Part i. bk. vii. ch. 6, vol. ii. pp. 228 _sqq._; Molina, “Fables and

Rites of the Yncas,” in _Rites and Laws of the Yncas_ (Hakluyt Society, 1873), pp. 20 _sqq._; J. de Acosta, _History of the Indies_, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. pp. 375 _sq._ (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). The accounts of Garcilasso and Molina are somewhat discrepant, but this may be explained by the statement of the latter that “in one year they added, and in another they reduced the number of ceremonies, according to circumstances.” Molina places the festival in August, Garcilasso and Acosta in September. According to Garcilasso there were only four runners in Cuzco; according to Molina there were four hundred. Acosta’s account is very brief. In the description given in the text features have been borrowed from all three accounts, where these seemed consistent with each other.

M98 Annual expulsion of demons among the negroes of Guinea.

350 W. Bosman, “Description of the Coast of Guinea,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. (London, 1814) p. 402; Pierre Bouche, _La Côte des Esclaves_ (Paris, 1885), p. 395.

351 Rev. J. Leighton Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 217.

M99 Annual expulsion of demons in Benin.

_ 352 Narrative of Captain James Fawckner’s Travels on the Coast of Benin, West Africa_ (London, 1837), pp. 102 _sq._

M100 Annual expulsion of demons at Cape Coast Castle.

353 “Extracts from Diary of the late Rev. John Martin, Wesleyan Missionary in West Africa, 1843-1848,” _Man_, xii. (1912) pp. 138 _sq._ Compare Major A. J. N. Tremearne, _The Tailed Head-hunters of Nigeria_ (London, 1912), pp. 202 _sq._

M101 Annual expulsion of evils on the Niger and in Abyssinia.

354 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_ (London, 1859), p. 320.

355 Mansfield Parkyns, _Life in Abyssinia_, Second Edition (London, 1868), pp. 285 _sq._

M102 Annual expulsion of spirits at the yam harvest in New Guinea. Annual expulsion of demons among the Hos of West Africa before eating the new yams.

356 George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesian_ (London, 1910), pp. 413 _sq._

357 As to the ceremony of eating the new yams, see _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 58 _sqq._

358 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 305-307. At Kotedougou a French officer saw a number of disguised men called _dou_ dancing and performing various antics about the houses, under the trees, and in the fields. Hemp and palm leaves were sewn on their garments and they wore caps of hemp surmounted by a crest of red-ochred wood, sometimes by a wooden beak of a bird. He gathered that the ceremony takes place at the beginning of winter, and he thought that the processions “are perhaps intended to drive away the evil spirits at the season of tillage or perhaps also to procure rain.” See Le Capitaine Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de Guinée par le pays de Kong et le Mossi_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 378-380.

M103 Annual expulsion of demons among the Hos of North-Eastern India at harvest.

359 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), pp. 196 _sq._ We have seen that among the Pondos of South Africa the harvest festival of first-fruits is in like manner a period of licence and debauchery. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 66 _sq._

M104 Annual expulsion of demons among the Hindoo Koosh tribes at harvest. Annual expulsion of demons among the Khonds at sowing.

360 Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880), p. 103.

361 W. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India from the Correspondence of the late Major S. C. Macpherson_ (London, 1865), pp. 357 _sq._ Possibly this case belongs more strictly to the class of mediate expulsions, the devils being driven out upon the car. Perhaps, however, the car with its contents is regarded rather as a bribe to induce them to go than as a vehicle in which they are actually carted away. Anyhow it is convenient to take this case along with those other expulsions of demons which are the accompaniment of an agricultural festival.

M105 Annual expulsion of disease in Chota Nagpur. Annual expulsion of demons among the Mossos of China.

362 H. C. Streatfield, “Ranchi,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) p. 36.

_ 363 Le Tour du Monde_, iii. (Paris, 1897) pp. 227 _sq._, quoting _Aux sources de l’Irraouaddi, d’Hanoï à Calcutta par terre_, par M. E. Roux, Troisième Partie.

M106 Periodical expulsion of demons in Bali.

364 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S., viii. (1879) pp. 58-60. Van Eck’s account is reprinted in J. Jacobs’s _Eenigen tijd onder de Baliërs_ (Batavia, 1883), pp. 190 _sqq._ According to another writer, each village may choose its own day for expelling the devils, but the ceremony must always be performed at the new moon. A necessary preliminary is to mark exactly the boundaries of the village territory, and this is done by stretching the leaves of a certain palm across the roads at the boundaries. See F. A. Liefrinck, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 246 _sq._ As to the “dark moon” it is to be observed that some eastern nations, particularly the Hindoos and the Burmese, divide the monthly cycle of the moon into two parts, which they call the light moon and the dark moon respectively. The light moon is the first half of the month, when the luminary is waxing; the dark moon is the second half of the month, when the luminary is waning. See Francis Buchanan, “On the Religion and Literature of the Burmas,” _Asiatick Researches_, vi. (London, 1801) p. 171. The Balinese have no doubt derived the distinction, like much else, from the Hindoos.

