the text, compiled a detailed description of old Lithuanian manners and customs in the latter part of the seventeenth century at the village of Niebudzen, of which he was Protestant pastor. The work, which seems to have occupied him for many years and to have been finished about 1698, exists in manuscript but has never been published in full. Only excerpts from it have been printed by Dr. W. Pierson. Praetorius was born at Memel about 1635 and died in 1707. In the later years of his life he incurred a good deal of odium by joining the Catholic Church.

M40 Modern European ceremonies at eating the new corn or new potatoes.

169 A. Bezzenberger, _Litauische Forschungen_ (Göttingen, 1882), p. 89.

170 Simon Grunau, _Preussischer Chronik_, herausgegeben von Dr. M. Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 91.

171 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 108.

172 On iron as a charm against spirits, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 232 _sqq._

_ 173 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 54.

174 Communicated by the Rev. J. J. C. Yarborough, of Chislehurst, Kent. See _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 50.

M41 Ceremony of the heathen Cheremiss at eating the new corn.

175 Von Haxthausen, _Studien über die innern Zustände, das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländliche Einrichtungen Russlands_, i. 448 _sq._

176 J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des Russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 37.

M42 Ceremony of the Aino at eating the new millet.

177 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 204, 206.

M43 Ceremonies of the Melanesians of Reef Island at eating the new bread-fruits and yams.

178 “Native Stories from Santa Cruz and Reef Islands,” translated by the Rev. W. O’Ferrall, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiv. (1904) p. 230.

M44 Ceremony of the New Caledonians at eating the first yams.

179 Glaumont, “La culture de l’igname et du taro en Nouvelle-Calédonie,” _L’Anthropologie_, viii. (1897) pp. 43-45.

M45 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in Buru and Celebes.

180 G. A. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland Boeroe,” p. 26 (_Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_ vol. xxxviii., Batavia, 1875).

181 P. N. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, vii. (1863) p. 127.

182 N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaang Mongondou,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) pp. 369 _sq._

M46 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in Ceram and Borneo.

183 J. Boot, “Korte schets der noordkust van Ceram,” _Tiidschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) pp. 671 _sq._

184 See above, vol. i. pp. 184 _sqq._

185 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 156; _id._, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 117 _sq._ In the latter passage “_ist jeder_” is a misprint for “_isst jeder_”; the Dutch original is “_eet ieder_.”

M47 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in India.

186 H. Harkness, _Description of a Singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills_ (London, 1832), pp. 56 _sq._

187 Ch. E. Gover, _The Folk-songs of Southern India_ (London, 1872), pp. 105 _sqq._; “Coorg Folklore,” _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp. 302 _sqq._

188 Gover, “The Pongol Festival in Southern India,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S., v. (1871) pp. 91 _sqq._

189 From notes sent to me by my friend Mr. W. Crooke.

190 Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880), p. 103.

M48 Ceremonies observed by the Chams at ploughing, sowing, reaping, and eating the new rice.

191 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’histoire des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) pp. 272-274.

M49 Ceremony at eating the new yams at Onitsha on the Niger.

192 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_ (London, 1859), pp. 287 _sq._ Mr. Taylor’s information is repeated in _West African Countries and Peoples_, by J. Africanus B. Horton (London, 1868), pp. 180 _sq._

M50 Ceremonies at eating the new yams among the Ewe negroes of Togoland.

193 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 304-310, 340; compare _id._ pp. 435, 480, 768. The “slaves of the Earth-gods” are children whom women have obtained through prayers offered to Agbasia, the greatest of the Earth-gods. When such a child is born, it is regarded as the slave of Agbasia; and the mother dedicates it to the service of the god, as in similar circumstances Hannah dedicated Samuel to the Lord (1 Samuel i.). If the child is a girl, she is married to the priest’s son; if it is a boy, he serves the priest until his mother has given birth to a girl whom she exchanges for the boy. See J. Spieth, _op. cit._ pp. 448-450. In all such cases the original idea probably was that the child has been begotten in the woman by the god and therefore belongs to him as to his father, in the literal sense of the word.

M51 Festival of the new yams among the Ashantees in September.

194 T. E. Bowdich, _Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_, New Edition (London, 1873), pp. 226-229.

195 A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_ (London, 1887), pp. 229 _sq._

196 J. C. Reichenbach, “Etude sur le royaume d’Assinie,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii.ème Série, xi. (1890) p. 349.

M52 Festival of the new yams at Coomassie and Benin.

197 Ramseyer and Kühne, _Four Years in Ashantee_ (London, 1875), pp. 147-151; E. Perregaux, _Chez les Achanti_ (Neuchatel, 1906), pp. 158-160.

198 H. Ling Roth, _Great Benin_ (Halifax, England, 1903), pp. 76 _sq._

M53 Ceremonies observed by the Nandi at eating the new eleusine grain.

199 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 46 _sq._

200 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 428.

M54 Festival of the new fruits among the Caffres of Natal and Zululand.

201 F. Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika_ (Hermannsburg, 1876), pp. 150 _sq._

202 L. Grout, _Zulu-land_ (Philadelphia, N.D.), p. 161.

_ 203 (South African) Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1879) p. 135; Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, Part iii. p. 389 note.

204 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 216 _sq._ On the conception of the two fire-sticks as husband and wife, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 208 _sqq._

M55 Dance of the Zulu king at the festival. Licentious character of the festival. The festival as celebrated by the Pondos. Bull-fights and games. License accorded to chiefs and others at this festival among the Zulus. Traces of an annual abdication of Zulu kings, perhaps of a custom of burning them and scattering their ashes.

205 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 27; N. Isaacs, _Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1836), ii. 293; Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 270, 271.

206 J. Macdonald, _op. cit._ p. 189.

207 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 136-138, from manuscript notes furnished by J. Sutton. Mr. Macdonald has described the custom more briefly in his _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 189.

208 N. Isaacs, _Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1836), ii. 292.

209 A. Delegorgue, _Voyage dans l’Afrique Australe_ (Paris, 1847), ii. 237.

210 Above, vol. i. p. 240.

211 See _The Dying God_, pp. 36 _sq._ On the Zulu festival of first-fruits see also T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d’Exploration au Nord-Est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne Espérance_ (Paris, 1843), pp. 308 _sq._; G. Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_ (Breslau, 1872), p. 143. Fritsch mentions that after executing a grotesque dance in the presence of the assembled multitude the king gives formal permission to eat of the new fruits by dashing a gourd or calabash to the ground. This ceremony of breaking the calabash is mentioned also by J. Shooter (_Kafirs of Natal_, p. 27), L. Grout (_Zulu-land_, p. 162), and Mr. Dudley Kidd (_The Essential Kafir_, p. 271). According to this last writer the calabash is filled with boiled specimens of the new fruits, and the king sprinkles the people with the cooked food, frequently spitting it out on them. Mr. Grout tells us (_l.c._) that at the ceremony a bull is killed and its gall drunk by the king and the people. In killing it the warriors must use nothing but their naked hands. The flesh of the bull is given to the boys to eat what they like and burn the rest; the men may not taste it. See L. Grout, _op. cit._ p. 161. According to Shooter, two bulls are killed; the first is black, the second of another colour. The boys who eat the beef of the black bull may not drink till the next morning, else the king would be defeated in war or visited with some personal misfortune. See Shooter, _op. cit._ pp. 26 _sq._ According to another account the sacrifice of the bull, performed by the warriors of a particular regiment with their bare hands, takes place several weeks before the festival of first-fruits, and “the strength of the bull is supposed to enter into the king, thereby prolonging his health and strength.” See D. Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_2 (Edinburgh, 1875), p. 91. For a general account of the Caffre festival of first-fruits, see Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 270-272.

M56 Ceremonies observed by the Bechuanas before eating the new fruits.

212 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, “Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) pp. 311-313. It is very remarkable that among several Bantu tribes the cohabitation of husband and wife is enjoined as a religious or magical rite on a variety of solemn occasions, such as after the death of a son or daughter, the circumcision of a child, the first menstruation of a daughter, the occupation of a new house or of a new village, etc. For examples see C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African Tribes_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 58, 59, 60, 65, 67, 69, 74; H. A. Junod, “Les Conceptions physiologiques des Bantou Sud-Africains et leurs tabous,” _Revue d’Ethnographie et de Sociologie_, i. (1910) p. 148; Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 48, 144, 357, 363, 378, 428, etc.; _id._, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 59, 61. Among the Baganda the act of stepping or leaping over a woman is regarded as equivalent to cohabitation with her, and is accepted as a ritual substitute for it (J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, p. 357 note). The ideas on which this custom of ceremonial cohabitation is based are by no means clear.

M57 Ceremonies observed by the Matabele at eating the new fruits.

213 Ch. Croonenberghs, S.J., “La fête de la Grande Danse dans le haut Zambeze,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) pp. 230-234; L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), pp. 157 _sq._ The two accounts supplement each other. I have combined features from both in the text.

M58 Ceremony observed by the Ovambo at eating the new fruits.

214 H. Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 200 _sq._

M59 Ceremony observed by the Bororo Indians before eating the new maize.

215 V. Frič and P. Radin, “Contributions to the Study of the Bororo Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) p. 392.

M60 The _busk_ or festival of first-fruits among the Creek Indians of North America. Fast and purgation. New fire made by friction.

216 The ceremony is described independently by James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 96-111; W. Bartram, _Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida_ (London, 1792), pp. 507 _sq._; A. Hodgson, _Letters from North America_ (London, 1824), i. 131 _sq._; B. Hawkins, “Sketch of the Creek Country,” in _Collections of the Georgia Historical Society_, iii. (Savannah, 1848) pp. 75-78; A. A. M’Gillivray, in H. R. Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 267 _sq._; F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909), pp. 112-131. The fullest descriptions are those of Adair and Speck. In the text I have chiefly followed Adair, our oldest authority. A similar ceremony was observed by the Cherokees. See the description (from an unpublished MS. of J. H. Payne, author of _Home, Sweet Home_) in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, by William Bartram, 1789, with prefatory and supplementary notes by E. G. Squier,” _Transactions of the American Ethnological Society_, vol. iii. Part i. (1853) p. 75. The Indians of Alabama also held a great festival at their harvest in July. They passed the day fasting, lit a new fire, purged themselves, and offered the first-fruits to their _Manitoo_: the ceremony ended with a religious dance. See Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), ii. 54. These Indians of Alabama were probably either the Creeks or the Cherokees.

217 W. Bartram, _Travels_, p. 507.

218 So amongst the Cherokees, according to J. H. Payne, an arbour of green boughs was made in the sacred square; then “a beautiful bushy-topped shade-tree was cut down close to the roots, and planted in the very centre of the sacred square. Every man then provided himself with a green bough.”

219 So Adair. Bartram, on the other hand, as we have seen, says that the people provided themselves with new household utensils.

220 B. Hawkins, “Sketch,” etc., p. 76.

M61 Festival of the new fruits among the Yuchi Indians. Game of ball.

221 F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909), pp. 86-89, 105-107, 112-131.

M62 Green Corn Dance among the Seminole Indians. Festival of the new corn among the Natchez Indians.

222 Th. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p. 42; A. S. Gatschet, _A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians_, i. (Philadelphia, 1884) pp. 66 _sqq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 167.

223 C. MacCauley, “Seminole Indians of Florida,” _Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp. 522 _sq._

224 That is, the grand chief of the nation. All the chiefs of the Natchez were called Suns and were connected with the head chief or Great Sun, who bore on his breast an image of the sun and claimed to be descended from the luminary. See Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i. 42.

M63 New fire made by friction. M64 Torchlight dance. M65 Game of ball.

225 Le Page Du Pratz, _History of Louisiana, or of the western parts of Virginia and Carolina_, translated from the French, New Edition (London, 1774), pp. 338-341. See also J. R. Swanton, _Indian Tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley_ (Washington, 1911), pp. 110 _sqq._, where the passage of Du Pratz is translated in full from the original French. From Mr. Swanton’s translation it appears that the English version of Du Pratz, which I have quoted in the text, is a good deal abridged. On the festival of first-fruits among the Natchez see also _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, vii. (Paris, 1781) p. 19; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), vi. 183; De Tonti, “Relation de la Louisiane et du Mississippi,” _Recueil de Voyages au Nord_, v. (Amsterdam, 1734) p. 122; Le Petit, “Relation des Natchez,” _ibid._ ix. 13 _sq._ (reprint of the account in the _Lettres édifiantes_ cited above); Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i. 43. According to Charlevoix, Le Petit, and Bossu the festival fell in July. For Chateaubriand’s description of the custom, see below, pp. 135 _sqq._

M66 Ceremonies observed by the Salish and Tinneh Indians before they eat the first wild berries or roots of the season.

226 C. Hill-Tout, _The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Déné_ (London, 1907), pp. 168-170.

M67 Ceremonies observed by the Thompson Indians before they eat the first wild berries or roots of the season.

227 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 349 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April, 1900).

M68 The ceremonies observed by savages at eating the first fruits of any crop seem to be based on the idea that the plant or tree is animated by a spirit, who must be propitiated before it is safe to partake of the fruit.

228 See above, p. 52.

M69 The sanctity of the new fruits indicated in various ways. Care taken to prevent the contact of sacred and profane food in the stomach of the eater. Contact between certain foods in the stomach of the eater forbidden.

229 See above, pp. 50, 53, 65, 66, 72, 81.

230 See above, pp. 59, 60, 63, 69 _sq._, 71, 73, 75 _sq._, 82.

231 Joseph Thomson, _Through Masai Land_ (London, 1885), p. 430; P. Reichard, _Deutsch-Ostafrika_ (Leipsic, 1892), p. 288; O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 162; M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), p. 33; M. Weiss, _Die Völkerstämme im Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas_ (Berlin, 1910), p. 380. However, the motive which underlies the taboo appears to be a fear of injuring by sympathetic magic the cows from which the milk is drawn. See my essay “Folk-lore in the Old Testament,” in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_ (Oxford, 1907), pp. 164 _sq._ According to Reichard the warriors may partake of honey both with meat and with milk. Thomson does not mention honey and speaks of a purgative only. The periods during which meat and milk are alternately consumed vary, according to Reichard, from twelve to fifteen days. We may conjecture, therefore, that two of them, making up a complete cycle, correspond to a lunar month, with reference to which the diet is perhaps determined.

232 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk, their Language and Folklore_ (Oxford, 1911), p. 9. In both cases the motive, as with the Masai, is probably a fear of injuring the cattle, and especially of causing the cows to loose their milk. This is confirmed by other taboos of the same sort observed by the Suk. Thus they think that to eat the flesh of a certain forest pig would cause the cattle of the eater to run dry, and that if a rich man ate fish his cows would give no milk. See M. W. H. Beech, _op. cit._ p. 10.

233 O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 171.

234 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, vol. xv. part i. (New York, 1901) pp. 122-124. For more details see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 208 _sqq._

235 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 134.

236 Pausanias, v. 13. 3. We may assume, though Pausanias does not expressly say so, that persons who sacrificed to Telephus partook of the sacrifice.

237 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 576 (vol. ii. p. 267); Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 723, p. 622. Further, no one who had suffered a domestic bereavement might enter the sanctuary for forty days. Hence the pollution of death was clearly deemed more virulent, or at all events more lasting, than the pollution of food.

238 Diodorus Siculus, v. 62. 5.

M70 The sacrament of first-fruits sometimes combined with a sacrifice of them to gods or spirits.

239 See above, pp. 51 _sq._, 54, 58, 60 _sq._, 64, 74.

240 See below, pp. 109 _sqq._

M71 Aztec custom of eating sacramentally a dough image of the god Huitzilopochtli or Vitzilipuztli as a mode of communion with the deity. M72 Eating the flesh and bones of the god Vitzilipuztli sacramentally.

241 J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_, bk. v. ch. 24, vol. ii. pp. 356-360 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). I have modernised the old translator’s spelling. Acosta’s authority, which he followed without acknowledgment, was an anonymous writer of about the middle of the sixteenth century, whose manuscript, written in Spanish, was found in the library of the Franciscan monastery at Mexico in 1856. A French translation of it has been published. See _Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l’Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle-Espagne selon leurs traditions_, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp. 149-154. Acosta’s description is followed by A. de Herrera (_General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 213-215).

M73 The doctrine of transubstantiation or the magical conversion of bread into flesh recognised by the ancient Aztecs and Brahmans.

_ 242 The Satapatha-Brâhmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, Part i. (Oxford, 1882) p. 51 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.).

_ 243 Op. cit._ pp. 51 _sq._, with the translator’s note.

M74 The sacred food not to be defiled by contact with common food.

244 See above, pp. 73 _sqq._

245 Above, p. 68, note 3.

M75 Aztec custom of killing the god Huitzilopochtli in effigy and eating him afterwards.

246 H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876), iii. 297-300 (after Torquemada); F. S. Clavigero, _History of Mexico_, translated by Ch. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 309 _sqq._; B. de Sahagun, _Histoire générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne_, traduite et annotée par D. Jourdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 203 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_ (Bâle, 1867), p. 605; Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 531-534.

M76 Mexican custom of eating images of dough.