M107 Annual expulsion of the fire-spirit among the Shans. Annual ceremony in Fiji. Annual ceremony in Tumleo.

365 J. Anderson, _Mandalay to Momien_ (London, 1876), p. 308.

_ 366 United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_, by H. Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), pp. 67 _sq._; Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, 1851), iii. 90 _sq._, 342. According to the latter writer, the sea-slug was eaten by the men alone, who lived during the four days in the temple, while the women and boys remained shut up in their houses. As to the annual appearance and catch of the sea-slug in the seas of Fiji, see further B. Seeman, _Viti, an Account of a Government Mission to the Vitian or Fijian Islands in the Years 1860-1862_ (Cambridge, 1862), pp. 59-61; Basil Thomson, _The Fijians_ (London, 1908), pp. 324-327. A somewhat different account of the appearance of the slug (_Palolo veridis_) in the Samoan Sea is given from personal observation by Dr. George Brown. He says: “This annelid, as far as I can remember, is about 8 or 12 inches long, and somewhat thicker than ordinary piping-cord. It is found only on two mornings in the year, and the time when it will appear and disappear can be accurately predicted. As a general rule only a few _palolo_ are found on the first day, though occasionally the large quantity may appear first; but, as a rule, the large quantity appears on the second morning. And it is only found on these mornings for a very limited period, viz. from early dawn to about seven o’clock, _i.e._ for about two hours. It then disappears until the following year, except in some rare instances, when it is found for the same limited period in the following month after its first appearance. I kept records of the time, and of the state of the moon, for some years, with the following result: that it always appeared on two out of the following three days, viz. the day before, the day of, and the day after the last quarter of the October moon.” See George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), pp. 135 _sq._ The slug is also caught in the sea off Samoa, according to one account, at intervals of six months. One of its appearances takes place on the eighth day after the new moon of October. So regular are the appearances of the creature that the Samoans reckon their time by them. See E. Boisse, “Les îles Samoa, Nukunono, Fakaafo, Wallis et Hoorn,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vi. Série, x. (1875) pp. 430 _sq._ In antiquity every year vast shoals of a small fish used to ascend the river Olynthiac from the lake of Bolbe in Macedonia, and all the people of the neighbourhood caught and salted great store of them. They thought that the fish were sent to them by Bolbe, the mother of Olynthus, and they noted it as a curious fact that the fish never swam higher up than the tomb of Olynthus, which stood on the bank of the river Olynthiac. The shoals always made their appearance in the months of Anthesterion and Elaphebolion, and as the people of Apollonia (a city on the bank of the lake) celebrated their festival of the dead at that season, formerly in the month of Elaphebolion, but afterwards in the month of Anthesterion, they imagined that the fish came at that time on purpose. See Athenaeus, viii. 11, p. 334 F.

367 M. J. Erdweg, “Die Bewohner der Insel Tumleo Berlinhafen, Deutsch-New-Guinea,” _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 329 _sq._

M108 Annual expulsion of demons in Japan.

368 A. Humbert, _Le Japon illustré_ (Paris, 1870), ii. 326.

369 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v. (Jena, 1869) p. 367.

370 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 309.

371 Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), ii. 498 _sq._ The writer agrees with Mr. Aston as to the formula of exorcism—“_Oni wa soto! fuku wa uchi_”, “Devils out! Good fortune in!”

M109 Annual expulsion of poverty and demons in China, India, and Persia.

372 Eitel, “Les Hak-ka,” _L’Anthropologie_, iv. (1893) pp. 175 _sq._

_ 373 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. pp. 146 _sq._, § 792 (June, 1885); D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta, 1883), p. 119; W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 188, 295 _sq._

374 John Richardson, _Dictionary of Persian, Arabic, and English_, New Edition (London, 1829), p. liii.

M110 Annual expulsion of demons in China at the end of the year.

375 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 977 _sq._

376 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 978.

377 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 979.

378 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. 944 _sqq._; _id._, _The Religion of China_ (New York, 1910), pp. 38 _sq._; J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), i. 251 _sq._

379 W. Woodville Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions of Korea,” _The American Anthropologist_, iv. (1891) p. 185.

M111 Annual expulsion of demons in Tonquin.