247 F. S. Clavigero, _op. cit._ i. 311; B. de Sahagun, _op. cit._ pp. 74, 156 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _op. cit._ p. 606; H. H. Bancroft, _op. cit._ iii. 316; Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 535. This festival took place on the last day of 16th month (which extended from 23rd December to 11th January). At another festival the Mexicans made the semblance of a bone out of paste and ate it sacramentally as the bone of the god. See Sahagun, _op. cit._ p. 33.

248 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 539.

249 G. F. de Oviedo, _Histoire du Nicaragua_ (Paris, 1840), p. 219. Oviedo’s account is borrowed by A. de Herrera (_General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens, iii. 301).

M77 Mexican custom of eating a man as a human embodiment of the god Tetzcatlipoca.

250 J. de Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, lib. x. cap. 14, vol. ii. pp. 259 _sqq._ (Madrid, 1723); Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 510-512.

M78 Communion with a god by eating of his effigy among the Huichol Indians of Mexico and the Malas of Southern India. Catholic custom of eating effigies of the Madonna.

251 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), ii. 166-171. When Mr. Lumholtz revisited the temple in 1898, the idol had disappeared. It has probably been since replaced by another. The custom of abstaining both from salt and from women as a mode of ceremonial purification is common among savage and barbarous peoples. See above, p. 75 (as to the Yuchi Indians), and _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 224 _sqq._

252 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), iv. 357 _sq._

253 Graf Paul von Hoensbroech, _14 Jahre Jesuit_ (Leipsic, 1909-1910), i. 25 _sq._ The practice was officially sanctioned by a decree of the Inquisition, 29th July 1903.

M79 Loaves called _Maniae_ baked at Aricia. Woollen effigies dedicated at Rome to Mania, the Mother or Grandmother of Ghosts, at the Compitalia. The loaves at Aricia perhaps sacramental bread made in the likeness of the King of the Wood. Practice of putting up dummies to divert the attention of ghosts or demons from living people.

254 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 22.

255 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 128, 129, 145. The reading of the last passage is, however, uncertain (“_et Ariciae genus panni fieri; quod manici † appelletur_”).

256 Varro, _De lingua latina_, ix. 61; Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, iii. 41; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 7. 35; Festus, p. 128, ed. C. O. Müller. Festus speaks of the mother or grandmother of the _larvae_; the other writers speak of the mother of the _lares_.

257 Macrobius, _l.c._; Festus, pp. 121, 239, ed. C. O. Müller. The effigies hung up for the slaves were called _pilae_, not _maniae_. _Pilae_ was also the name given to the straw-men which were thrown to the bulls to gore in the arena. See Martial, _Epigr._ ii. 43. 5 _sq._; Asconius,_ In Cornel._ p. 55, ed. Kiessling and Schoell.

258 The ancients were at least familiar with the practice of sacrificing images made of dough or other materials as substitutes for the animals themselves. It was a recognised principle that when an animal could not be easily obtained for sacrifice, it was lawful to offer an image of it made of bread or wax. See Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 116; compare Pausanias, x. 18. 5. Poor people who could not afford to sacrifice real animals offered dough images of them (Suidas, _s.v._ βοῦς ἕβδομος; compare Hesychius, _s.vv._ βοῦς, ἕβδομος βοῦς). Hence bakers made a regular business of baking cakes in the likeness of all the animals which were sacrificed to the gods (Proculus, quoted and emended by Chr. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 1079). When Cyzicus was besieged by Mithridates and the people could not procure a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of Persephone, they made a cow of dough and placed it at the altar (Plutarch, _Lucullus_, 10). In a Boeotian sacrifice to Hercules, in place of the ram which was the proper victim, an apple was regularly substituted, four chips being stuck in it to represent legs and two to represent horns (Julius Pollux, i. 30 _sq._). The Athenians are said to have once offered to Hercules a similar substitute for an ox (Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 22). And the Locrians, being at a loss for an ox to sacrifice, made one out of figs and sticks, and offered it instead of the animal (Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 5). At the Athenian festival of the Diasia cakes shaped like animals were sacrificed (Schol. on Thucydides, i. 126, p. 36, ed. Didot). We have seen above (p. 25) that the poorer Egyptians offered cakes of dough instead of pigs. The Cheremiss of Russia sometimes offer cakes in the shape of horses instead of the real animals. See P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Tscheremissen,” _Globus_, lviii. (1890) pp. 203 _sq._ Similarly a North-American Indian dreamed that a sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary for the recovery of a sick girl; but the elans could not be procured, and the girl’s parents were allowed to sacrifice twenty loaves instead. See _Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 11 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).

259 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 55 _sqq._

M80 Tibetan custom of putting effigies at the doors of houses to deceive demons.

260 L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895), pp. 484-486.

M81 Effigies buried with the dead in order to deceive their ghosts.

261 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i. 402.

262 M. J. van Baarda, “Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der Galelareezen,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlv. (1895) p. 539.

263 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 275.

264 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 9.

265 W. M. Donselaar, “Aanteekeningen over het eiland Saleijer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, i. (1857) p. 290.

266 Le Comte C. N. de Cardi, “Ju-ju laws and customs in the Niger Delta,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxix. (1899) p. 58.

267 A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London, 1894), p. 80.

268 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 473.

M82 Fictitious burials to divert the attention of demons from the real burials.

269 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_ (London, 1859), pp. 250 _sq._

270 J. Macdonald, “East Central African Customs,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxii. (1893) pp. 114 _sq._; _id._, _Myth and Religion_ (London, 1893), pp. 155 _sq._ (from MS. notes of Dr. Elmslie).

271 B. Schwarz, _Kamerun_ (Leipsic, 1886), pp. 256 _sq._; E. Reclus, _Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_, xiii. 68 _sq._

272 J. Fraser, “The Aborigines of New South Wales,” _Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, xvi. (1882) p. 229; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 467.

273 This I learned from Dr. Burton Brown (formerly of 3 Via Venti Setembri, Rome), who lived for some time among the Nagas.

274 Strabo, xvii. 1. 23, p. 803; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18.

_ 275 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 39, § 240 (December 1884).

M83 Effigies used to cure or prevent sickness by deluding the demons of disease or inducing them to accept the effigies instead of the persons.

276 Some examples of this vicarious use of images as substitutes for the sick have been given in an earlier part of this work. See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 62 _sq._

277 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_, (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 326.

278 P. J. Veth, _Borneo’s Wester-Afdeeling_ (Zaltbommel, 1854-56), ii. 309.

279 F. Grabowsky, “Ueber verschiedene weniger bekannte Opfer bei den Oloh Ngadju in Borneo,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, i. (1888) pp. 132 _sq._

280 E. L. M. Kühr, “Schetsen uit Borneo’s Westerafdeeling,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvii. (1897) pp. 60 _sq._ For another mode in which these same Dyaks seek to heal sickness by means of an image, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 55 _sq._

281 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 465.

282 H. Ling Roth, “Low’s Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 117.

283 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. (1883) p. 531.

284 M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) pp. 413 _sq._

285 N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson, “Some Preliminary Results of an Expedition to the Malay Peninsula,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 416.

M84 Effigies used to divert the attention of demons in Nias and various parts of Asia.

286 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 489.

287 A. Bastian, _Die Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_ (Berlin, 1883), p. 73.

288 Sarat Chandra Das, _Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet_ (London, 1902), p. 134.

289 Shway Yoe, _The Burman_ (London, 1882), ii. 138.

290 Pallegoix, _Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam_ (Paris, 1854), ii. 48 _sq._ Compare A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_ (Leipsic and Jena, 1866-1871), iii. 293, 486; E. Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), p. 121.

291 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 176.

292 A. Woldt, “Die Kultus-Gegenstände der Golden und Giljaken,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, i. (1888) pp. 102 _sq._

M85 Effigies used to divert ghostly and other evil influence from people in China.

293 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 1103 _sq._; for a description of the effigies or “substitutes for a person” see _id._, vol. v. (Leyden, 1907) p. 920. Can the monkish and clerical tonsure have been originally designed in like manner to let out the evil influence through the top of the head?

294 T. Watters, “Some Corean Customs and Notions,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 82 _sq._

M86 Effigies used as substitutes to save the lives of people among the Abchases of the Caucasus and the Ewe negroes of West Africa.

295 N. v. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” _Globus_, lxvi. (1894) p. 54.

296 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 502-506, 512, 513, 838, 848, 910. It is a disputed point in Ewe theology whether there are many spiritual mothers in heaven or only one. Some say that there are as many spiritual mothers as there are individual men and women; others doubt this and say that there is only one spiritual mother, and that she is the wife of God (_Mawu_) and gave birth to all spirits that live in heaven, both men and women.

297 G. Binetsch, “Beantwortung mehrerer Fragen über unser Ewe-Volk und seine Anschauungen,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxviii. (1906) p. 37.

M87 Effigies used as substitutes to save the lives of people among the Nishga Indians.

_ 298 The Illustrated Missionary News_, April 1st, 1891, pp. 59 _sq._

M88 Hence the woollen effigies hung out at the Compitalia in Rome were probably offered as substitutes for living persons to the Mother or Grandmother of Ghosts.

299 As to the custom see Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 45; Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 621 _sqq._; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Roman._ i. 38; Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 32 and 86. For various explanations which have been proposed, see L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 ii. 134 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 265 _sqq._; _Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885) p. 156 note; R. von Ihering, _Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer_, pp. 430-434; W. Warde Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 111 _sqq._; _id._, _The Religious Experience of the Roman People_ (London, 1911), pp. 54 _sq._, 321 _sqq._; G. Wissowa, _Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur römischen Religions- und Stadtgeschichte_ (Munich, 1904), pp. 211-229. The ceremony was observed on the fifteenth of May.

300 See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 107.

301 Plutarch, _Quaest. Roman._ 86.

M89 The sacrifice of first-fruits to gods is probably later than the custom of partaking of them sacramentally. First-fruits sometimes presented to the king and often to the dead.

302 See above, vol. i. pp. 231 _sqq._

M90 Sacrifice of first-fruits among the Ovambo of South-West Africa.

303 H. Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), p. 195.

M91 Sacrifices of first-fruits in South Africa.

304 Rev E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 251 _sq._

_ 305 Ibid._ p. 252.

_ 306 Ibid._ pp. 252 _sq._ In the southern province of Ceylon “the threshers behave as if they were in a temple of the gods when they put the corn into the bags.” See C. J. R. Le Mesurier, “Customs and Superstitions connected with the Cultivation of Rice in the Southern Province of Ceylon,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S. xvii. (1885), p. 371.

307 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 173.

308 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p. 397.

M92 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Central Africa.

309 “Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas, Muembas, Lundas und andere von Süd-Afrika,” _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkünde_ (Berlin), vi. (1856) pp. 272, 273.

310 Rev. A. Hetherwick, “Some Animistic Beliefs among the Yaos of British Central Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 94 _sq._

311 Rev. A. Hetherwick, _op. cit._ pp. 91-94.

312 Dr. J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Winamwanga and Wiwa,” _Journal of the African Society_, vol. ix. No. 36 (July 1910), pp. 366 _sq._ Among the Winamwanga, as among the Yaos, the human soul or spirit is called _muzimu_ (_op. cit._ p. 363).

313 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), pp. 294 _sq._

M93 Sacrifices of first-fruits in East Africa.

314 C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African Tribes_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 66, 85 _sq._

315 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 428.

_ 316 Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lx. (1888) p. 57. The account is extracted from the letter of a Catholic priest, himself a Dinka. The name of God, according to him, is _Den-dit_, meaning “Great Rain.” The form of the name agrees closely, and the interpretation of it agrees exactly, with the results of Dr. C. G. Seligmann’s independent enquiries, according to which the name of the Dinka God is _Dengdit_, “Great Rain,” the word for rain being _deng_. See Dr. C. G. Seligmann, in Dr. J. Hastings’ _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, _s.v._ “Dinka,” vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1911) p. 707.

317 “Coutumes étranges des indigènes du Djebel-Nouba (Afrique centrale), notes communiquées par les missionnaires de Vérone,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) p. 459. As to the Nubas and their pontiff see further Stanislas Carceri, “Djebel-Nouba,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xv. (1883) pp. 448-452.

M94 Sacrifices of first-fruits in West Africa.

318 A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), pp. 141 _sq._

319 Ch. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), pp. 266 _sq._

320 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 795 _sq._

321 J. Spieth, _op. cit._ p. 344. As to the goddess Mawu Sodza, see _ibid._ pp. 424 _sq._

322 H. Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_ (Berlin, 1899), p. 504.

323 L. Conradt, “Das Hinterland der deutschen Kolonie Togo,” _Petermanns Mittheilungen_, xlii. (1896) p. 18.

M95 First-fruits offered to kings in Madagascar and Burma.

324 G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 346.

325 J. Cameron, “On the Early Inhabitants of Madagascar,” _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 263.

326 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. (Leipsic, 1866), p. 105.

327 A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p. 97.

M96 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Assam and other parts of India. Sacrifices of first-fruits among hill tribes of India. Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Central Provinces of India. Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Punjaub.

328 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p. 91.

329 Major A. Playfair, _The Garos_ (London, 1909), p. 94.

330 E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 198; (Sir) H. H. Risley, _Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Ethnographic Glossary_ (Calcutta, 1891-1892), ii. 104.

331 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., _Religion and Customs of the Uraons_ (Calcutta, 1906), p. 137 (_Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9).

_ 332 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. 57, No. 428, quoting Moorcroft and Trebeck, _Travels in the Himalayan Provinces_, i. 317 _sq._

333 E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 825. As to Bhumiya see further W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 105-107, who observes (pp. 106 _sq._): “To illustrate the close connection between this worship of Bhûmiya as the soil godling with that of the sainted dead, it may be noted that in some places the shrine of Bhûmiya is identified with the Jathera, which is the ancestral mound, sacred to the common ancestor of the village or tribe.”

334 Thomas Shaw, “The Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,” _Asiatic Researches_, iv. (London, 1807) pp. 56 _sq._

_ 335 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 60, § 502 (February 1884).

_ 336 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907) p. 45.

_ 337 Op. cit._ iii. 73.

_ 338 Op. cit._ v. (Allahabad, 1911) p. 66.

_ 339 Op. cit._ vii. (Allahabad, 1911) p. 102.

340 The practice is curiously unlike the custom of ancient Italy, in most parts of which women were forbidden by law to walk on the highroads twirling a spindle, because this was supposed to injure the crops (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 28). The purpose of the Indian custom may be to ward off evil influences from the field, as Mr. W. Crooke suggests (_Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_, ii. 305, “This forms a sacred circle which repels evil influence from the crop”). Compare _The Magic Art and Evolution of Kings_, i. 113 _sq._

341 D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta, 1883), p. 119.

M97 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the ancient Hindoos.

_ 342 The Satapatha Brâhmana_, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part i. (Oxford, 1882), pp. 369-373 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.).

M98 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Burma and Corea.

343 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_, Part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900), pp. 425 _sq._

344 Rev. G. Whitehead, “Notes on the Chins of Burma,” _Indian Antiquary_, xxxvi. (1907) p. 207.

345 A. Bourlet, “Les Thay,” _Anthropos_, ii. (1907) pp. 627-629.

346 Ch. Dallet, _Histoire de l’Eglise de Corée_ (Paris, 1874), i. p. xxiv.

M99 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the East Indies.

347 Fr. Junghuhn, _Die Battaländer auf Sumatra_ (Berlin, 1847), ii. 312.

348 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London, 1863), i. 191.

349 B. F. Matthes, _Beknopt Verslag mijner reizen in de Binnenlanden van Celebes, in de jaren 1857 en 1861_, p. 5 (_Verzameling van Berigten betreffende de Bijbelverspreiding_, Nos. 96-99).

350 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_ (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 165.

351 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 107.

352 Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 281, 296 _sq._

353 Fr. Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_ (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 10.

354 C. M. Pleyte, “Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-Eilanden,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 801.

355 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 482.

356 C. Semper, _Die Philippinen und ihre Bewohner_ (Würzburg, 1869), p. 56.

357 F. Blumentritt, “Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindano,” _Petermanns Mittheilungen_, xxxvii. (1891) p. 111.

M100 Sacrifices of first-fruits in New Guinea.

358 Stefan Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 434-436.

M101 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Fiji and the New Hebrides.

359 Rev. Lorimer Fison, “The Nanga, or Sacred Stone Enclosure, of Wainimala, Fiji,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) p. 27.

360 J. E. Erskine, _Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific_ (London, 1853), p. 252.

361 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), pp. 318 _sq._

M102 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Solomon Islands.

362 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 132 _sq._

363 C. M. Woodford, _A Naturalist among the Head-hunters, being an Account of Three Visits to the Solomon Islands_ (London, 1890), pp. 26-28.

364 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 138.

M103 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Kingsmill Islands.

365 Horatio Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnology and Philology_ (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 97.

M104 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Tonga Islands. M105 The first-fruits of the yams deposited on the grave of the last Tooitonga (divine chief).

366 The _malái_ is “a piece of ground, generally before a large house, or chief’s grave, where public ceremonies are principally held” (W. Mariner, _Tonga Islands, Vocabulary_).

367 The _mataboole_ is “a rank next below chiefs or nobles” (_ibid._).

368 W. Mariner, _Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands_, Second Edition (London, 1818), ii. 78, 196-203. As to the divine chief Tooitonga see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 21.

M106 Significance of the presentation of first-fruits to the divine chief at the grave of his predecessor. M107 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Samoa and other parts of Polynesia.

369 Ch. Wilkes,. _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, 1851), ii. 133.

370 G. Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 70 _sq._

371 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i. 350.

372 D. Tyerman and G. Bennet, _Journal of Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1831), i. 284.

373 Geiseler, _Die Oster-Insel_ (Berlin, 1883), p. 31.

374 E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 110; R. Taylor, _Te Ika A Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, Second Edition (London, 1870), pp. 165 _sq._; _Old New Zealand_, by a Pakeha Maori (London, 1884), pp. 103 _sq._

M108 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the old Prussians, Greeks, and Romans.

375 Chr. Hartknoch, _Alt und neues Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684), p. 161; _id._, _Dissertationes historicae de variis rebus Prussicis_, p. 163 (appended to his edition of P. de Dusburg’s _Chronicon Prussiae_, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1679). Compare W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 27.

376 See above, vol. i. pp. 53 _sqq._

377 Plutarch, _Theseus_, 6.

378 Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 130.

379 Festus, _s.v._ “Sacrima,” p. 319, ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 8.

380 Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vi. 16, ed. C. O. Müller.

M109 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the Indians of America. Chateaubriand’s description of the harvest festival among the Natchez.

381 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 345 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, May, 1900).

382 C. Hill Tout, “Report on the Ethnology of the Okanaken of British Columbia,” _Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute_, xli. (1911) p. 132.

383 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l’Amérique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), ii. 566.

_ 384 Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, i. (Paris and Lyons, 1826) p. 386.

385 Above, pp. 77 _sqq._

386 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 130-136 (Michel Lévy, Paris, 1870).

M110 Custom of killing and eating the corn-spirit sacramentally. Belief of the savage that by eating an animal or man he acquires the qualities of that animal or man.

387 See _The Dying God_, pp. 9 _sqq._

M111 Beliefs of the American Indians as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals.

388 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), p. 133.

389 Alfred Simson, _Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador_ (London, 1887), p. 168; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vii. (1878) p. 503.

390 A. Thevet, _Les Singularitez de la France Antarctique, autrement nommée Amerique_ (Antwerp, 1558), p. 55; _id._, _La Cosmographie Universelle_ (Paris, 1575), ii. pp. 929, [963], 940 [974]; J. Lerius, _Historia Navigationis in Brasiliam, quae et America dicitur_ (1586), pp. 126 _sq._

391 Rochefort, _Histoire Naturelle et Morale des Iles Antilles_, Seconde Edition (Rotterdam, 1665), p. 465.

392 C. Cuny, “De Libreville au Cameroun,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, xvii. (1896) p. 342.

393 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, ii. (London, 1817) p. 373; _id._, iii. (London, 1819) p. 164.

394 P. Lozano, _Descripcion Chorographica del Gran Chaco_ (Cordova, 1733), p. 90.

395 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), i. 289 _sq._

396 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 348 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April, 1900).

M112 Bushman beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals.

397 W. H. I. Bleek and C. L. Lloyd, _Specimens of Bushman Folklore_ (London, 1911), pp. 271-275.

M113 Other African beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals. Ancient beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals.

398 A. Bertrand, _The Kingdom of the Barotsi, Upper Zambezia_ (London, 1899), p. 277, quoting the description given by the French missionary M. Coillard.

399 Theophilus Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_ (London, 1881), p. 106.

400 W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd, _Specimens of Bushman Folklore_ (London, 1911), p. 373.

401 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 318.

402 Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_, Second Edition (London, 1904), ii. 787.

403 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 174; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 282.

404 Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, p. 438, note 16.

405 O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), p. 128.

406 Sir H. H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 438; J. Buchanan, _The Shire Highlands_, p. 138.

407 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk, their Language and Folklore_ (Oxford, 1911), p. 11.

408 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London, 1857), p. 399.

409 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 99.

410 M. Merker, _Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga_ (Gotha, 1902), p. 38 (_Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 138).

411 Rev. H. Callaway, _Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus_ (Natal and London, 1868), p. 175 note.

412 Ovid, _Metam._ vii. 271 _sqq._ As to the supposed longevity of deer and crows, see L. Stephani, in _Compte Rendu de la Commission Archéologique_ (St. Petersburg), 1863, pp. 140 _sq._, and my note on Pausanias, viii. 10. 10.

413 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 119.

414 Porphyry, _De Abstinentia_, ii. 48: οἱ γοῦν ζώων μαντικῶν ψυχὰς δέξασθαι βουλόμενοι εἰς ἑαυτούς, τὰ κυριώτατα μόρια καταπιόντες, οἷον καρδίας κοράκων ἢ ἀσπαλάκων ἢ ἱεράκων, ἔχουσι παριοῦσαν τὴν ψυχὴν καὶ χρηματίζουσαν ὡς θεὸν καὶ εἰσιοῦσαν εἰς αὐτοὺς ἄμα τῇ ἐνθέσει τῇ τοῦ σώματος. Pliny also mentions the custom of eating the heart of a mole, raw and palpitating, as a means of acquiring skill in divination (_Nat. Hist._ xxx. 19).

M114 Beliefs of the Dyaks and Aino as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals.

415 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, Second Edition (London, 1863), i. 186, 206.

416 W. H. Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia, 1902), p. 71; compare _id._, pp. 166 _sq._

417 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 511-513.

418 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ p. 337.

419 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 279.

M115 Beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of dogs, tigers, etc.

420 Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i. 112.

421 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_, ii. (Philadelphia, 1853) pp. 79 _sq._

422 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 10, 262.

423 James Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_ (London, 1887), p. 166.

_ 424 Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) p. 179.

425 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p. 33.

_ 426 Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S., viii. (1886) p. 307.

427 J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” _Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) pp. 35 _sq._ Compare Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), i. 79.

428 Mrs. S. S. Allison, “Account of the Similkameen Indians of British Columbia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 313.

M116 Beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of wolves, bears, and serpents.

429 P. E. Müller on Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_ (Copenhagen, 1839-1858), vol. ii. p. 60.

_ 430 Die Edda_, übersetzt von K. Simrock8 (Stuttgart, 1882), pp. 180, 309.

431 Pliny, _Hist. Natur._ x. 137, xxix. 72.

432 Philostratus, _Vita Apollonii_, i. 20, iii. 9.

433 Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_, ed. P. E. Müller (Copenhagen, 1839-1858), i. 193 _sq._

434 P. E. Müller, note in his edition of Saxo Grammaticus, vol. ii. p. 146.

435 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 110, § 153; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 230, § 1658.

436 Grimm, _Kinder- und Hausmärchen_, No. 17; _id._, _Deutsche Sagen_2 (Berlin, 1865-1866), No. 132 (vol. i. pp. 174-176); A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 154; A. Waldau, _Böhmisches Märchenbuch_ (Prague, 1860), pp. 13 _sqq._; Von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich, 1857), pp. 302 _sqq._; W. von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), p. 96; P. Sébillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882), ii. 224; W. Grant Stewart, _The Popular Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the Highlanders of Scotland_, New Edition (London, 1851), pp. 53, 56; J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, New Edition (Paisley and London, 1890), No. 47, vol. ii. pp. 377 _sqq._; E. Prym und A. Socin, _Syrische Sagen und Maerchen_ (Göttingen, 1881), pp. 150 _sq._ On the serpent in relation to the acquisition by men of the language of animals, see further my article, “The Language of Animals,” _The Archaeological Review_, i. (1888) pp. 166 _sqq._ Sometimes serpents have been thought to impart a knowledge of the language of animals voluntarily by licking the ears of the seer. See Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 9. 11 _sq._; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, iii. 4.

M117 Various beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of animals.

437 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), p. 281.

438 M. Quedenfelt, “Aberglaube und halb-religiöse Bruderschaft bei den Marokkanarn,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1886, p. 682 (bound up with the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xviii. 1886).

439 H. Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_ (Leipsic, 1885), p. 218.

440 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), vi. 8.

441 P. J. Veth, “De leer der Signatuur,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) pp. 140 _sq._

442 R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the For Tribe of Central Africa,” _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xiii. (1884-1886) p. 218.

M118 The flesh and blood, but especially the hearts, of dead men eaten or drunk for the sake of acquiring the good qualities of the dead.

443 Rev. J. Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, etc., of the South African Tribes,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 116; _id._, _Light in Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 212. Compare Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 257 _sq._; Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 309.

444 Rev. J. Macdonald, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 138; _id._, _Light in Africa_, p. 220.

445 H. Schinz, _Deutsch Südwest-Afrika_ (Oldenburg and Leipsic, preface dated 1891), p. 320.

446 J. Macdonald, “East Central African Customs,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxii. (1893) p. 111. Compare J. Buchanan, _The Shire Highlands_, p. 138; Sir H. H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 438.

447 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 27.

448 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 318.

449 Rev. J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), pp. 167 _sq._

450 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London, 1890), pp. 99 _sq._

451 A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London, 1894), p. 69.

452 A. Caulin, _Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia_ (1779), p. 98.

453 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), vi. 187.

454 F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 382.

455 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), p. 135.

456 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) pp. 129 _sq._; _id._, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 45.

457 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 328.

458 E. Clement, “Ethnographical Notes on the Western Australian Aborigines,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xvi. (1904) p. 8.

M119 Other parts than the heart are eaten for the purpose of acquiring the virtues of the deceased.

459 O. Opigez, “Aperçu général sur la Nouvelle-Calédonie,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, vii. (1886) p. 433.

460 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 753.

461 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ p. 752.

462 S. Gason, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) p. 172.

463 Rev. W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p. 160.

_ 464 Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xi. (Lyons, 1838-1839) p. 258.

465 J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” _Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) pp. 35 _sq._

466 A. C. Kruyt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) p. 201.

467 N. Adriani en A. C. Kruijt, “Van Posso naar Mori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 162.

468 F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” _Mittheilungen der Wiener Geograph. Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 154; _id._, _Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha, 1882), p. 32 (_Petermann’s Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 67).

469 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 131.

470 L. Magyar, _Reisen in Süd-Afrika in den Jahren 1849-1857_ (Buda-Pesth and Leipsic, 1859), pp. 273-276.

471 Rev. J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 216.

472 Rev. H. Callaway, _Nursery Tales, Traditions and Histories of the Zulus_ (Natal and London, 1868), p. 163 note.

473 A. C. Haddon, “The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 414, compare p. 312; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 301.

474 A. C. Haddon, _op. cit._ p. 420; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 301 _sq._

475 S. J. Hickson, _A Naturalist in North Celebes_ (London, 1889), p. 216.

476 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 352. Compare _ibid._ p. 173; W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London, 1831-1836), i. 358; J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du Monde et à la recherche de la Pérouse sur la corvette Astrolabe_ (Paris, 1832-1833), ii. 547; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 108.

M120 Moral virtues of the dead acquired through simple contact with their bones.

477 A. C. Kruyt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) p. 166.

_ 478 The Spectator_, No. 316, March 3, 1712; Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch. lxvii.

479 Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 56.

M121 Savages sometimes seek to form a covenant of friendship with their dead foes by drinking their blood.

480 For examples of the blood-covenant see H. C. Trumbull, _The Blood Covenant_ (London, 1887). The custom is particularly common in Africa.

481 Rev. J. H. Bernau, _Missionary Labours in British Guiana_ (London, 1847), pp. 57 _sq._; R Schomburgk, _Reisen in Britisch-Guiana_ (Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii. 497.

482 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 27.

483 A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), pp. 180, 181 _sq._

484 Mrs. Leslie Milne, _Shans at Home_ (London, 1910), p. 192.

M122 Blood-covenant formed by manslayers with the ghosts of their victims.

485 The Kukis of north-eastern India believe that the ghost of an animal as well as of a man will haunt its slayer and drive him mad unless he performs a ceremony called _ai_. For example, a man who has killed a tiger must dress himself up as a woman, put flints into the tiger’s mouth, and eat eggs himself, after which he makes a speech to the tiger and gives it three cuts over the head with a sword. During this performance the principal performer must keep perfectly grave. Should he accidentally laugh, he says, “The porcupine laughed,” referring to a real porcupine which he carries in his arms for the purpose. See Lieut.-Colonel J. Shakespeare, “The Kuki-Lushai Clans,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) pp. 380 _sq._

486 J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du Monde et à la recherche de la Pérouse_ (Paris, 1832-1833), iii. 305.

487 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La Tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), p. 138.

488 F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 382.

489 Some of the evidence has already been cited by me in _Psyche’s Task_, pp. 56-58.

M123 Communion with the dead by swallowing their ashes.

490 A. R. Wallace, _Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro_, Second Edition (London, 1889), ch. xvii. pp. 346 _sq._

491 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, iii. (London, 1819) p. 722.

492 R. Southey, _op. cit._ iii. 204.

493 A. de Herrera, _The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 45.

494 A. Reich und F. Stegelmann, “Bei den Indianern des Urubamba und des Envira,” _Globus_, lxxxiii. (1903) p. 137. On similar custom practised by the American Indians see further De la Borde, _Relation de l’Origine, Mœurs, Coustumes, Religion, Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes Sauvages_, p. 37 (forming part of the _Recueil de divers Voyages faits en Afrique et en l’Amerique_, Paris, 1684); J. F. Lafitau, _Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains_ (Paris, 1724), ii. 444-446; A. N. Cabeça de Vaca, _Relation et Naufrages_ (Paris, 1837), p. 109 (in Ternaux Compans’ _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux pour servir à l’Histoire de la Découverte de l’Amérique_); R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, i. (Second Edition, London, 1822), Supplemental Notes, p. xxxvi.; F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 380; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_ (Bâle, 1867), pp. 289 _sq._; H. A. Coudreau, _La France Équinoxiale_ (Paris, 1887), ii. 173; Theodor Koch, “Die Anthropophagie der südamerikanischen Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xii. (1899) pp. 78-110; Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 152. Some Indians of Guiana rubbed their limbs with water in which the ashes of their dead were mingled. See A. Biet, _Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en l’Isle de Cayenne_ (Paris, 1664), p. 392.

495 Aulus Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, x. 18; Valerius Maximus, iv. 6. 5.

496 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 55.

497 See above, p. 154 _sqq._

M124 Savages attempt to inoculate themselves with moral and other virtues by making cuts in their bodies and inserting in the cuts the ashes of animals and plants which they suppose to be endowed with the virtues in question.

498 Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_, (London, 1861), pp. 256 _sq._

499 E. Holub, _Sieben Jahre in Süd Afrika_ (Vienna, 1881), ii. 361.

500 See above, p. 148.

501 J. Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, etc., of South African Tribes,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 133. The Barolong, a Bechuana tribe, observe a custom of this sort. See W. Joest, “Bei den Barolong,” _Das Ausland_, 16th June 1884, p. 464.

502 Col. Maclean, _A Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), p. 82.

503 Father Porte, “Les reminiscences d’un missionnaire du Basutoland,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 149.

504 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_ (London, 1906), p. 70, compare p. 43.

505 Lieut. H. Pope-Hennessy, “Notes on the Jukos and other Tribes of the Middle Benue,” _Anthropological Reviews and Miscellanea_, p. (30); appended to _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxx. (1900).

M125 The Zulus think they can inoculate themselves with celestial power. Some Caffres inoculate themselves against lightning.

506 Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, pp. 380-382.

507 Col. Maclean, _A Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), pp. 83 _sq._

508 Du Tertre, _Histoire generale des Isles de S. Christophe, de la Guadeloupe, de la Martinique et autres dans l’Amerique_ (Paris, 1654), pp. 417 _sq._; _id._, _Histoire generale des Antilles_ (Paris, 1667-1671), ii. 377; Rochefort, _Histoire Naturelle et Morale des Iles Antilles_2 (Rotterdam, 1665), p. 556.

M126 Some savages attempt to acquire the physical and mental qualities of the dead by anointing themselves with their remains. The juices of animals are sometimes similarly applied for the same purpose.

509 R. Brough Smith, _Aborigines of Victoria_ (Melbourne and London, 1878), i. p. xxix., ii. 313; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 367 _sqq._

510 Rev. W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p. 160.

511 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 467, 468.

512 J. Chalmers and W. W. Gill, _Work and Adventure in New Guinea_ (London, 1885), pp. 130, 265, 308; J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 308; Rev. J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p. 241. Other or the same peoples sometimes drink the juices of the decaying bodies of their kinsfolk, doubtless for a similar reason. See _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, vi. (Cambridge, 1906) p. 159; J. Chalmers and W. Gill, _op. cit._ pp. 27, 265; Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, 1851), ii. 139; J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 267; A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, ii. (Berlin, 1885) p. 95; _id._, _Die Völker des Ostlichen Asien_, v. (Jena, 1869) p. 91; P. J. Veth, _Borneo’s Westerafdeeling_ (Zaltbommel, 1854-1856), ii. 270; J. Jacobs, _Eenigen Tijd onder de Baliers_ (Batavia, 1883), p. 53.

513 Rev. J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 394.

514 Mgr. Le Roy, “Les Pygmées,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxix. (1897) p. 210.

515 “Mourning for the Dead among the Digger Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 530.