380 S. Baron, “Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, ix. (London, 1811) pp. 673, 695 _sq._; compare Richard, “History of Tonquin,” _ibid._ p. 746. The account of the ceremony by Tavernier (whom Baron criticises very unfavourably) is somewhat different. According to him, the expulsion of wicked souls at the New Year is combined with sacrifice to the honoured dead. “At the beginning of every year they have a great solemnity in honour of the dead, who were in their lives renowned for their noble actions and valour, reckoning rebels among them. They set up several altars, some for sacrifices, others for the names of the persons they design to honour; and the king, princes, and mandarins are present at them, and make three profound reverences to the altars when the sacrifices are finished; but the king shoots five times against the altars where the rebels’ names are; then the great guns are let off, and the soldiers give vollies of small shot, to put the souls to flight. The altars and papers made use of at the sacrifices are burnt, and the bonzes and sages go to eat the meat made use of at the sacrifice” (Tavernier, in John Harris’s _Collection of Voyages and Travels_, vol. i. (London, 1744) p. 823). The translation is somewhat abridged. For the French original, see J. B. Tavernier, _Voyages en Turquie, en Perse, et aux Indes_ (The Hague, 1718), iii. 230 _sq._

M112 Annual expulsion of demons in Cambodia and Siam.

381 É. Aymonier, _Notice sur le Cambodge_ (Paris, 1875), p. 62.

382 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) pp. 237, 298, 314, 529 _sq._; Mgr. Pallegoix, _Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam_ (Paris, 1854), i. 252. Bastian (p. 314), with whom Pallegoix seems to agree, distinctly states that the expulsion takes place on the last day of the year. Yet both say that it occurs in the fourth month of the year. According to Pallegoix (i. 253) the Siamese year is composed of twelve lunar months, and the first month usually begins in December. Hence the expulsion of devils would commonly take place in March, as in Cambodia. In Laos the year begins in the fifth month and it ends in the fifth month of the following year. See Lieutenant-Colonel Tournier, _Notice sur le Laos Français_ (Hanoi, 1900), p. 187. According to Professor E. Seler the festival of Toxcatl, celebrated in the fifth month, was the old Mexican festival of the New Year. See E. Seler, _Altmexikanische Studien_, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 153, 166 _sq._ (_Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_, vi. Heft 2/4). Hence it appears that in some calendars the year is not reckoned to begin with the first month.

383 Ernest Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), pp. 135 _sq._

384 “Lettre de Mgr. Bruguière, évêque de Capse, à M. Bousquet, vicaire-général d’Aire,” _Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, v. (Paris and Lyons, 1831) p. 188. As to the temporary king of Siam, his privileges and the ceremony of ploughing which he performs, see _The Dying God_, pp. 149-151.

M113 Annual reception and expulsion of the spirits of the dead in Japan.

385 Charlevoix, _Histoire et description generale du Japon_ (Paris, 1736), i. 128 _sq._; C. P. Thunberg, _Voyages au Japon_ (Paris, 1796), iv. 18-20; A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v. (Jena, 1869) p. 364; Beaufort, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 102; A. Morgan, in _Journal of American Folk-lore_, x. (1897) pp. 244 _sq._; Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), i. 106-110, ii. 504 _sq._ The custom of welcoming the souls of the dead back to their old homes once a year has been observed in many lands. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 301 _sqq._

M114 Annual reception and expulsion of the spirits of the dead in ancient Greece and Rome.

386 Above, pp. 123 _sq._

387 Hesychius, _s.v._ μιαραὶ ἡμέραι; τοῦ Ἀνθεστηριῶνος μηνός, ἐν αἶς τὰς ψυχὰς τῶν κατοιχομένων ἀνιέναι ἐδόκουν. Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.vv._ Θύραζε Κᾶρες; οὐκέτ᾽ Ἀνθεστήρια ... τινὲς δὲ οὕτως τὴν παροιμίαν φασί; Θύραζε Κῆρες οὐκέτ᾽ Ἀνθεστήρια; ὡς κατὰ τὴν πόλιν τοῖς Ἀνθεστηρίοις τῶν ψυχῶν περιερχομένων. _Id._, _s.vv._ μιαρὰ ἡμέρα; ἐν τοῖς Χουσὶν Ἀνθεστηριῶνος μηνός, ἐν ᾧ δοκοῦσιν αἱ ψυχαὶ τῶν τελευτησάντων ἀνιέναι, ῥάμνῳ ἕωθεν ἐμασῶντο καὶ πίττῃ τὰς θύρας ἔχριον. Pollux, viii. 141: περισχοινίσαι τὰ ἱερὰ ἔλεγον ἐν ταῖς ἀποφράσι καί τὸ παραφράξαι. As to the closing of the temples, see further Athenaeus, x. 49, p. 447 C. As to the Anthesteria in general, see E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), i. 236 _sqq._, who rightly adopts Hesychius’s second explanation of Κῆρες. The reasons given by August Mommsen for rejecting that explanation betray an imperfect acquaintance with popular superstition (_Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_, Leipsic, 1898, p. 386, note 1). Compare Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 32 _sqq._ The Greeks thought that branches of buckthorn (_rhamnus_) fastened to doors or windows kept out witches (Dioscorides, _De materia medica_, i. 119). A similar virtue was attributed to buckthorn or hawthorn by the ancient Romans and modern European peasants. See A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Güterslöh, 1886), pp. 209 _sq._; J. Murr, _Pflanzenwelt in der griechischen Mythologie_ (Innsbruck, 1890), pp. 104-106; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 54 _sq._, 191. According to Mr. Murr, _rhamnus_ is _Lycium europaeum_ L. I learn from Miss J. E. Harrison that Sir Francis Darwin believes it to be buckthorn (_Rhamnus catharticus_). In some parts of Bosnia, when peasant women go to pay a visit in a house where a death has occurred they put a little hawthorn (_Weissdorn_) behind their headcloth, and on returning from the house they throw it away on the street. They think that if the deceased has turned into a vampyre, he will be so occupied in picking up the hawthorn, that he will not be able to follow them to their homes. See F. S. Krauss, “Vampyre im südslavischen Volksglauben,” _Globus_, lxi. (1892) p. 326. At childbirth also the Greeks smeared pitch on their houses to keep out the demons (εἰς ἀπέλασιν τῶν δαιμόνων) who attack women at such times (Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ ῥάμνος). To this day the Bulgarians try to keep wandering ghosts from their houses by painting crosses with tar on the outside of their doors, while on the inside they hang a tangled skein composed of countless broken threads. The ghost cannot enter until he has counted all the threads, and before he has done the sum the cock crows and the poor soul must return to the grave. See A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 454. The Servians paint crosses with tar on the doors of houses and barns to keep out vampyres. See F. S. Krauss, “Vampyre im südslavischen Volksglauben,” _Globus_, lxi. (1892) p. 326. In the Highlands of Scotland it was believed that tar put on a door kept witches away. See J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 13. The Thompson Indians of British Columbia used to bar their houses against ghosts by means not unlike those adopted by the Athenians at the Anthesteria. When a death had happened, they hung a string of deer-hoofs across the inside of the house, and an old woman often pulled at the string to make the hoofs rattle. This kept the ghost out. They also placed branches of juniper at the door or burned them in the fire for the same purpose. See James Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia” (April 1900), p. 332 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_). With the Athenian use of ropes to keep ghosts out of the temples at the Anthesteria we may compare the Siamese custom of roping demons out of the city at the New Year (above, p. 149). Ropes of rice-straw, which are supposed to repel demoniacal and evil influences, are hung by the Japanese in front of shrines, and at the New Year they hang them also before ordinary houses. See W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), pp. 335 _sq._ Some of the Kayans of Borneo stretch ropes round their houses to keep out demons of disease; in order to do so more effectually leaves of a certain plant or tree are fastened to the rope. See A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. (Leyden, 1904) p. 448.

388 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 218.

389 J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 14, December 1884, pp. 296-298.

390 Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 419-486; Varro, quoted by Nonius Marcellus, p. 135 (p. 142 ed. Quicherat), _s.v._ “Lemures”; Festus, p. 87 ed. C. O. Müller, _s.v._ “Fabam.” Ovid, who is our chief authority for the ceremony, speaks as if the festival lasted only one day (the ninth of May). But we know from the inscribed calendars that it lasted three days. See W. Warde Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 106 _sqq._

M115 Annual expulsion of Satan among the Wotyaks and Cheremiss of Russia.

391 Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), pp. 153 _sq._

392 A. Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), ii. 94; P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Tscheremissen,” _Globus_, lviii. (1890) p. 204.

M116 Annual expulsion of witches and other powers of evil in Christian Europe.

393 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), pp. 42 _sq._

394 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_, p. 48.

395 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), i. 160. Compare _The Dying God_, pp. 264 _sq._

396 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 86.

M117 Widespread fear of witches and wizards in Europe.

397 As to the activity of the evil powers on the twelve days from Christmas to Twelfth Night, see Gustav Bilfinger, _Das germanische Julfest_ (Stuttgart, 1901), pp. 74 _sqq._; as to witches on St. George’s Eve, May Eve, and Midsummer Eve, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 52 _sqq._, 127, 334 _sqq._

M118 Annual expulsion of witches on Walpurgis Night (the Eve of May Day), on May Day in the Tyrol.