516 E. H. Man, _Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands_, p. 66.

517 Jerome Becker, _La Vie en Afrique_ (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 366.

518 Th. Koch-Grünberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 153.

519 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d’Exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_ (Paris, 1842), pp. 349 _sq._

520 Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 204 _sq._ Men of other totem clans also partake of their totems sacramentally at these _Intichiuma_ ceremonies (Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ pp. 202-206). As to the _Intichiuma_ ceremonies, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 85 _sqq._ Another Central Australian mode of communicating qualities by external application is seen in the custom of beating boys on the calves of their legs with the leg-bone of an eagle-hawk; strength is supposed to pass thereby from the bone into the boy’s leg. See Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ p. 472; _Report on the Work of the Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia_, Part iv. (London and Melbourne, 1896), p. 180.

M127 Magical ointment used by Mexican priests.

_ 521 Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l’Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions_, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp. 171-173; J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_ (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), ii. 364-367; E. Seler, _Altmexikanische Studien_, ii. (Berlin, 1899), pp. 43 _sq._ (_Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_).

M128 Qualities of a person, animal, or thing imparted by fumigation.

522 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_ (London, 1906), pp. 12 _sq._

523 Dudley Kidd, _op. cit._ pp. 20 _sq._

M129 The savage custom of eating a god. Cicero on transubstantiation.

524 On the custom of eating a god, see also a paper by Felix Liebrecht, “Der aufgegessene Gott,” _Zur Volkskunde_ (Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 436-439; and especially W. R. Smith, article “Sacrifice,” _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, vol. xxi. pp. 137 _sq._ On wine as the blood of a god, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 248 _sqq._

525 Cicero, _De natura deorum_, iii. 16. 41.

M130 Hunting and pastoral tribes, as well as agricultural peoples, have been in the habit of killing and eating the beings whom they worship. The Californian Indians used solemnly to kill the great buzzard which they adored; but they believed that though they slew it annually, it always came to life again.

526 This does not refer to the Californian peninsula, which is an arid and treeless wilderness of rock and sand.

527 Father Geronimo Boscana, “Chinigchinich; a historical account of the origin, customs, and traditions of the Indians at the missionary establishment of St. Juan Capistrano, Alta California,” appended to Alfred Robinson’s _Life in California_ (New York, 1846), pp. 291 _sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, iii. 168. The mission station of San Juan Capistrano is described by R. H. Dana (_Two Years before the Mast_, chaps. xviii. and xxiv.). A favourable picture of the missions is drawn by H. von Langsdorf (_Reise um die Welt_, Frankfort, 1812, ii. pp. 134 _sqq._), by Duflos de Mofras (“Fragment d’un Voyage en Californie,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), ii. Série, xix. (1843) pp. 9-13), and by a writer (H. H.) in _The Century Magazine_, May, 1883, pp. 2-18. But the severe discipline of the Spanish monks is noticed by other travellers. We are told that the Indians laboured during the day in the fields to support their Spanish masters, were driven to church twice or thrice a day to hear service in a language which they did not understand, and at night were shut up in crowded and comfortless barracks, without windows and without beds. When the monks desired to make new proselytes, or rather to capture new slaves, they called in the aid of the soldiery, who attacked the Indian villages by night, lassoed the fugitives, and dragged them back at their horses’ tails to slavery in the missions. See O. von Kotzebue, _Reise um die Welt_ (Weimar, 1830), ii. 42 _sqq._; F. W. Beechey, _Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait_ (London, 1831), ii. chap. i.; A. Schabelski, “Voyage aux colonies russes de l’Amérique,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), ii. Série, iv. (1835) pp. 216-218. A poet has described with prosaic accuracy the pastoral crook by which these good shepherds brought back their strayed lambs to the spiritual fold:—

“_Six horses sprang across the level ground_ _ As six dragoons in open order dashed;_ _ Above their heads the lassos circled round,_ _ In every eye a pious fervour flashed;_ _ They charged the camp, and in one moment more_ _ They lassoed six and reconverted four._”

(Bret Harte, _Friar Pedro’s Ride_.)

In the verses inscribed _The Angelus, heard at the Mission Dolores_, 1868, and beginning

“_Bells of the Past, whose long-forgotten music_ _ Still fills the wide expanse_,”

the same poet shews that he is not insensible to the poetical side of those old Spanish missions, which have long passed away.

M131 Perhaps they hoped by the sacrifice of the individual bird to preserve the species.

528 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 21. Compare _id._, pp. 26, 61.

M132 Ancient Egyptian sacrifice of a ram at the festival of Ammon.

529 Herodotus, ii. 42. The custom has been already referred to above, p. 41.

530 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1909), p. 73 § 180. Compare Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. 1 _sqq._

531 Above, p. 36.

M133 Use of the skin of the sacrificed animal.

532 Above, p. 170; vol. i. p. 285.

533 The Italmens of Kamtchatka, at the close of the fishing season, used to make the figure of a wolf out of grass. This figure they carefully kept the whole year, believing that it wedded with their maidens and prevented them from giving birth to twins; for twins were esteemed a great misfortune. See G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 327 _sq._ According to Chr. Hartknoch (_Dissertat. histor. de variis rebus Prussicis_, p. 163; _Alt- und neues Preussen_, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684, p. 161) the image of the old Prussian god Curcho was annually renewed. But see W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 27.

534 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. ii. pp. 70 _sq._

M134 The sacred serpent of Issapoo in Fernando Po.

535 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858), pp. 196 _sq._ The writer does not expressly state that a serpent is killed annually, but his statement implies it.

536 Dr. Tautain, “Notes sur les croyances et pratiques religieuses des Banmanas,” _Revue d’Ethnographie_, iii. (1885) p. 397. Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 543 _sq._

537 Varro in Priscian, x. 32, vol. i. p. 524, ed. Keil; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 14. Pliny’s statement is to be corrected by Varro’s.

M135 The killing of sacred turtles by the Zuni Indians.

538 When I wrote _The Golden Bough_ originally I said that in these three cases “the animal slain probably is, or once was, a totem.” But this seems to me less probable now than it did then. In regard to the Californian custom in particular, there appears to be no good evidence that within the area now occupied by the United States totemism was practised by any tribes to the west of the Rocky Mountains. See H. Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_ (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 199; George Gibbs, in _Contributions to North American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1877), i. 184; S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 5; A. S. Gatschet, _The Klamath Indians of South-western Oregon_ (Washington, 1890), vol. i. p. cvi. “California and Oregon seem never to have had any gentes or phratries” (A. S. Gatschet in a letter to me, dated November 5th, 1888). Beyond the very doubtful case cited in the text, I know of no evidence that totemism exists in Fernando Po.

M136 The return of the procession with the turtles. M137 The turtle addressed as a dead relative. The turtle killed.

539 Frank H. Cushing, “My Adventures in Zuñi,” _The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine_, May 1883, pp. 45 _sq._

M138 In this custom is expressed a belief in the transmigration of human souls into turtles. From a later account it appears that the custom is a mode of interceding with the ancestral spirits for rain.

540 Mr. Cushing, indeed, while he admits that the ancestors of the Zuni may have believed in transmigration, says, “Their belief, to-day, however, relative to the future life is spiritualistic.” But the expressions in the text seem to leave no room for doubting that the transmigration into turtles is a living article of Zuni faith.

541 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iv. 86. On the totem clans of the Moquis, see J. G. Bourke, _Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona_ (London, 1884), pp. 116 _sq._, 334 _sqq._

542 For this information I am indebted to the kindness of the late Captain J. G. Bourke, 3rd Cavalry, U.S. Army, author of the work mentioned in the preceding note. In his letter Captain Bourke gave a list of fourteen totem clans of Zuni, which he received on the 20th of May 1881 from Pedro Dino (?), Governor of Zuni.

543 It should be observed, however, that Mr. Cushing omits to say whether or not the persons who performed the ceremony described by him had the turtle for their totem. If they had not, the ceremony need not have had anything to do with totemism.

544 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 301-318.

545 Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuñi Indians,” _Twenty-Third Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1904), pp. 148-162.

M139 Ambiguous attitude of the Aino towards the bear.

546 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” _Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens_ (Yokohama), Heft xxii. p. 45.

547 We are told that the Aino have gods for almost every conceivable object, and that the word _kamui_ “has various shades of meaning, which vary if used before or after another word, and according to the object to which it is applied.” “When the term _kamui_ is applied to good objects, it expresses the quality of usefulness, beneficence, or of being exalted or divine. When applied to supposed evil gods, it indicates that which is most to be feared and dreaded. When applied to devils, reptiles, and evil diseases, it signifies what is most hateful, abominable, and repulsive. When applied as a prefix to animals, fish or fowl, it represents the greatest or fiercest, or the most useful for food or clothing. When applied to persons, it is sometimes expressive of goodness, but more often is a mere title of respect and reverence.” See the Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu of Japan_ (London, 1892), pp. 245-251; _id._, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 581 _sq._ Thus the Aino _kamui_ appears to mean nearly the same as the Dacotan _wakan_, as to which see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 225, note.

548 W. Martin Wood, “The Hairy Men of Yesso,” _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., iv. (1866) p. 36.

549 J. J. Rein, _Japan_ (Leipsic, 1881-1886), i. 446.

550 H. von Siebold, _Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel Yesso_ (Berlin, 1881), p. 26.

551 Miss Isabella L. Bird, _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_ (new edition, 1885), p. 275.

552 W. Martin Wood, _l.c._

553 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, p. 471.

554 Miss I. L. Bird, _op. cit._ p. 269.

555 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 4 (reprinted from _Mittheilungen d. deutsch. Gesell. b. S. und S. Ostasiens_, Yokohama).

556 B. Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc., p. 45; W. Joest, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1882, p. 188.

557 W. Martin Wood, _l.c._

558 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 476 _sq._ As to the _inao_ see below, p. 186, note.

559 Miss I. L. Bird, _op. cit._ p. 277.

560 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 15; H. von Siebold, _op. cit._ p. 26; W. Martin Wood, _l.c._; J. J. Rein, _Japan_, i. 447; Von Brandt, “The Ainos and Japanese,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 134; Miss Bird, _op. cit._ pp. 275, 276; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 495 _sq._

561 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, pp. 15, 16; Von Brandt, _l.c._; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 352-354, 504 _sq._

562 B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 16.

563 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 8-10. E. Reclus (_Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_, vii. 755) mentions a (Japanese?) legend which attributes the hairiness of the Ainos to the suckling of their first ancestor by a bear. But in the absence of other evidence this is no proof of totemism.

M140 Aino custom of catching a bear cub, rearing it for several years, and killing it at a solemn festival.

564 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” p. 45; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 483-485. Mr. Batchelor formerly doubted or denied that the Aino women suckle the bear cubs (_The Ainu of Japan_, p. 173); but since then he has repeatedly seen them do it. Once, while he was preaching, a cub was being passed round among all the young women present and suckled by each in turn.

565 J. J. Rein, _Japan_ (Leipsic, 1881-1886), i. 447.

566 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” p. 45; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 485 _sq._

567 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 486-496. The killing of the bear is described somewhat differently by Miss I. L. Bird (_Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_, New Edition, 1885, pp. 276 _sq._), but she did not witness the ceremony. She tells us that at Usu, on Volcano Bay, when the bear is being killed, the Aino shout, “We kill you, O bear! Come back soon into an Aino.” According to Dr. Siebold, a very respectable authority, the bear’s own heart is frequently offered to the dead beast to assure him that he is still in life (_Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel Yesso_, p. 26). This, however, is denied by Dr. Scheube, who says that the heart is eaten (“Baerencultus,” p. 50 note). The custom may vary in different places.

M141 Dr. Scheube’s description of the Aino custom of killing of a bear ceremonially.

568 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” _Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens_ (Yokohama), Heft xxii. pp. 46 _sqq._

569 B. Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc., p. 46; _id._, _Die Ainos_, p. 15; Miss I. L. Bird, _op. cit._ pp. 273 _sq._ As to these whittled wands (_inao_), which are so conspicuous about the Aino huts, see the Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 89-95. He remarks (p. 92): “I have often insisted both in my lectures and also in my writings that the Ainu do not worship their _inao_, but that they make them as offerings to the deities, and set them up as signs showing reverence towards them. This, I must now remark, is true but in part, for while some of the ordinary or less important kinds are not worshipped, there are several others which are. Those _not_ worshipped may almost always be regarded as offerings and charms pure and simple, while those which _are_ worshipped must generally be regarded as messengers sent to the higher deities.” On the whole Mr. Batchelor would describe the _inao_ as fetishes of various degrees of power. See further P. Labbé, _Un bagne Russe, l’Isle de Sakhaline_ (Paris, 1903), pp. 194 _sq._, who compares the use of these whittled sticks to the use of holy candles among Roman Catholics. In Borneo the search for camphor is attended by many superstitions; among other things, when the searchers have found a tree which promises to yield much camphor “they plant near their hut a stake, whereof the outer surface has been cut into curled shavings and tufts down the sides and at the top” (W. H. Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_, Philadelphia, 1902, p. 168). According to some ancient authorities, the old Italians worshipped peeled sticks as gods or as the images of gods; however, the statement seems no better than an etymological guess to explain the word _delubrum_. See Festus, _s.v._ “Delubrum,” p. 73, ed. C. O. Müller; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 225.

M142 Early Japanese account of the Aino festival of the bear.

570 “Ieso-Ki, ou description de l’île d’Iesso, avec une notice sur la révolte de Samsay-in, composée par l’interprète Kannemon,” printed in Malte-Brun’s _Annales des Voyages_, xxiv. (Paris, 1814) p. 154.

M143 The custom of rearing and killing bears among the Aino of Saghalien.

571 P. Labbé, _Un Bagne Russe, l’Isle de Sakhaline_ (Paris, 1903), pp. 227, 232-258. The Gilyaks of Saghalien similarly keep and sacrifice bears; but the ceremonies are simpler, and they treat the animals with less respect than the Aino. See P. Labbé, _op. cit._ pp. 261-267.

M144 Bear-festivals of the Gilyaks.

572 They inhabit the banks of the lower Amoor and the north of Saghalien. See E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (London, 1861), p. 389.

573 “Notes on the River Amur and the Adjacent Districts,” translated from the Russian, _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, xxviii. (1858) p. 396.

574 Compare the custom of pinching a frog before cutting off his head; see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 86. In Japan sorceresses bury a dog in the earth, tease him, then cut off his head and put it in a box to be used in magic. See A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_ (Berlin, 1878), i. 475 note, who adds “_wie im ostindischen Archipelago die Schutzseele gereizt wird_.” He probably refers to the Batta _Pang-hulu-balang_. See H. von Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 59 _sq._; W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) pp. 478 sq.; J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” in _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl. iii. (1886) Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 306; Van Dijk, in _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxviii. (1895) pp. 307 _sq._

575 W. Joest, in B. Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 17; J. Deniker, “Les Ghiliaks d’après les derniers renseignements,” _Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. (1883) pp. 307 _sq._ (on the authority of Mr. Seeland); _Internationales Archiv für Ethnologie_, i. (1888) p. 102 (on the authority of Captain Jacobsen); _Archiv für Anthropologie_, xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (abstract of a Russian work on the Gilyaks by Dr. Seland or Seeland). What exactly is meant by “dancing as bears” (“_tanzen beide Geschlechter Reigentänze, wie Bären_,” Joest, _l.c._) does not appear.

M145 L. von Schrenck’s description of a bear-festival among the Gilyaks of the Amoor. Bears led in procession about the village. Slaughter of the bears. M146 Treatment of the bears’ skins. M147 Treatment of the bears’ flesh. M148 Banquet on the bears’ flesh. Dance of the women. Disposal of the skull and bones of the bear.

576 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande_ (St. Petersburg, 1891), iii. 696-731.

M149 Mr. L. Sternberg’s description of the bear-festivals of the Gilyaks.

577 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) pp. 260-274.

M150 Bear-festivals of the Goldi.

578 E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (London, 1861), pp. 379 _sq._; T. W. Atkinson, _Travels in the Regions of the Upper and Lower Amoor_ (London, 1860), pp. 482 _sq._

M151 Bear-festivals of the Orotchis.

579 E. H. Fraser, “The Fish-skin Tartars,” _Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for the year 1891-1892_, New Series, xxvi. 36-39. L. von Schrenck describes a bear-feast which he witnessed in 1855 among the Oltscha (_Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande_, iii. 723-728). The Oltscha are probably the same as the Orotchis.

M152 Respect shewn by all these tribes for the bears which they kill and eat.

_ 580 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 59 _sqq._

581 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 492, 493, 495, 496.

_ 582 Op. cit._ p. 482. Mr. Batchelor says “totem gods.”

_ 583 Op. cit._ pp. 580 _sqq._

584 See above, pp. 188 _sq._

585 This account of the attitude of the Gilyaks to the bear, and of their reasons for holding the festival, is the one given by Mr. Leo Sternberg. See his articles, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) pp. 273 _sq._, 456-458. He speaks of the bear as a minor deity (“_Er selbst ist ja eine Gottheit, wenn auch eine kleine_”). Mr. Sternberg and Mr. Batchelor, two of the best-informed writers on the subject, agree in denying that the slaughter of the bear at the festival is a sacrifice to the gods. See L. Sternberg, _op. cit._ p. 457; Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, p. 482. As to the belief of the Gilyaks in evil spirits, which menace and destroy the life of man, see L. Sternberg, _op. cit._ pp. 460 _sqq._

M153 Similar respect shewn by the Aino for the eagle-owls which they keep in cages and kill.

586 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, pp. 410-415.