398 G. Bilfinger, _Das germanische Julfest_ (Stuttgart, 1901), p. 76.

399 J. M. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich, 1857), pp. 260 _sq._ Compare J. E. Waldfreund, “Volksgebräuche und Aberglauben,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iii. (1855) p. 339. A Westphalian form of the expulsion of evil is the driving out the _Süntevögel_, _Sunnenvögel_, or _Sommervögel_, that is, the butterfly. On St. Peter’s Day, 22nd February, children go from house to house knocking on them with hammers and singing doggerel rhymes in which they bid the _Sommervögel_ to depart. Presents are given to them at every house. Or the people of the house themselves go through all the rooms, knocking on all the doors, to drive away the _Sunnenvögel_. If this ceremony is omitted, it is thought that various misfortunes will be the consequence. The house will swarm with rats, mice, and other vermin, the cattle will be sick, the butterflies will multiply at the milk-bowls, etc. See J. F. L. Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_ (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 24; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. (Göttingen and Leipsic, 1852) p. 87; A. Kuhn, _Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp. 119-121, §§ 366-374; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche, und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 21 _sq._; U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 94-96.

M119 Annual expulsion of witches on Walpurgis Night in Bavaria and Voigtland.

_ 400 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1866), ii. 272, iii. 302 _sq._, 934; O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 137.

_ 401 Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, xx. 493.

402 R. Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_ (Gera, 1871), p. 210.

403 August Witzschel, _Sitten, Sagen und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_ (Vienna, 1878), pp. 262 _sq._

M120 Annual “Burning of the Witches” on Walpurgis Night in Bohemia.

404 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, preface dated 1861), pp. 210-212; _id._, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 137; Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), pp. 70-73.

405 Alois John, _op. cit._ p. 71.

406 Willibald Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p. 324.

M121 Annual “Burning of the Witches” on Walpurgis Night in Silesia.

407 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 108-110. With regard to the dance of the witches in the snow, it is a common saying in the northern district of the Harz Mountains that the witches must dance the snow away on the top of the Blocksberg on the first of May. See A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 376. At Dabelow in Mecklenburg all utensils are removed from the fireplace on Walpurgis Night, lest the witches should ride on them to the Blocksberg. See A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, _l.c._

M122 Annual “Burning of the Witches” on Walpurgis Night among the Wends of Saxony.

408 R. Wuttke, _Sächsische Volkskunde_ (Dresden, 1901), p. 359.

409 Lady Agnes Macdonell, in _The Times_, May 3rd, 1913, p. 6. In a letter to me (dated 31, Kensington Park Gardens, May 5th [1913]) Lady Macdonell was kind enough to give me some further particulars as to the custom. It seems that the boys use their horns on May Day as well as on the thirtieth of April. Processions of boys and girls decorated with flowers and leaves, and carrying flags and horns, went about Penzance on May Day of the present year (1913). The horns are straight; some of them terminate in a bell-shaped opening, others have no such appendage. The latter and plainer are the older pattern.

M123 Annual expulsion of witches during the Twelve Days from Christmas to Epiphany. “Burning out the Old Year” at Biggar.

410 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 15-18. With regard to the superstitions attached to these twelve days or twelve nights, as the Germans call them, see further A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 408-418; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 111-117; L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 28 _sqq._; M. Toeppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), pp. 61 _sqq._; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), pp. 61 _sqq._, § 74; E. Mogk, “Mythologie,” in H. Paul’s _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_,2 iii. (Strasburg, 1900) pp. 260 _sq._; Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), pp. 11 _sqq._

411 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_ (Prague, preface dated 1861), p. 602.

412 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 312, referring to Lady Burton’s life of her husband.

413 T. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 506.

414 J. G. Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834), p. 670.

M124 Annual expulsion of witches and demons in Switzerland and France.

415 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxx. (1875) p. 198; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipzic and Berlin, 1913), p. 109; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 101.

416 H. Herzog, _Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Aaran, 1884), pp. 212 _sq._

417 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 81, 85.

M125 Befana in the Piazza Navona at Rome, in the Tuscan Romagna.

418 As to Befana and her connexion with Epiphany, see J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 234. The personified Befana, an ugly but good-natured old woman, is known in Sicily as well as Italy. See G. Pitrè, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo, 1881), p. 167. As to the ceremony in the Piazza Navona, see H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) pp. 108 _sqq._, who rightly compares it to the Swiss ceremonies observed at and near Brunnen on Twelfth Night. I witnessed the noisy scene in the Piazza Navona in January, 1901.

419 P. Fabbri, “Canti popolari raccolti sui monti della Romagna-Toscana,” _Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizioni Popolari_, xxii. (1903) pp. 356 _sq._; H. Usener, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. 108 note 62. In the Abruzzi, on the evening before Epiphany, musicians go from house to house serenading the inmates with songs and the strains of fiddles, guitars, organs, and so forth. They are accompanied by others carrying lanterns, torches, or burning branches of juniper. See Antonio de Nino, _Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Florence, 1879-1883), ii. 178-180; G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp. 88 _sq._ Such house to house visitations may be a relic of an old expulsion of witches and demons.

M126 Expulsion of the Trows in Shetland on Up-helly-a’, the twenty-fourth day after Christmas.

420 Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E. Saxby, _The Home of a Naturalist_ (London, 1888), p. 136. Compare _County Folk-lore_, vol. iii. _Orkney and Shetland Islands_, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), p. 196. As to the Trows, whose name is doubtless identical with the Norse Trolls (Swedish _troll_, Norwegian _trold_), see Edmondston and Saxby, _op. cit._ pp. 189 _sqq._; John Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition, edited by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson (Paisley, 1879-1882), iv. 630 _sq._, who observes that “while the Fairies are uniformly represented as social, cheerful, and benevolent beings, the _Trows_ are described as gloomy and malignant, ever prone to injure men.”

421 Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E. Saxby, _The Home of a Naturalist_ (London, 1888), p. 146. Compare _County Folk-lore_, vol. iii. _Orkney and Shetland Islands_, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), pp. 202 _sq._

_ 422 The Shetland News_, February 1st, 1913, p. 5. As January 5th is reckoned Christmas in Shetland, the celebration of Up-helly-a’ falls on January 29th. See J. Nicolson, in _The World’s Work and Play_, February, 1906, pp. 283 _sqq._ For further information relating to the ceremony I am indebted to the kindness of Sheriff-Substitute David J. Mackenzie (formerly of Lerwick, now of Kilmarnock). According to one of his correspondents, the Rev. Dr. J. Willcock of Lerwick, the present elaborate form of the ceremony dates only from 1882, when the Duke of Edinburgh visited Lerwick on naval business, and Up-helly-a’ was celebrated in his honour on a grander scale than ever before. Yet Dr. Willcock apparently does not deny the antiquity of the festival in a simpler form, for in his letter he says: “In former times an old boat filled with tar was set on fire and dragged about, as were also lighted tar-barrels.” Another authority on Shetland antiquities, Mr. Gilbert Goudie, writes to Sheriff Mackenzie that “the kicking about and burning a tar-barrel is very old in Lerwick.” Compare _County Folk-lore_, iii. _Orkney and Shetland Islands_, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), p. 205: “Formerly, blazing tar-barrels were dragged about the town, and afterwards, with the first break of morning, dashed over the knab into the sea.” Up-helly-a’, the Shetland name for Antinmas, is no doubt the same with Uphalyday, which Dr. J. Jamieson (_Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition, iv. 676) defines as “the first day after the termination of the Christmas holidays,” quoting two official documents of A.D. 1494 and 1541 respectively.

I have to thank my friend Miss Anderson of Barskimming, Mauchline, Ayrshire, for kindly calling my attention to this interesting relic of the past.

M127 Annual expulsion of witches and demons in Europe. M128 The expulsion of embodied evils. M129 Expulsion of demons personified by men among the American Indians. Expulsion of a demon embodied in an image among the Mayas of Yucatan.

423 Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 159.

424 G. Catlin, _North American Indians_, Fourth Edition (London, 1844), i. 166 _sqq._; _id._, _O-kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans_ (London, 1867).

425 Diego de Landa, _Relation des Choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), pp. 203-205, 211-215; E. Seler, “The Mexican Chronology,” _Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 28_ (Washington, 1904), p. 17. As to the Maya calendar see further Cyrus Thomas, _The Maya Year_ (Washington, 1894), pp. 19 _sqq._ (_Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology_).

M130 Expulsion of a demon personified by a man among the aborigines of Queensland. Expulsion of demons embodied in effigies in India and Russia. Expulsion of demons embodied in animals or boys in Esthonia and Spain.

426 W. E. Roth, _Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines_ (Brisbane and London, 1897), pp. 120-125.

427 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 172. Compare above, p. 149.

428 R. H. Elliot, _Experiences of a Planter in the Jungles of Mysore_ (London, 1871), i. 60 _sq._

429 A. C. Winter, “Russische Volksbräuche bei Seuchen,” _Globus_, lxxix. (1901) p. 302. For the Russian ceremony of drawing a plough round a village to keep out the cattle plague, see also W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp. 396 _sqq._

430 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and Leipsic, 1841), ii. 278.

_ 431 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 174.

M131 Annual expulsion of the demon of plague among the Khasis of Assam. The Tug of War probably a contest with demons represented by human beings. The Tug of War at funerals in Chittagong and Burma.