M154 Similar respect shewn by the Aino for the eagles and hawks which they keep in cages and kill.

587 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ pp. 432 _sq._

588 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ p. 438.

M155 Advantages which the Aino hopes to reap from slaughtering the worshipful animals.

589 See above, pp. 183, 184, 196.

590 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_, p. 479.

591 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ pp. 481, 482.

M156 The bear-festivals of these tribes are probably nothing but an extension of the similar rites which the hunter performs over any wild bear which he kills in the forest.

592 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) p. 272.

M157 The apparent contradiction in the behaviour of these tribes to bears is not so great as it seems to us at first sight. Savage logic. M158 The savage believes that animals, like men, are endowed with souls which survive the death of their bodies. The American Indians draw no sharp distinction between animals and men.

593 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883), p. 350.

594 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 261.

595 Rev. John Heckewelder, “An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighbouring States,” _Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society_, vol. i. (Philadelphia, 1819) pp. 247 _sq._

596 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden, 1901) pp. 157 _sq._

M159 Some savages apparently fail to distinguish clearly even the bodies of animals from the bodies of men.

597 John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, being a Narrative of a Second Journey in the Interior of that Country_ (London, 1822), ii. 34.

598 L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) p. 248.

599 I. Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska_, p. 145.

600 Above, p. 141.

601 A. C. Haddon, “The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 393; _id._, _Head-hunters_ (London, 1901), p. 133; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 166.

602 Miss Alice C. Fletcher, _The Import of the Totem, a Study from the Omaha Tribe_, p. 6 (paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, August 1897).

603 James Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia,” p. 356 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April 1900).

604 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 352 _sq._, 512. The Chambioa Indians of Central Brazil kept birds of the same species in captivity and used their brilliant feathers to cover enormous head-dresses or masks, some six feet high, which were worn by dancers in certain mystic dances. The masks were guarded in a special hut of each village, and no woman might see them under pain of death. See F. de Castelnau, _Expédition dans les parties centrales de l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), i. 436 _sq._, 440, 449-451.

M160 Hence the savage attempts to propitiate the animals which he kills and the other members of the species. Scruples entertained by the Dyaks as to the killing of crocodiles.

605 However, many savages hunt the crocodile for the sake of its flesh, which some of them even regard as a delicacy. See H. von Wissmann, _My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa, from the Congo to the Zambesi_ (London, 1891), p. 298; Ch. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), p. 149; A. F. Mocler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), p. 222; Captain G. Burrows, _The Land of the Pigmies_ (London, 1898), p. 247; R. E. Dennett, "Bavili Notes," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 399; J. Halkin, _Quelques Peuplades du district de l’Uelé_, I. _Les Ababua_ (Liége, 1907), p. 33; H. Reynolds, “Notes on the Azandé Tribe of the Congo,” _Journal of the African Society_, No. xi. (April, 1904) p. 242; Brard, “Der Victoria-Nyansa,” _Petermann’s Mittheilungen_, xliii. (1897) p. 78; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p. 209; G. Kurze, “Sitten und Gebräuche der Lengua-Indianer,” _Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xxiii. (1905) p. 30; W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An unknown People in an unknown Land_ (London, 1911), pp. 82 _sq._; _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xxvi., _Travancore_ (Trivandrum, 1903), p. 353; Max Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, N.D.), p. 163; Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 770; W. E. Roth, _Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines_ (Brisbane and London, 1897), p. 94; N. W. Thomas, _Natives of Australia_ (London, 1906), p. 106. In antiquity some of the Egyptians worshipped crocodiles, but others killed and ate them. See Herodotus, ii. 69; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 50; Aelian, _De natura animalium_, x. 21.

606 Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p. 221. Compare C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” _Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. 160; S. Müller, _Reizen en onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel_ (Amsterdam, 1857), i. 238; M. T. H. Perelaer, _Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks_ (Zalt-Bommel, 1870), p. 7.

M161 Ceremonies observed by the Dyaks at killing a crocodile.

607 F. Grabowsky, “Die Theogonie der Dajaken auf Borneo,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1892) pp. 119 _sq._

608 H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), i. 447 _sq._ Compare E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_ (London, 1911), pp. 56-60. Similarly the Kenyahs, Kayans, and Ibans, three tribes of Sarawak, will not kill crocodiles except in revenge for the death of one of their people. See C. Hose and W. MacDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) pp. 186, 190, 199, compare _ib._ pp. 193 _sq._

M162 Ceremonies observed by the Minangkabauers of Sumatra at killing a crocodile.

609 J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 75 _sq._

M163 Belief in the kinship of men with crocodiles among the Malays.

610 Nelson Annandale, “Primitive Beliefs and Customs of the Patani Fishermen,” _Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology_, i. (April, 1903) pp. 76-78.

_ 611 Voyages of Captain James Cook round the World_ (London, 1809), ii. 316-319.

M164 Crocodiles respected in Africa.

612 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 336.

613 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 318, 322, 335.

614 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 510 _sq._

615 A. Raffenel, _Voyage dans l’Afrique occidentale_ (Paris, 1846), pp. 84 _sq._

M165 Crocodiles respected in Madagascar.

616 J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p. 269.

617 Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xii. (1880) p. 527; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 283 _sq._

618 W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, N.D.), i. 57 _sq._

M166 Tigers respected in Sumatra. Ceremonies at killing tigers in Sumatra and Bengal.

619 W. Marsden, _History of Sumatra_ (London, 1811), p. 292.

620 J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 74, 75 _sq._

621 H. Ris, “De onderafdeeling Mandailing Oeloe en Pahantan en hare Bevolking,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_, xlvi. (1896) pp. 472 _sq._

622 G. G. Batten, _Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago_ (Singapore, 1894), p. 86.

623 Th. Shaw, “On the Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,” _Asiatic Researches_, Fourth Edition, iv. (London, 1807) p. 37.

_ 624 Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, v. (1831) pp. 363 _sq._

M167 Snakes, especially rattlesnakes, respected by the North American Indians.

625 J. Bricknell, _The Natural History of North Carolina_ (Dublin, 1737), p. 368.

626 W. Bartram, _Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida_, etc. (London, 1792) pp. 258-261.

627 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 273.

628 Rev. John Heckewelder, “An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighbouring States,” _Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society_, i. (Philadelphia, 1819) p. 245.

629 W. Keating, _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River_ (London, 1825), i. 127.

630 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 294-296. Compare _id._, pp. 456-458; J. Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 237 _sq._

631 Henry, _Travels_, pp. 176-179, quoted by J. Mooney, _op. cit._ pp. 457 _sq._

632 C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der Kekchí-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii. (1895) p. 204.

M168 Ceremonies observed in Kiziba at the killing of a snake.

633 H. Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910), pp. 130 _sq._

M169 Ceremonies observed by the North American Indians and others at the killing of a wolf.

634 Fr. Boas, in _Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, pp. 9 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1896_).

635 Rev. J. Jetté, “On the Medicine-men of the Ten’a,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) p. 158.

636 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 265.

637 T. de Pauly, _Description Ethnographique des Peuples de la Russie_ (St. Petersburg, 1862), _Peuples de la Sibérie Orientale_, p. 7.

638 Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonaut._ ii. 124.

M170 Certain birds respected.

639 “Coutumes étranges des indigènes du Djebel-Nouba,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) p. 458.

640 C. B. Klunzinger, _Upper Egypt_ (London, 1878), pp. 402 _sq._

641 Caulin, _Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia_, p. 96: “_Reusan mucho matar qualquier animal no comestibile que no sea nocibo_,” etc. Here _reusan_ appears to be a misprint for _recusan_.

M171 Apologies offered by savages to the animals which they are obliged to kill. Propitiation of slain bears by Kamtchatkans, Ostiaks, Koryak, Finns, and Lapps.

642 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 85, 280, 331.

_ 643 Voyages au Nord_ (Amsterdam, 1727), viii. 41, 416; P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 64; J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 83.

644 A. Erman, _Travels in Siberia_ (London, 1848), ii. 43. For the veneration of the polar bear by the Samoyedes, who nevertheless kill and eat it, see ib_id._ pp. 54 _sq._

645 A. Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), iii. 26.

646 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), pp. 88 _sq._ (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).

647 Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 139.

648 A. Featherman, _Social History of the Races of Mankind, Fourth Division, Dravido-Turanians_, etc. (London, 1891) p. 422.

649 J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 233 _sq._ The Lapps “have still an elaborate ceremony in hunting the bear. They pray and chant to his carcase, and for several days worship before eating it” (E. Rae, _The White Sea Peninsula_ (London, 1881), p. 276).

M172 Propitiation of slain bears by the North American Indians.

650 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 173 _sq._; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 172-181 (Paris, Michel Lévy, 1870).

_ 651 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, vi. (Paris, 1781) p. 171. L. H. Morgan states that the names of the Otawa totem clans had not been obtained (_Ancient Society_, London, 1877, p. 167). From the _Lettres édifiantes_, vi. 168-171, he might have learned the names of the Hare, Carp, and Bear clans, to which may be added the Gull clan, as I learn from an extract from _The Canadian Journal_ (Toronto) for March 1858, quoted in _The Academy_, 27th September 1884, p. 203.

_ 652 A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_, p. 117 (Middletown, 1820), p. 133 (Edinburgh, 1824).

653 De Smet, _Western Missions and Missionaries_ (New York, 1863), p. 139.

654 A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 111.

655 Henry’s _Travels_, pp. 143-145, quoted by J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900), pp. 446 _sq._

656 A. Mackenzie, “Descriptive notes on certain implements, weapons, etc., from Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, B.C.,” _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada_, ix. (1891) section ii. p. 58.

657 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 347 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April 1900). The Thompson Indians used to be known as the Couteau or Knife Indians.

658 J. Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), p. 279 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_); _id._, _The Shuswap_ (Leyden and New York, 1909), pp. 602 _sq._ (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_).

M173 Propitiation of slain elephants in Africa.

659 Stephen Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833), p. 138.

660 L. Alberti, _De Kaffers aan de Zuidkust van Afrika_ (Amsterdam, 1810), p. 95. Alberti’s information is repeated by H. Lichtenstein (_Reisen im südlichen Afrika_, Berlin, 1811-1812, i. 412) and by Cowper Rose (_Four Years in Southern Africa_, London, 1829, p. 155). The burial of the trunk is also mentioned by Kay, _l.c._

661 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 215.

662 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 87.

663 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 447.

M174 Propitiation of lions in Africa.

664 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 785.

665 J. Becker, _La Vie en Afrique_ (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 298 _sq._, 305.

M175 Propitiation of slain leopards in Africa.

666 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_ (Jena, 1874-1875), ii. 243.

667 A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), p. 309.

668 Lieut. Herold, “Bericht betreffend religiöse Anschauungen und Gebräuche der deutschen Ewe-Neger,” _Mittheilungen von Forschungsreisenden und Gelehrten aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten_, v. Heft 4 (Berlin, 1892), p. 156.

669 H. Spieth, “Jagdgebräuche in Avatime,” _Mitteilungen der geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, ix. (1890) pp. 18-20. Compare H. Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_ (Berlin, 1899), pp. 145-147. The ceremonies observed after the slaughter of a wild buffalo are of the same general character with variations in detail.

M176 Propitiation of slain buffaloes and sheep in Uganda.

670 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 54; _id._, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 289, 448.

671 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 288 _sq._ Another curious notion which the Baganda have about sheep is that they give health to cattle and prevent them from being struck by lightning. Hence a sheep is often herded with cows to serve as a sort of lightning-conductor. See J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ p. 421.

672 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 423 _sq._ Further, “if a man’s dog died in the house, his wife dared not touch it, because she feared its ghost; she would call her husband to take it away” (op. cit. p. 425).

M177 Propitiation of dead whales among the Koryak.

673 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 66 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).

674 W. Jochelson, _The Koryak_ (Leyden and New York, 1908), pp. 66-76 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi., _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).

M178 Propitiation of whales, hippopotamuses, ounces, and apes.

675 Captain W. F. W. Owen, _Narrative of Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar_ (London, 1833), i. 170.

676 Rev. R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (London, 1904), p. 204.

677 A. Thevet, _La Cosmographie Universelle_ (Paris, 1575), ii. 936 [970] _sq._

678 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, iii. (Paris and Strasburg, 1844) p. 202.

679 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883), p. 352.

M179 Propitiation of dead eagles. Deceiving the ghosts of spiders.

680 G. B. Grinnell, _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_ (London, 1893), p. 240.

681 A. Caulin, _Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia Guayana y Vertientes del Rio Orinoco_ (1779), p. 97.

682 J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 282.

683 J. Owen Dorsey, “Teton Folklore Notes,” _Journal of American Folklore_, ii. (1889) p. 134; _id._, “A Study of Siouan Cults,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), p. 479.

M180 The ceremonies of propitiation offered to slain animals vary with the more or less dangerous character of the creature. Animals which, without being feared, are valued for their flesh or their skin, are also treated with respect.

684 H. Mouhot, _Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China_ (London, 1864), i. 252; J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 422.

685 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 420.

M181 Respect shewn to dead sables. Bones of sables and beavers kept out of reach of dogs, lest the spirits of the dead animals should be offended.

686 J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_ (Göttingen, 1751-1752), ii. 278.

687 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande_, iii. 564.

688 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 89; _id._, in _The Yukon Territory_ (London, 1898), p. 89.

689 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 92 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1890_).

690 A. G. Morice, “Notes, archæological, industrial, and sociological, on the Western Dénés,” _Transactions of the Canadian Institute_, iv. (1892-93) p. 108.

691 A. G. Morice, _Au pays de l’Ours Noir, chez les sauvages de la Colombie Britannique_ (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 71.

692 L. Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1683), pp. 97 _sq._

_ 693 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 24 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858). Nets are regarded by the Indians as living creatures who not only think and feel but also eat, speak, and marry wives. See F. Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 256 (pp. 178 _sq._ of the reprint, Librairie Tross, Paris, 1865); S. Hearne, _Journey to the Northern Ocean_ (London, 1795), pp. 329 _sq._; _Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 109; _ibid._ 1639, p. 95; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 225; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 140 _sqq._ The Hebrews sacrificed and burned incense to their nets (Habakkuk i. 16). In some of the mountain villages of Annam the people, who are great hunters, sacrifice fowls, rice, incense, and gilt paper to their nets at the festival of the New Year. See Le R. P. Cadière, “Coutumes populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So’n,” _Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient_, ii. (Hanoi, 1902) p. 381. When a net has caught little or nothing, the Ewe negroes think that it must be hungry; so they call in the help of a priest, who commonly feeds the hungry net by sprinkling maize-flour and fish, moistened with palm oil, on its meshes. See G. Härtter, “Der Fischfang im Evheland,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxviii. (1906) p. 55.

694 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 175, 178 (Paris, Michel Lévy Frères, 1870). They will not let the blood of beavers fall on the ground, or their luck in hunting them would be gone (_Relations des Jésuites_, 1633, p. 21). Compare the rule about not allowing the blood of kings to fall on the ground. See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 241 _sqq._

M182 Deer, elk, and elan treated by the American Indians with ceremonious respect.

695 L. Hennepin, _Nouveau voyage d’un pais plus grand que l’Europe_ (Utrecht, 1698), pp. 141. _sq._; _Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 109; F. Gabriel Sagard, Le _Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 255 (p. 178 of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865). Not quite consistently the Canadian Indians used to kill every elan they could overtake in the chase, lest any should escape to warn their fellows (Sagard, _l.c._).

696 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 142.

_ 697 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) p. 339.

698 C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der Kekchí-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii. (1895) pp. 195 _sq._

699 J. Mooney, “Cherokee Theory and Practice of Medicine,” _American Journal of Folk-lore_, iii. (1890) pp. 45 _sq._; _id._, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), pp. 320 _sq._, 347; _id._, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 263 _sq._

700 J. G. Bourke, “Religion of the Apache Indians,” _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) p. 438.

701 L. Hennepin, _Description de la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1683), pp. 80 _sq._

702 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, pp. 346 sq. (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April 1900).

703 James Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 281 sq. (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).

_ 704 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 26 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).

M183 Porcupines, turtles, and mice treated by American Indians with ceremonious respect.

705 Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,” _Report of the British Association for 1894_, PP. 459 sq.

706 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 230.

707 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), v. 443.

M184 Dead foxes, turtles, deer, and pigs treated with ceremonious respect.

708 W. Bogaras, _The Chuckchee_ (Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), p. 409 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vii., _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_).

709 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 389 _sq._

710 J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in die Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 234.

711 A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xli. (1897) pp. 4 _sq._

M185 Ghost of ostrich outwitted.

712 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London, 1911), pp. 125 _sq._

M186 Esquimau propitiation of the spirit who controls reindeer. Ceremonious treatment of sea-beasts by the Esquimaux.

713 L. M. Turner, “Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay Territory,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), pp. 200 _sq._

714 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) pp. 119 _sqq._ As to the antagonism which these Esquimaux suppose to exist between marine and terrestrial animals, see above, p. 84; and with regard to the taboos observed by these Esquimaux after the slaughter of sea-beasts, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 205 _sqq._

715 D. Crantz, _History of Greenland_ (London, 1767), i. 216.

M187 Annual ceremony of returning the bladders of the sea-beasts to the sea in order that the animals may come to life again.

716 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899), pp. 379-393, 437. Compare A. Woldt, _Captain Jacobsen’s Reise an der Nordwestküste Americas 1881-1883_ (Leipsic, 1884), pp. 289-291. In the text the ceremony has been described mainly as it was witnessed by Mr. E. W. Nelson at Kushunuk, near Cape Vancouver, in December, 1879. As might have been expected, the ritual varies in details at different places.

M188 Fish treated with respect by fishing tribes. The Peruvian Indians worshipped the various sorts of fish which they caught. Fish treated with respect by the North American Indians. Herring respected by European fishermen. Compensation made to fish for catching them.

717 Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, translated by C. R. Markham, First Part, bk. i. ch. 10, vol. i. pp. 49 _sq._ (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871). Compare _id._, vol. ii. p. 148.

718 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, pp. 61 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1890_); _id._, _Kwakiutl Texts_, ii. pp. 303 _sq._, 305 _sq._, 307, 317 (_Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, December, 1902).

_ 719 Relations des Jésuites_, 1667, p. 12 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).

720 F. Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, pp. 255 _sqq._ (pp. 178 _sqq._ of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865).

721 B. Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 270.

722 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 529 _sq._

_ 723 A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_ (Middletown, 1820), p. 116.

724 M. J. Schleiden, _Das Salz_ (Leipsic, 1875), p. 47. For this reference I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith.

725 Hugh Miller, _Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland_, ch. xvii. pp. 256 _sq._ (Edinburgh, 1889).

726 M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. (London, 1809) p. 620.

727 W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_ (London, 1883), pp. 66 _sq._

728 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 403.

729 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 200; A. S. Thomson, _The Story of New Zealand_ (London, 1859), i. 202; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 109.

730 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 395.

M189 Ceremonious treatment of the first fish of the season.

731 A. G. Morice, _Au pays de l’Ours Noir_ (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 28.

732 Sir John Lubbock, _Origin of Civilisation_4 (London, 1882), p. 277, quoting _Metlahkatlah_, p. 96.

733 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 413.

734 Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,” _Report of the British Association for 1894_, p. 461. Compare J. Teit, _The Lillooet Indians_ (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 280 _sq._ (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_); C. Hill Tout, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 140; _id._, _The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Déné_ (London, 1907), pp. 170-172.

735 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, pp. 16 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1890_).

_ 736 Id._, in _Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 51 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1889_).

737 Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 31 _sq._

738 Alex. Ross, _Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River_ (London, 1849), p. 97.

739 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, 1851), iv. 324, v. 119, where it is said, “a dog must never be permitted to eat the heart of a salmon; and in order to prevent this, they cut the heart of the fish out before they sell it.”

740 H. C. St. John, “The Ainos,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 253; _id._, _Notes and Sketches from the Wild Coasts of Nipon_, pp. 27 _sq._ Similarly it is a rule with the Aino to bring the flesh of bears and other game into the house, not by the door, but by the window or the smoke-hole. See Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 123; P. Labbé, _Un Bagne Russe_ (Paris, 1903), pp. 255 _sq._

_ 741 Archiv für Anthropologie_, xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (as to the Gilyak of the Amoor); J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 242 _sq._; C. Leemius, _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita, et religione pristina commentatio_ (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 503; _Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. (1883) pp. 308 _sq._; _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vii. (1878) p. 207; Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” in _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) p. 148; A. G. Morice, in _Transactions of the Canadian Institute_, iv. (1892-93) p. 108.

M190 Some savages preserve the bones of the animals they kill in order that the animals may come to life again.

742 E. James, _Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_ (London, 1823), i. 257.

743 D. G. Brinton, _Myths of the New World_2 (New York, 1876), p. 278.

744 W. H. Keating, _Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River_ (London, 1825), i. 452.

745 Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) p. 161.

746 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, iii. (Paris and Strasburg, 1844) p. 201. However, in this case a belief in the resurrection of the animals is not expressly affirmed, and the practice of burning the bones seems inconsistent with it.

747 E. J. Jessen, _De Finnorum Lapponumque Norwegicorum religione pagana tractatus singularis_, pp. 46 _sq._, 52 _sq._, 65 (bound with C. Leem’s _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita et religione pristina commentatio_, Copenhagen, 1767). Compare Leem’s work, pp. 418-420, 428 _sq._; J. Acerbi, _Travels through Sweden, Finnland, and Lapland_ (London, 1802), ii. 302.

748 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), p. 269; S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo, 1766), p. 246.

749 See A. Erman, referred to above, p. 223; J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_ (Göttingen, 1751-1752), i. 274, ii. 182 _sq._, 214; H. Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_ (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 118 _sq._ When a fox, the sacred animal of the Conchucos in Peru, had been killed, its skin was stuffed and set up (A. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_, i. 443). Compare the _bouphonia_, above, pp. 4 _sqq._

750 At the annual sacrifice of the White Dog, the Iroquois were careful to strangle the animal without shedding its blood or breaking its bones; the dog was afterwards burned (L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_, Rochester, 1851, p. 210). It is a rule with some of the Australian blacks that in killing the native bear they may not break his bones. They say that the native bear once stole all the water of the river, and that if they were to break his bones or take off his skin before roasting him, he would do so again (R. Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 447 _sqq._). Some of the Queensland aborigines believe that if the bones or skulls of dugong were not put away in a heap or otherwise preserved, no more dugong would be caught (W. E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography_, Bulletin No. 5, Brisbane, 1903, p. 27). When the Tartars whom Carpini visited killed animals for eating, they might not break their bones but burned them with fire (Carpini, _Historia Mongalorum_ (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. § i. 2, p. 620). North American Indians might not break the bones of the animals which they ate at feasts (Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. 72). In the war feast held by Indian warriors after leaving home, a whole animal was cooked and had to be all eaten. No bone of it might be broken. After being stripped of the flesh the bones were hung on a tree (_Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner_, London, 1830, p. 287). On St. Olaf’s Day (29th July) the Karels of Finland kill a lamb, without using a knife, and roast it whole. None of its bones may be broken. The lamb has not been shorn since spring. Some of the flesh is placed in a corner of the room for the house-spirits, some is deposited on the field and beside the birch-trees which are destined to be used as May-trees next year (W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 160 _sq._, note). Some of the Esquimaux in skinning a deer are careful not to break a single bone, and they will not break the bones of deer while walrus are being hunted (Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), pp. 595 _sq._). The Innuit (Esquimaux) of Point Barrow, Alaska, carefully preserve unbroken the bones of the seals which they have caught and return them to the sea, either leaving them in an ice-crack far out from the land or dropping them through a hole in the ice. By doing so they think they secure good fortune in the pursuit of seals (_Report of the International Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska_ (Washington, 1885), p. 40). In this last custom the idea probably is that the bones will be reclothed with flesh and the seals come to life again. The Mosquito Indians of Central America carefully preserved the bones of deer and the shells of eggs, lest the deer or chickens should die or disappear (H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 741). In Syria at the present time people offer a sacrifice for a boy when he is seven days old, and they will not break a bone of the victim, “because they fear that if a bone of the sacrifice should be broken, the child’s bones would be broken, too” (S. I. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_, Chicago, etc., 1902, p. 178). This last may be a later misinterpretation of the old custom. For West African cases of refusal to break the bones of sacrificial victims, see J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 458, 466, 480, 527, 712, 796, 824. Amongst the Narrinyeri of South Australia, when an animal was being cut up, the bystanders used to leap and yell as often as a bone was broken, thinking that if they did not do so their own bones would rot within them (A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 763).

_ 751 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 25 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858); A. Mackenzie, _Voyages through the Continent of America_ (London, 1801), p. civ.; J. Dunn, _History of the Oregon Territory_ (London, 1844), p. 99; F. Whymper, in _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, xxxviii. (1868) p. 228; _id._, in _Transactions of the Ethnological Society_, N.S., vii. (1869) p. 174; A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 111; Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 596; _id._, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) p. 123; E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) pp. 438 _sq._ For more examples see above, pp. 225, 238 _sqq._, 242 _sq._, 246. After a meal the Indians of Costa Rica gather all the bones carefully and either burn them or put them out of reach of the dogs. See W. M. Gabb, _On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica_ (read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th Aug. 1875), p. 520 (Philadelphia, 1875). The custom of burning the bones to prevent the dogs getting them does not necessarily contradict the view suggested in the text. It may be a way of transmitting the bones to the spirit-land. The aborigines of Australia burn the bones of the animals which they eat, but for a different reason; they think that if an enemy got hold of the bones and burned them with charms, it would cause the death of the person who had eaten the animal (_Native Tribes of South Australia_, Adelaide, 1879, pp. 24, 196).

M191 Some savages preserve or destroy the bones of men in order to assist or prevent their resurrection.

752 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 279 _sqq._

753 A. de Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 126.

754 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 475.

M192 Unquestioning faith of savages in the immortality of animals. The savage faith in human immortality is commonly supposed to be deduced from a primitive theory of dreams. M193 But can a theory of dreams account for the savage belief in the immortality of animals? M194 Apparently the savage conceives life as an indestructible form of energy. Analogy of the conception to the modern scientific conception of the conservation of energy.

755 For this suggestion I am indebted to a hint thrown out in conversation by my friend Professor G. F. Stout.

756 See _The Dying God_, p. 1.

757 The principle of the conservation of energy is clearly stated and illustrated by Balfour Stewart in his book _The Conservation of Energy_, Fourth Edition (London, 1877). The writer does not countenance the view that life is a form of energy distinct from and independent of physical and chemical forces; he regards a living being simply as a very delicately constructed machine in which the natural forces are in a state of unstable equilibrium. To avoid misapprehension it may be well to add that I do not pretend to argue either for or against the theory of life which appears to be implicitly adopted by the savage; my aim is simply to explain, not to justify or condemn, the mental attitude of primitive man towards these profound problems.

M195 The resurrection of the body in tales and legends.

758 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), pp. 57-74; _id._, _Baumkultus_, p. 116; C. L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), i. 219 _sqq._; J. Curtin, _Myths and Folk-lore of Ireland_ (London, N.D.), pp. 45 _sq._; E. Cosquin, _Contes populaires de Lorraine_ (Paris, N.D.), ii. 25; E. S. Hartland, “The Physicians of Myddfai,” _Archaeological Review_, i. (1888) pp. 30 _sq._ In folk-tales, as in primitive custom, the blood is sometimes not allowed to fall on the ground. See E. Cosquin, _l.c._

759 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_, p. 66.

760 Jamblichus, _Vita Pythag._ 92, 135, 140; Porphyry, _Vita Pythag._ 28.

761 Pindar, _Olymp._ i. 37 _sqq._, with the Scholiast.

762 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 34.

763 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18. This is one of the sacred stories which the pious Herodotus (ii. 48) concealed and the pious Plutarch divulged.

M196 The sinew of the thigh regularly cut out and thrown away by some American Indians.

764 Adam Hodgson, _Letters from North America_ (London, 1824), i. 244.

765 J. Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 137 _sq._ This writer, animated by a curious though not uncommon passion for discovering the ten lost tribes of Israel, imagined that he detected the missing Hebrews disguised under the red skins and beardless faces of the American Indians.

M197 Story told by the Indians to explain the custom.

766 É. Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjie_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 77, 81 _sq._; _id._, _Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-ouest_ (Paris, 1886), pp. 132 _sqq._, compare pp. 41, 76, 213, 264. The story is told in a briefer form, though without any reference to the custom, by another French missionary. See the letter of Mgr. Tache, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxiv. (1852) pp. 336 _sq._

M198 The custom of cutting out the sinew of the thigh in animals seems to be based on the principle of sympathetic magic.

767 The first part of this suggestion is due to my friend W. Robertson Smith. See his _Lectures on the Religion of the Semites_2 (London, 1894), p. 380, note 1. The Faleshas, a Jewish sect of Abyssinia, after killing an animal for food, “carefully remove the vein from the thighs with its surrounding flesh.” See Halévy, “Travels in Abyssinia,” in _Publications of the Society of Hebrew Literature_, Second Series, vol. ii. p. 220. Caffre men will not eat the sinew of the thigh; “it is carefully cut out and sent to the principal boy at the kraal, who with his companions consider it as their right.” See Col. Maclean, _Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), p. 151. Gallas who pride themselves on their descent will not eat the flesh of the biceps; the reasons assigned for the custom are inconsistent and unsatisfactory. See Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1893), p. 154. When the Bushmen kill a hare, they cut out a sinew of the thigh and will not eat it, alleging as their reason that the hare was once a man, and that this particular sinew is still human flesh. See W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd. _Specimens of Bushman Folklore_ (London, 1911), pp. xxxix., 60 _sq._, 63.

768 J. Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), p. 323. Compare _id._, “Myths of the Cherokee,” _Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 267, 447. In the last of these passages the writer quotes Buttrick, _Antiquities_, p. 12, as follows: “The Indians never used to eat a certain sinew in the thigh.... Some say that if they eat of the sinew they will have cramp in it on attempting to run. It is said that once a woman had cramp in that sinew, and therefore none must eat it.”

769 See above, pp. 138 _sqq._

M199 Some hunters hamstring the dead game in order to lame the ghosts of the animals. Some savages put out the eyes of dead game in order perhaps to blind the ghosts of the animals.

770 É. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_ (Saigon, 1885), p. 23.

771 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 423.

772 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 504.

773 L. von Schrenck, _Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-Lande_, iii. 546.

774 P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 70.

775 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 171.

776 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians cf British Columbia_, p. 317 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_, April, 1900).

777 So among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait a girl at puberty is considered unclean. “A peculiar atmosphere is supposed to surround her at this time, and if a young man should come near enough for it to touch him it would render him visible to every animal he might hunt, so that his success as a hunter would be gone.” See E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 291.

778 P. Dobell, _Travels in Kamtchatka and Siberia_ (London, 1830), i. 19.

M200 The custom of cutting out the tongues of dead animals may sometimes be intended to prevent their ghosts from telling tales. Tongues of animals cut out in order to confer superhuman knowledge or power on their possessors.

779 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp. 289 _sq._

780 J. G. Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_ (Bremen, 1859), ii. 251 sq.; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, v. 173; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 179 _sq._, 184.

781 For examples of the incident, see J. F. Bladé, _Contes populaires recueillis en Agenais_ (Paris, 1874), pp. 12, 14; G. W. Dasent, _Popular Tales from the Norse_ (Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 133 sq. (“Shortshanks”); Aug. Schleicher, _Litauische Märchen_ (Weimar, 1857), p. 58; Sepp, _Altbayerischer Sagenschatz_ (Munich, 1876), p. 114; R. Köhler, on L. Gonzenbach’s _Sicilianische Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1870), ii. 230; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 13. 3; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonaut._ i. 517; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 53; J. C. Poestion, _Lappländische Märchen_ (Vienna, 1876), pp. 231 sq.; A. F. Chamberlain, in _Eighth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 35 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1892_); I. V. Zingerle, _Kinder und Hausmärchen aus Tirol_2 (Gera, 1870), No. 25, p. 127; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 342; S. Grundtvig, _Dänische Volksmärchen_, übersetzt von W. Leo (Leipsic, 1878), p. 289; A. Leskien und K. Brugmann, _Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen_ (Strasburg, 1882), pp. 405 _sq._, 409 _sq._; A. und A. Schott, _Walachische Maerchen_ (Stuttgart and Tübingen), No. 10, p. 142; Chr. Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), No. 39, pp. 116 _sq._; G. Basile, _Pentamerone_, übertragen von F. Liebrecht (Breslau, 1846), i. 99; P. Sébillot, _Contes Populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1885), No. 11, p. 80; E. Cosquin, _Contes Populaires de Lorraine_ (Paris, N.D.), i. p. 61; J. Haltrich, _Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen_4 (Vienna and Hermannstadt, 1885), No. 24, pp. 104 _sqq._; Grimm, _Household Tales_, No. 60. The incident often occurs in the type of tale analysed by Mr. E. S. Hartland in his _Legend of Perseus_ (vol. i. pp. 12, 17, 18, etc.; vol. iii. pp. 6, 7, 8, etc.).

782 Fr. Boas, in _Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 58 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for 1889_); _id._, in _Journal of American Folk-lore_, i. (1888) p. 218.

783 See W. H. Dall, “Masks and Labrets,” _Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp. 111 _sq._ Compare _id._, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 425; Ivan Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska_, p. 176.

784 Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die Geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 47.

785 Ph. Paulitschke, _op. cit._ p. 156; _id._, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur_, etc. (Berlin, 1893), p. 226.

786 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 54, § 354.

787 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 94, § 381; E. Monseur, in _Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, xxxi. (1895) pp. 297 _sq._

788 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 81, § 576.

789 Homer, _Od._ iii. 332, 341.

790 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 1110; Athenaeus, i. 28, p. 16 B; _Paroemiographi Graeci_, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. 415, No. 100.

791 See further H. Gaidoz, “Les Langues coupées,” _Mélusine_, iii. (1886-87) coll. 303-307; E. Monseur, _loc. cit._

M201 Bechuana custom of mutilating a sacrificial ox in order to inflict corresponding mutilations on the enemy. Mutilation of the corpses of enemies or other dangerous persons for the purpose of maiming their ghosts. Disabling the ghost by mutilating his dead body.