432 Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), p. 157; A. Bastian, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_, 1881, p. 151; _id._, _Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_ (Berlin, 1883), pp. 6 _sq._

433 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 605. See _The Dying God_, p. 259.

434 Capt. T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of South-Eastern India_ (London, 1870), p. 185.

435 Father Sangermano, _Description of the Burmese Empire_ (Rangoon, 1885), p. 98; Capt. C. J. F. S. Forbes, _British Burma_ (London, 1878), pp. 216 _sq._; Shway Yoe, _The Burman, his Life and Notions_ (London, 1882), ii. 334 _sq._, 342.

M132 The Tug of War as a rain-making ceremony in Burma and else where.

436 F. E. Sawyer, “S. Swithin and Rainmakers,” _The Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1883) p. 214.

437 Francis Buchanan, “On the Religion and Literature of the Burmas,” _Asiatick Researches_, vi. (London, 1801) pp. 193 _sq._ Compare Lieut.-General A. Fytche, _Burma Past and Present_ (London, 1878), i. 248 note 1; Max and Bertha Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900), p. 184; (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. ii. pp. 95, 279.

438 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Celebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 282.

439 For particulars as to the winds of Assam I am indebted to my friend Mr. J. D. Anderson, formerly of the Indian Civil Service, who resided many years in that country.

M133 The Tug of War between the sexes. The Tug of War in Kamtchatka and New Guinea.

_ 440 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 98 _sq._

441 G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoevell, “Leti-eilanden,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 207. However, it is not quite clear from the writer’s words (“_Immers de mannen en vrouwen in twee partijeen verdeelt en elk een stuk van de roten in de hande houdende bootsen toch ook door’t voor- en achteroverbuigen van’t lichaam de bewegingen van cohabitie na_”) whether the men and women take opposite sides or are distributed between the two.

442 T. C. Hodson, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_ (London, 1911), p. 168; compare 64. “The Chirus have six crop festivals, one of which, that before the crops are cut, is marked by a rope-pulling ceremony of the same nature as that observed among the Tangkhuls” (_op. cit._ p. 172). The headman (_khullākpa_) “is a sacrosanct person, the representative of the village in all religious rites, and surrounded by special alimentary, social and conjugal _gennas_” or taboos (_op. cit._ p. 110).

443 Stewart Culin, _Korean Games_ (Philadelphia, 1895), p. 35; A. C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_ (London and New York, 1898), p. 274.

444 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 327 _sq._

445 H. von Rosenberg, _Der malayisch Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), p. 462.

M134 The Tug of War in Morocco to procure rain or sunshine.

446 Edward Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) pp. 158 _sq._; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), p. 122.

M135 Games of ball in Morocco to procure rain or sunshine.

447 E. Westermarck, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913). pp. 121 _sq._

M136 The Tug of War in Morocco to ensure prosperity.

448 E. Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) p. 159.

M137 Spiritual significance of the Tug of War. The Tug of War in French Guiana, in North-Western India.

449 H. Coudreau, _Chez nos Indiens, Quatre Années dans la Guayane Française_ (Paris, 1895), p. 234.

450 Major Forbes, _Eleven Years in Ceylon_ (London, 1840), i. 358.

451 Sir Henry M. Elliot, _Memoirs on the History, Folk-lore, and Distribution of the Races of the North-Western Provinces of India_, edited, revised, and re-arranged by John Beames (London, 1869), i. 235.

452 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 321.

453 E. Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) p. 158.

M138 The Tug of War in Shropshire and Radnorshire. Contests for a ball (_soule_) in Normandy.

454 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, New Edition (London, 1883), i. 92; Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), pp. 319-321.

455 C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _op. cit._ p. 321.

456 Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), i. 13, ii. 153-165. Compare Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875), i. 86 _sqq._; and as to the game of _soule_, see Guerry, in _Mémoires des Antiquaires de France_, viii. (1829) pp. 459-461.

457 In the parish of Vieux-Pont, in the department of Orne, the man who is last married before the first Sunday in Lent must throw a ball from the foot of the cross. The village lads compete with each other for its possession. To win it the lad must carry it through three parishes without being overtaken by his rivals. See A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 244 _sq._

M139 Annual sham fights may represent contests with demons.

458 J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, “Die Tenggeresen, ein alter Javanischer Volksstamm,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, liii. (1901) pp. 140 _sq._

459 Edouard Chavannes, _Documents sur les Tou-Kiue (Turcs) Occidentaux_ (St. Petersburg, 1903), p. 148.

M140 Demons of sickness expelled in a small ship in Ceram.