792 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Relation d’un Voyage d’Exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_ (Paris, 1842), pp. 562-564.

793 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 60. This custom appears not to be mentioned by the writer in his book _The Baganda_ (London, 1911).

794 A. Oldfield, “On the Aborigines of Australia,” _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. iii. (1865) p. 287.

795 E. M. Curr, _The Australian Race_ (Melbourne and London, 1886), i. 348, 381.

796 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, vol. i. Second Edition (London, 1822), p. 231.

797 E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” _Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 423.

798 Rev. S. Mateer, _The Land of Charity_ (London, 1871), pp. 203 _sq._

799 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “A Study of Siouan Cults,” _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), p. 420.

800 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 126.

M202 Propitiation of the vermin which infest crops and cattle in Europe.

801 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 105 note.

802 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), pp. 15 _sq._

803 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), pp. 79, 103; _id._, “Viehzucht und Viehzauber in den Ostkarpaten,” _Globus_, lxix. (1906) p. 387.

804 E. Krause, “Abergläubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p. 93.

M203 Similar attempts made to propitiate vermin by savages.

805 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 160.

806 Vetter, “Aberglaube unter dem Jabim-Stamme in Kaiser-Wilhelmsland,” _Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xii. (1893) pp. 95 _sq._

807 E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), p. 626.

808 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 303.

809 M. Merker, “Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga,” _Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft_ No. 113 (Gotha, 1902), pp. 35 _sq._

810 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 320.

M204 Sometimes in dealing with vermin the farmer aims at a judicious mean between undue severity and weak indulgence.

_ 811 Geoponica_, xiii. 5. According to the commentator, the field assigned to the mice is a neighbour’s, but it may be a patch of waste ground on the farmer’s own land. The charm is said to have been employed formerly in the neighbourhood of Paris (A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, Paris and Lyons, 1846, p. 383).

812 A. Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), p. 176.

_ 813 American Journal of Folk-lore_, xi. (1898) p. 161.

814 G. Maan, “Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlvi. (1903) pp. 329 _sq._

815 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 509.

M205 Sometimes a few of the vermin are treated with high distinction, while the rest are pursued with relentless rigour. Mock lamentations of women for insects which destroy the crops.

816 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië_, N.S., viii. (1879) p. 125.

817 J. L. van Gennep, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van den Kangean-Archipel,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvi. (1896) p. 101.

818 C. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) pp. 198 _sq._

819 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 60, § 405.

820 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), Heft i. p. 157.

821 Lagarde, _Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae_, p. 135. For this passage I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith, who kindly translated it for me from the Syriac. It occurs in the Canons of Jacob of Edessa, of which a German translation has been published by C. Kayser (_Die Canones Jacob’s von Edessa übersetzt und erläutert_, Leipsic, 1886; see pp. 25 _sq._).

822 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), p. 255.

823 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood, a Study of Kafir Children_ (London, 1906), p. 292.

M206 Ceremony performed by Baronga women to drive insects from the crops.

824 H. A. Junod, _Les Ba-ronga_ (Neuchatel, 1898), pp. 419 _sq._ As to the rain-making ceremony among the Baronga, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 267 _sq._

M207 Images made of vermin as a charm to get rid of them.

825 J. Malalas, _Chronographia_, ed. L. Dindorf (Bonn, 1831), p. 264.

826 D. Comparetti, _Vergil in the Middle Ages_ (London, 1895), p. 265. I have to thank Mr. J. D. May of Merton College, Oxford, for this and the following references to Comparetti’s book.

827 D. Comparetti, _op. cit._ pp. 259, 293, 341.

828 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), p. 144.

_ 829 Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iv. (London, 1903) col. 4395.

830 Grégoire de Tours, _Histoire Ecclésiastique des Francs_, traduction de M. Guizot, Nouvelle Édition (Paris, 1874), viii. 33, vol. i. p. 514. For some stories of the same sort, see J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 306-308.

831 1 Samuel vi. 4-18. The passage in which the plague of mice is definitely described has been omitted in the existing Hebrew text, but is preserved in the Septuagint (1 Samuel v. 6, καὶ μέσον τῆς χώρας αὐτῆς ἀνεφύησαν μύες). See Dean Kirkpatrick’s note on 1 Samuel v. 6 (_Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges_).

832 Numbers xxi. 6-9.

M208 Greek gods who took titles from vermin. Mouse (Smintheus) Apollo.

833 Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39, with the Scholia and the comment of Eustathius; Strabo, xiii. 1. 48 and 63; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xii. 5; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 39, p. 34, ed. Potter; Pausanias, x. 12. 5.

834 Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Pausanias, i. 24. 8.

835 Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Eustathius, on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39, p. 34; Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 609 (vol. ii. p. 386).

836 Strabo and Eustathius, _ll.cc._

837 Professor W. Ridgeway has pointed out that the epithet Bassareus applied to Dionysus (Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 30) appears to be derived from bassara, “a fox.” See J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, 771; W. Ridgeway, in _The Classical Review_, x. (1896) pp. 21 _sqq._; S. Reinach, _Cultes, Mythes, et Religions_, ii. (Paris, 1906) pp. 106 _sqq._

838 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ x. 75; Pausanias, v. 14. 1, viii. 26. 7; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 38, p. 33, ed. Potter.

_ 839 Robigo_ or personified as _Robigus_. See Varro, _Rerum rusticarum_, i. 1. 6; _id._, _De lingua latina_, vi. 16; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 905 _sqq._; Tertullian, _De spectaculis_, 5; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, iv. 21; Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._ i. 20; L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 43 _sqq._; W. Warde Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 88 _sqq._

840 Aristotle, _Hist. Anim._ vi. 37, p. 580 b 15 _sqq._; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xvii. 41; W. Warde Fowler, in _The Classical Review_ vi. (1892) p. 413. In Laos, a province of Siam, the ravages committed by rats are terrible. From time to time whole armies of these destructive rodents appear and march across the country in dense columns and serried ranks, devouring everything as they go, and leaving famine, with all its horrors, in their train. See Lieut.-Col. Tournier, _Notice sur le Laos Français_ (Hanoi, 1900), pp. 104, 135. So in Burma, the rats multiply in some years to such an extent that they cause a famine by destroying whole crops and granaries. See Max and Bertha Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900), pp. 149 _sq._

841 Polemo, cited by a scholiast on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39 (ed. Im. Bekker). Compare Eustathius on Homer, _Iliad_, i. 39.

842 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xii. 5.

843 Aelian, _l.c._

844 See above, p. 279.

845 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’Histoire des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) p. 236.

M209 Wolfish Apollo.

846 Λύκειος or Λύκιος, Pausanias, i. 19. 3 (with my note), ii. 9. 7, ii. 19. 3, viii. 40. 5; Lucian, _Anacharsis_, 7; Im. Bekker, _Anecdota Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 277, lines 10 _sq._

847 Pausanias, ii. 9. 7; Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.

848 Sophocles, _Electra_, 6.

849 Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.

850 Pausanias, ii. 9. 7.

851 P. Einhorn, _Reformatio gentis Letticae in Ducatu Curlandiae_, reprinted in _Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, vol. ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) p. 621. The preface of Einhorn’s work is dated 17th July 1636.

M210 Many savages spare certain animals because they believe the souls of their dead to be lodged in them. Examples of this belief among the American Indians.

852 A. Biet, _Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en l’Isle de Cayenne_ (Paris, 1664), p. 361.

853 J. Chaffanjon, _L’Orénoque et le Caura_ (Paris, 1889), p. 203.

854 Levrault, “Rapport sur les provinces de Canélos et du Napo,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), Deuxième Série, xi. (1839) p. 75.

855 G. Osculati, _Esplorazione delle regioni equatorali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle Amazzoni_ (Milan, 1850), p. 114.

856 J. B. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios Caingua del alto Paraná (misiones),” _Boletin del Instituto Geografico Argentino_, xv. (Buenos Ayres, 1895) p. 740.

857 Ch. Wiener, _Pérou et Bolivie_ (Paris, 1880), p. 369.

_ 858 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) pp. 335 _sqq._

859 Fr. Coreal, _Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Amsterdam, 1722), ii. 132.

860 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 215 _sq._

861 H. R. Schoolcraft, _op. cit._ iii. 113.

M211 Belief of the transmigration of human souls into animals in Africa.

862 Rev. J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 210.

863 J. C. Reichenbach, “Étude sur le royaume d’Assinie,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, xi. (1890) pp. 322 _sq._

864 D. Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_ (London, 1857), p. 615.

865 Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London, 1906), p. 64.

866 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 200.

867 Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 101 _sq._ Compare Major J. A. Meldon, “Notes on the Bahima of Ankole,” _Journal of the African Society_, No. 22 (January, 1907), p. 151.

868 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 202. The belief that the human dead are turned into serpents is common in Africa; and the practice of offering milk to the reptiles appears to be not infrequent. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,2 pp. 71 _sq._

869 J. Halkin, _Quelques Peuplades du district de l’Uelé_ (Liége, 1907), p. 102; _Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du Musée du Congo, La Religion_ (Brussels, 1906), p. 162.

870 Father Courtois, “Scènes de la vie Cafre,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xv. (1883) p. 593. For more evidence of similar beliefs in Africa, see Father Courtois, “À travers le haut Zambèze,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) p. 299 (souls of the dead in guinea-fowl); Father Lejeune, “Dans la forêt,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxvii. (1895) p. 248 (souls of the dead in apes, owls, etc.).

M212 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in Madagascar.

871 Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xii. (1880) pp. 549-551. A somewhat different account of the Betsileo belief in the transmigration of souls is given by another authority. See G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 411. Compare A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 272 _sq._, 283, 291.

872 Rev. J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p. 270.

873 “Das Volk der Tanala,” _Globus_, lxxxix. (1906) p. 362.

M213 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in Assam, Burma, and Cochin China.

874 W. H. Furness, “The Ethnography of the Nagas of Eastern Assam,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 463.

875 T. C. Hodson, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_ (London, 1911), p. 159.

876 (Sir) J. George Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. i. p. 26.

877 Guerlach, “Chez les sauvages de la Cochinchine Orientale, Bahnar, Reungao, Sédang,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxvi. (1894) pp. 143 _sq._

878 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’histoire des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) p. 267. Compare D. Grangeon, “Les Cham et leurs superstitions,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 46. According to the latter writer, white horses are specially set apart to serve as domiciles for these domestic deities. After its dedication such a horse is carefully tended and never mounted again.

M214 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in the Philippines, the Sandwich Islands, and the Pelew Islands.

879 F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” _Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 164; _id._, _Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha, 1882), p. 29 (_Petermanns Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 67).

880 L. de Freycinet, _Voyage autour du Monde_, ii. (Paris, 1829) pp. 595 _sq._

881 K. Semper, _Die Palau-Inseln im Stillen Ocean_ (Leipsic, 1873), pp. 87 _sq._, 193. These sacred animals were called _kalids_. A somewhat different account of the _kalids_ of the Pelew Islanders is given by J. Kubary (“Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_, Leipsic, 1888, i. 5 _sqq._).

M215 Transmigration of human souls into tigers in Sumatra.

882 W. D. Helderman, “De tijger en het bijgeloof der Bataks,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiv. (1891) pp. 170-175. The account which this writer gives of the reception of a dead tiger by the Battas agrees with, and is probably the source of, Mr. Batten’s account cited above (pp. 216 _sq._).

M216 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in Borneo.

883 C. Hose, “The Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiii. (1894) p. 165. Compare A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 148; _id._, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 105. According to the latter writer the Kayans or Bahaus in general abstain from the flesh both of deer and of grey apes, because they think that the souls of the dead may be in them.

884 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 193.

885 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_ (London, 1911), p. 143.

M217 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in New Guinea.

886 F. S. A. de Clercq, “De West en Noordkust van Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea,” _Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 635.

887 Max Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, N.D.), p. 404.

888 K. Vetter, _Komm herüber und hilf uns!_ iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 22. Compare _id._, in _Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land_, 1897, pp. 87 _sq._; B. Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 225.

889 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 310.

890 R. Parkinson, “Die Berlinhafen Section, ein Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Neu-Guinea Küste,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, xiii. (1900) p. 40.

891 Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 150 _sq._

M218 Belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals in the Solomon Islands.

892 Mr. Sleigh of Lifu, quoted by Prof. E. B. Tylor, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1898) p. 147.

893 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 179 _sq._

894 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ p. 177.

895 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ p. 33. East Indian evidence of the belief in transmigration into animals is collected by G. A. Wilken (“Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, pp. 988 _sqq._), who argues that this belief supplies the link between ancestor-worship and totemism. Compare the same writer’s article “Iets over de Papoewas van de Geelvinksbaai,” pp. 24 _sqq._ (separate reprint from _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië_, 5e Volgreeks ii.). Wilken’s view on this subject is favoured by Professor E. B. Tylor (_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1898) pp. 146 _sq._). See further, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. 45 _sqq._

M219 The doctrine of the transmigration of human souls into animals in ancient India. The doctrine of transmigration in Buddhism.

_ 896 The Laws of Manu_, ii. 201.

_ 897 Id._, v. 164.

_ 898 Id._, xi. 25.

_ 899 Id._, xii. 39-78.

900 Sir Monier Monier-Williams, _Buddhism_, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 111 _sq._ Full, if not always authentic, particulars of the Buddha’s manifold transmigrations are contained in the _Jatakas_, a large collection of stories which has been completely translated into English by the late Professor E. B. Cowell, Dr. W. H. D. Rouse, and other scholars (6 volumes, Cambridge, 1895-1907).

M220 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls taught in ancient Greece by Pythagoras and Empedocles.

901 Diodorus Siculus, x. 6. 1-3; Jamblichus, _De Pythagorica vita_, xiv. 63; Porphyry, _Vita Pythag._ 26 _sq._; Ovid, _Metamorph._ xv. 160 _sqq._ According to Heraclides Ponticus, the philosopher remembered his personal identity in four different human lives before he was born into the world as Pythagoras (Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 1. 4 _sq._). See further E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Leipsic and Tübingen, 1903), ii. 417 _sqq._

902 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 1. 4 and 36.

903 Jamblichus, _De Pythagorica vita_, xxiv. 107-109; Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11.

904 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 2. 77; H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 208, frag. 117.

905 Sextus Empiricus, ix. 129; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 213 _sq._, frag. 137.

906 Compare Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130.

907 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iii. 1. 2. 7; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11. 9; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. p. 214, fragments 140, 141.

M221 The doctrine of transmigration used by Pythagoras and Empedocles mainly to inculcate certain ethical precepts. The pessimism of Empedocles unlike the ordinary Greek view of life; its similarity to Buddhism.

908 As to Pythagoras in this respect, see E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 161 _sqq._

909 Plutarch, _De exilio_, 17; _id._, _De esu carnium_, i. 7. 4; Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ iv. 4. 12, p. 569 ed. Potter; Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium Haeresium_, vii. 29, p. 388 ed. L. Duncker and F. G. Schneidewin; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 207 _sq._, fragments 115, 119.

910 Porphyry, _De antro nympharum_, 8.

911 H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 208 _sq._, frag. 121.

912 Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ iii. 3. 14, iv. 23. 152, v. 14. 123, pp. 516 _sq._, 632, 722 ed. Potter; H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 207, 209, 215 _sq._, fragments 115, 124, 144-147.

913 Empedocles is cited by Aristotle as an example of the melancholy which he believed to be characteristic of men of genius. See Aristotle, _Problem_. 30, p. 953 a 27 ed. Im. Bekker.

914 Stobaeus, _Eclogae_, i. 41. 60 (vol. i. p. 331 ed. A. Meineke); Plutarch, _De esu carnium_ ii. 4. 4; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. p. 210, frag. 126.

915 It seems to be fairly certain that Buddha died and Empedocles was born somewhere about the year 480 B.C. Hence it is difficult to suppose that the ideas of the former should have percolated from India to Greece, or rather to Sicily, in the lifetime of the latter. As to their respective dates see H. Oldenberg, _Buddha_5 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1906), pp. 115, 227; E. Zeller, _Die Philosophie der Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) p. 678 note 1.

M222 Analogy of the physical speculations of Empedocles to those of Herbert Spencer.

916 Plutarch, _Adversus Coloten_, 10; Aristotle, _De Xenophane_, 2, p. 975 a 39-b 4 ed. Im. Bekker; H. Diels, _op. cit._ i. pp. 175, 176, fragments 8 and 12.

917 The evidence, consisting of the testimonies of ancient authorities and the fragments of Empedocles’s own writings, is fully collected by H. Diels in his excellent work _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_, Zweite Auflage, i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 158 _sqq._, 173 _sqq._ Compare _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 1 _sqq._; H. Ritter et L. Preller, _Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta_, Editio Quinta (Gothae, 1875), pp. 91 _sqq._; E. Zeller, _Die Philosophie der Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 678 _sqq._

M223 Herbert Spencer’s theory of alternate periods of concentration and dissipation of matter.

918 Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, Third Edition (London, 1875), pp. 536 _sq._

M224 Evolution or dissolution.

919 On the discovery of the atomic disintegration of certain chemical elements, and the general question (Evolution or Dissolution?) raised by that discovery, see W. C. D. Whetham, “The Evolution of Matter,” in _Darwin and Modern Science_ (Cambridge, 1909), pp. 565-582, particularly his concluding paragraph: “In the strict sense of the word, the process of atomic disintegration revealed to us by the new science of radio-activity can hardly be called evolution. In each case radio-active change involves the breaking up of a heavier, more complex atom into lighter and simpler fragments. Are we to regard this process as characteristic of the tendencies in accord with which the universe has reached its present state, and is passing to its unknown future? Or have we chanced upon an eddy in a backwater, opposed to the main stream of advance? In the chaos from which the present universe developed, was matter composed of large highly complex atoms, which have formed the simpler elements by radio-active or rayless disintegration? Or did the primaeval substance consist of isolated electrons, which have slowly come together to form the elements, and yet have left here and there an anomaly such as that illustrated by the unstable family of uranium and radium, or by some such course are returning to their state of primaeval simplicity?”

M225 Empedocles as a forerunner of Darwin.

920 H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 190 _sqq._; _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 8 _sqq._; H. Ritter und L. Preller, _Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta_5 (Gothae, 1875), pp. 102 _sq._; E. Zeller, _Die Philosophie der Griechen_, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 718 _sqq._

921 Aristotle, _Physic. Auscult._ ii. 8, p. 198 b 29 _sqq._, ed. Im. Bekker; ὅπου μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα συνέβη ὥσπερ κὰν εἰ ἔνεκά του ἐγίνετο, ταῦτα μὲν ἐσωθη ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου συστάντα ἐπιτηδείως; ὅσα δὲ μὴ οὕτως, ἀπώλετο καὶ ἀπόλλυται, καθάπερ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς λέγει τὰ βουγενῆ ἀνδρόπρῳρα. This passage is quoted by Darwin in the “Historical Sketch” prefixed to _The Origin of Species_ with the remark, “We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his remarks on the formation of the teeth.” Darwin omits Aristotle’s reference to Empedocles, apparently deeming it irrelevant or unimportant. Had he been fully acquainted with the philosophical speculations of Empedocles, we can scarcely doubt that Darwin would have included him among the pioneers of evolution.

M226 Empedocles as a pretender to divinity.

922 Diogenes Laertius, _Vit. Philosoph._ viii. 2. 62; H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 205, frag. 112. Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 390.

M227 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls in Plato.

923 Plato, _Phaedo_, pp. 81 B-84 C; _Republic_, x. pp. 617 D-620 D; _Timaeus_, pp. 41 D-42 D; _Phaedrus_, p. 249 B.

924 This is the view of E. Zeller (_Die Philosophie der Griechen_, ii.3 Leipsic, 1875, pp. 706 _sqq._), Sir W. E. Geddes (on Plato, _Phaedo_, p. 81 E), and J. Adam (on Plato, _Republic_, x. p. 618 A). We have no right, with some interpreters ancient and modern, to dissolve the theory into an allegory because it does not square with our ideas.

925 In our own time the theory of transmigration is favoured by Dr. McTaggart, who argues that human beings may have lived before birth and may live many, perhaps an infinite number of, lives after death. Like Plato he further suggests that the nature of the body into which a person transmigrates at death may be appropriate to and determined by his or her character in the preceding life. See J. McT. Ellis McTaggart, _Some Dogmas of Religion_ (London, 1906), pp. 112-139. However, Dr. McTaggart seems only to contemplate the transmigration of human souls into human bodies; he does not discuss the possibility of their transmigration into animals.

M228 The ambiguous behaviour of the Aino and the Gilyaks towards bears explained. M229 Two forms of the worship of animals.

926 This is known, for example, of the Yuchi Indians, for among them “members of each clan will not do violence to wild animals having the form and name of their totem. For instance, the Bear clan people never molest bears.” See F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909), p. 70. But in spite of the attention which has been paid to American totemism, we possess very little information as to the vital point of the system, the relation between a man and his totemic animal. Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 88 _sq._, 311.

927 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 85 _sqq._ However, Collins reports that among the natives of New South Wales the women were “compelled to sit in their canoe, exposed to the fervour of the mid-day sun, hour after hour, chaunting their little song, and inviting the fish beneath them to take their bait” (D. Collins, _An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales_, London, 1804, p. 387). This may have been a form of conciliation like that employed by the American Indians towards the fish and game. But the account is not precise enough to allow us to speak with confidence. It is sometimes reported that the Australians attempt to appease the kangaroos which they have killed, assuring the animals of their affection and begging them not to come back after death to torment them. But the writer who mentions the report disbelieves it. See Dom Théophile Bérengier, in _Les Missions Catholiques_, x. (1878) p. 197.

928 G. Catlin, _O-Kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans_ (London, 1867), Folium reservatum; Lewis and Clarke, _Travels to the Source of the Missouri River_ (London, 1815), i. 205 _sq._

M230 Two types of animal sacrament, the Egyptian and the Aino type. M231 Examples of animal sacraments among pastoral tribes. Aino or expiatory type of animal sacrament among the Abchases and Kalmucks.

929 A. Bastian, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_, 1870-71, p. 59. J. Reinegg (_Beschreibung des Kaukasus_, Gotha, St. Petersburg, and Hildesheim, 1796-97, ii. 12 sq.) describes what seems to be a sacrament of the Abghazses (Abchases). It takes place in the middle of autumn. A white ox called Ogginn appears from a holy cave, which is also called Ogginn. It is caught and led about amongst the assembled men (women are excluded) amid joyful cries. Then it is killed and eaten. Any man who did not get at least a scrap of the sacred flesh would deem himself most unfortunate. The bones are then carefully collected, burned in a great hole, and the ashes buried there.

930 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, vi. (Jena, 1871) pp. 632, note. On the Kalmucks as a people of shepherds and on their diet of mutton, see J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1776), pp. 406 _sq._, compare p. 207; B. Bergmann, _Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmücken_ (Riga, 1804-5), ii. 80 _sqq._, 122; P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), i. 319, 325. According to Pallas, it is only rich Kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep or cattle for eating; ordinary Kalmucks do not usually kill them except in case of necessity or at great merry-makings. It is, therefore, especially the rich who need to make expiation.

M232 Egyptian type of animal sacrament among the Todas and Madi.

931 W. E. Marshall, _Travels amongst the Todas_ (London, 1873), pp. 129 _sq._

932 W. E. Marshall, _op. cit._ pp. 80 _sq._, 130.

933 R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Madi or Moru Tribe of Central Africa,” _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xii. (1882-84) pp. 336 _sq._

934 Mutton appears to be now eaten by the tribe as a regular article of food (R. W. Felkin, _op. cit._ p. 307), but this is not inconsistent with the original sanctity of the sheep.

935 See W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_2 (London, 1894), pp. 344 _sqq._ As to communion by means of an external application, see above, pp. 162 _sqq._

M233 Form of communion with a sacred animal by taking it from house to house. Effigy of a snake carried from house to house by members of the Snake tribe.

936 See above, pp. 190, 192.

_ 937 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 91, § 555 (March 1885).

M234 “Hunting the Wren” in Europe. Sacred character of the wren in popular superstition.

938 See Ch. Vallancey, _Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis_, iv. (Dublin, 1786) p. 97; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 195 _sq._ (Bohn’s ed.); Rev. C. Swainson, _Folk-lore of British Birds_ (London, 1886), p. 36; E. Rolland, _Faune populaire de la France_, ii. 288 _sqq._ The names for the bird are βασιλίσκος, _regulus_, _rex avium_ (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 90, x. 203), _re di siepe_, _reyezuelo_, _roitelet_, _roi des oiseaux_, _Zaunkönig_, etc. On the custom of hunting the wren see further N. W. Thomas, “The Scape-Goat in European Folklore,” _Folk-lore_, xvii. (1906) pp. 270 _sqq._, 280; Miss L. Eckstein, _Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes_ (London, 1906), pp. 172 _sqq._ Miss Eckstein suggests that the killing of the bird called “the king” may have been a mitigation of an older custom of killing the real king.

939 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 194.

940 R. Chambers, _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, New Edition (London and Edinburgh, N.D.), p. 188.

_ 941 Ibid._ p. 186.

942 P. Sébillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882), ii. 214.

943 A. Bosquet, _La Normandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse_ (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 221; E. Rolland, _op. cit._ ii. 294 _sq._; P. Sébillot, _l.c._; Rev. C. Swainson, _op. cit._ p. 42.

M235 Hunting the Wren in the Isle of Man.

944 G. Waldron, _Description of the Isle of Man_ (reprinted for the Manx Society, Douglas, 1865), pp. 49 _sqq._; J. Train, _Account of the Isle of Man_ (Douglas, 1845), ii. 124 _sqq._, 141.

945 In _The Morning Post_ of Wednesday, 27th December 1911, we read that “the observance of the ancient and curious custom known as ‘the hunt of the wren’ was general throughout the Isle of Man yesterday. Parties of boys bearing poles decked with ivy and streamers went from house to house singing to an indescribable tune a quaint ballad detailing the pursuit and death of the wren, subsequently demanding recompense, which is rarely refused. Formerly boys actually engaged in the chase, stoning the bird to death with the object of distributing the feathers ‘for luck.’ ” From this account we may gather that in the Isle of Man the hunting of the wren is now merely nominal and that the pretence of it is kept up only as an excuse for collecting gratuities. It is thus that the solemnity of ritual dwindles into the pastime of children. I have to thank Mrs. J. H. Deane, of 41 Iverna Court, Kensington, for kindly sending me the extract from _The Morning Post_.

M236 Hunting the Wren in Ireland and England.

946 Ch. Vallancey, _Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis_, iv. (Dublin, 1786) p. 97; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 195.

947 G. H. Kinahan, “Notes on Irish Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore Record_, iv. (1881) p. 108; Rev. C. Swainson, _Folk-lore of British Birds_, pp. 36 _sq._; E. Rolland, _Faune populaire de la France_, ii. 297; Professor W. Ridgeway, in _Academy_, 10th May 1884, p. 332; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 497; L. L. Duncan, “Further Notes from County Leitrim,” _Folk-lore_, v. (1894) p. 197. The custom is still, or was down to a few years ago, practised in County Meath, where the verses sung are practically the same as those in the text. Wrens are scarce in that part of the country, “but as the boys go round more for the fun of dressing up and collecting money, the fact that there is no wren in their basket is quite immaterial.” These particulars I learn from a letter of Miss A. H. Singleton, dated Appey-Leix, Ireland, 24th February 1904.

948 W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_ (London, 1879), p. 125.

949 Rev. C. Swainson, _op. cit._ pp. 40 _sq._

M237 Hunting the Wren in France.

950 Madame Clément, _Histoire des Fêtes civiles et religieuses_, etc., _de la Belgique Méridionale_ (Avesnes, 1846), pp. 466-468; A. De Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 77 _sqq._; E. Rolland, _Faune populaire de la France_, ii. 295 _sq._; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. (Göttingen, 1857) pp. 437 _sq._ The ceremony was abolished at the revolution of 1789, revived after the restoration, and suppressed again after 1830.

951 E. Rolland, _op. cit._ ii. 296 _sq._

952 C. S. Sonnini, _Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt_, translated from the French (London, 1800), pp. 11 _sq._; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 198. The “hunting of the wren” may be compared with a Swedish custom. On the 1st of May children rob the magpies’ nests of both eggs and young. These they carry in a basket from house to house in the village and shew to the housewives, while one of the children sings some doggerel lines containing a threat that, if a present is not given, the hens, chickens, and eggs will fall a prey to the magpie. They receive bacon, eggs, milk, etc., upon which they afterwards feast. See L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 237 _sq._ The resemblance of such customs to the “swallow song” and “crow song” of the ancient Greeks (on which see Athenaeus, viii. 59 _sq._, pp. 359, 360) is obvious and has been remarked before now. Probably the Greek swallow-singers and crow-singers carried about dead swallows and crows or effigies of them. The “crow song” is referred to in a Greek inscription found in the south of Russia ἕξ δεκάδας λυκάβας κεκορώνικα. See _Compte Rendu_ of the Imperial Archaeological Commission, St. Petersburg, 1877, pp. 276 _sqq._ In modern Greece and Macedonia it is still customary for children on 1st March to go about the streets singing spring songs and carrying a wooden swallow, which is kept turning on a cylinder. See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 636; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 301; G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folk-lore_ (Cambridge, 1903), p. 18; J. C. Lawson, _Modern Greek Folklore and ancient Greek Religion_ (Cambridge, 1910), p. 35. The custom of making the image of the swallow revolve on a pivot, which is practised in Macedonia as well as Greece, may be compared with the pirouetting of the girl in the Servian rain-making ceremony. The meaning of these revolutions is obscure. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 273, 275.

M238 Religious processions with sacred animals. Ceremony of beating a man clad in a cow’s skin in the Highlands of Scotland.

953 S. Johnson, _A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland_, pp. 128 _sq._ (_The Works of Samuel Johnson, LL.D._, edited by the Rev. R. Lynam, London, 1825, vol. vi.).

954 John Ramsay, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_ (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 438 _sq._ The custom is clearly referred to in the “Penitential of Theodore,” quoted by Kemble, _Saxons in England_, i. 525; Ch. Elton, _Origins of English History_ (London, 1882), p. 411: “_Si quis in Kal. Januar. in cervulo vel vitula vadit, id est in ferarum habitus se communicant, et vestiuntur pellibus pecudum et assumunt capita bestiarum_,” etc.

M239 Another description of the Highland custom.

955 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 230-232. Shinty is the Scotch name for hockey: the game is played with a ball and curved sticks or clubs.

956 R. Chambers, _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, New Edition (London and Edinburgh, N.D.), pp. 166 _sq._

957 See above, vol. i. pp. 246 _sq._

M240 Processions of men disguised as animals, in which the animal seems to represent the corn-spirit. The Shrovetide Bear in Bohemia.

958 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), p. 183.

959 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest- Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, N.D., preface dated 1861), pp. 49-52. Compare E. Cortet, _Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), p. 83. Similar processions with a Shrovetide Bear take place among some of the German peasantry of Moravia, though there the mummer is said to be wrapt in skins and furs rather than in straw and to personate Winter. See W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 431. This latter interpretation may be due to a misunderstanding of the old custom.

960 On this custom see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 137 _sqq._

961 Real bears and other animals were formerly promenaded about both town and country with rags of coloured cloth attached to them. Scraps of these cloths and hairs of the animals were given, rather perhaps sold, to all who asked for them as preservatives against sickness and the evil eye. The practice was condemned by the Council of Constance. See J. B. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 315 _sq._ We need not suppose that these animals represented the corn-spirit.

M241 The Oats-goat, the Pease-bear, etc. The Yule-goat in Sweden.

962 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 183 _sq._

963 See above, vol. i. pp. 281 _sqq._

964 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 190.

965 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 188.

966 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 191-193.

967 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 184 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 196 _sq._

968 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 196.

969 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 197 _sq._

970 See above, vol. i. pp. 275, 298 _sqq._

M242 The Straw-bear at Whittlesey.

971 Letter of Professor G. C. Moore Smith, dated The University, Sheffield, 13th January, 1909.

M243 The ceremonies of Plough Monday in England.

972 R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 94 _sq._; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, New Edition (London, 1883), i. 506 _sqq._; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp. 37 _sqq._; O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 27 _sq._ Compare W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 557 _sq._; T. Fairman Ordish, “English Folk-drama,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) pp. 163 _sqq._; _Folk-lore_, viii. (1897) p. 184; E. K. Chambers, _The Mediaeval Stage_ (Oxford, 1903), i. 208-210; H. Munro Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge, 1907), p. 238. Counties in which the custom of Plough Monday is reported to have been observed are Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Cheshire, and Yorkshire. Thus the custom would seem to have been characteristic of a group of counties in the centre of England. In January 1887, I witnessed the ceremony in the streets of Cambridge. Wooden ploughs of a primitive sort were dragged about by bands of young men who were profusely decked with scarves and ribbons. They ran at a good pace, and beside them ran a companion with a money-box collecting donations. Amongst them I did not observe any woman or man in female attire. Compare _The Folk-lore Journal_, v. (1887) p. 161.

M244 The object of the dances on Plough Monday is probably to ensure the growth of the corn. M245 The Straw-bear a representative of the corn-spirit. M246 The rites of Plough Monday resemble the rites at the end of the Carnival in Thrace. Similar rites are performed at the same time by the Bulgarian peasants of Thrace. The intention of the rites is clearly to fertilise the ground.

973 See above, vol. i. pp. 25 _sqq._

974 G. Kazarow, “Karnevalbräuche in Bulgarien,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, xi. (1908) pp. 407 _sq._

M247 Similar customs are observed at the Carnival in Bulgaria.

975 G. Kazarow, “Karnevalbräuche in Bulgarien,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft,_ xi. (1908) pp. 408 _sq._

M248 In all these cases the ceremonial ploughing and sowing are probably charms to ensure the growth of the crops. M249 Such rites no doubt date from a remote antiquity. M250 Effigy of a horse in a harvest festival of the Garos.

976 Major A. Playfair, _The Garos_ (London, 1909), pp. 94 _sq._

M251 Major Playfair’s description of the festival. M252 Dance of a man wearing the mask of a horse’s head. M253 The effigy of the horse at rice-harvest perhaps represents the spirit of the rice.

977 See above, p. 21.

978 See my note on Pausanias, viii. 37. 3 (vol. iv. pp. 375 _sqq._).