460 François Valentyn, _Oud- en nieuw Ost-Indiën_ (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 14. L. de Backer (_L’Archipel Indien_, Paris, 1874, pp. 377 _sq._) copies from Valentyn.

M141 Demons of sickness expelled in a small ship in Timor-laut, in a ship in Buru, removed from the persons of the sufferers.

461 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 304 _sq._

462 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 25 _sq._

_ 463 Ibid._ p. 141.

464 See above, p. 155.

465 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 78.

_ 466 Ibid._ p. 357.

_ 467 Ibid._ pp. 266, 304 _sq._, 327, 357; H. Ling Roth, _Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), i. 284.

468 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (London, 1912), ii. 122 _sq._

M142 Demons of disease expelled in a ship in Selangor.

469 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), pp. 433-435. For other examples of sending away plague-laden boats in the Malay region see J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 181, 210; R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S., viii. (1879) p. 104; A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 147; C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” _Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. 150; C. F. H. Campen, “De godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche Alfoeren,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvii. (1882) p. 441; _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 12, pp. 229-231; A. L. van Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra_ (Leyden, 1882), p. 98; C. M. Pleyte, “Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-Eilanden,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 835; H. Ling Roth, “Low’s Natives of Sarawak,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxii, (1893) p. 25; C. Snouck Hurgronje, _De Atjehers_ (Batavia and Leyden, 1893-1894), i. 461 _sq._; J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in der Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 110.

M143 Demons of sickness expelled in small ships in New Guinea, the Philippines, Tikopia, and the Nicobar Islands.

470 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. (1911) pp. 329 _sq._

471 F. Blumentritt, “Über die Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan und der Inselgruppe der Talamianen,” _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 183.

472 J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse, sur la corvette Astrolabe_ (Paris, 1832-1833), v. 311.

473 Roepstorff, “Ein Geisterboot der Nicobaresen,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_ (1881), p. 401; W. Svoboda, “Die Bewohner des Nikobaren-Archipels,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vi. (1893) pp. 10 _sq._

474 P. Denjoy, “An-nam, Médecins et Sorciers, Remèdes et Superstitions,” etc., _Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, v. (1894) pp. 409 _sq._ Compare É. Aymonier, _Voyage dans le Laos_ (Paris, 1895-1897), i. 121. For Siamese applications of the same principle to the cure of individuals, see A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) pp. 295 _sq._, 485 _sq._

M144 Demons of sickness expelled in the form of animals in India.

_ 475 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 48, § 418 (January, 1884).

_ 476 Id._, iii. p. 81, § 373 (February 1886).

477 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 142. Bulls are used as scapegoats for cholera in Cashmeer (H. G. M. Murray-Aynsley, in _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) pp. 398 _sq._).

478 Major-General Sir W. H. Sleeman, _Rambles and Recollections of Indian Official_, New Edition (Westminster, 1893), i. 203.

479 Major-General Sir W. H. Sleeman, _op. cit._ i. 198.

M145 Goats and cocks employed as scapegoats in various parts of India.

480 F. Fawcett, “On the Saoras (or Savaras), an Aboriginal Hill People of the Eastern Ghats,” _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay_, i. 213, note.

481 Mr. Y. V. Athalye, in _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay_, i. 37.

482 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 169 _sq._; _id._, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 445.

_ 483 Kausika Sutra_, xiv. 22 (W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_, Amsterdam, 1900, p. 29); H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 498.

_ 484 Kausika Sutra_, xviii. 16 (W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_, pp. 44 _sq._).

M146 Cows, toads, and llamas as scapegoats in Africa and America.

485 Dom Daniel Sour Dharim Dena (a Dinka convert), in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lx. (1888) pp. 57 _sq._

486 H. Seidel, “Krankheit, Tod, und Begräbnis bei den Togonegern,” _Globus_, lxxii. (1897) p. 24.

487 D. Forbes, “On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,” _Journal of the Ethnological Society of London_, vol. ii. No. 3 (October, 1870), p. 237.

M147 Goddess of disease expelled in a toy chariot.

488 Jivangi Jimshedji Modi, B.A., “On the Chariot of the Goddess, a Supposed Remedy for driving out an Epidemic,” _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay_, vol. iv. No. 8 (Bombay, 1899), pp. 420-424; Captain C. Eckford Luard, in _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xix., _Central India_ (Lucknow, 1902), p. 78.

M148 Human scapegoats in Uganda.

489 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 342.

490 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 109, 200. As to the perpetual fire at the entrance to a king’s enclosure, see _id._ pp. 103, 197, 202 _sq._

M149 Human scapegoats in China and India. Indian ceremony of sliding down a rope.

491 J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), ii. 306.

_ 492 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 75, § 598 (April, 1884); W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 170.

493 Rev. F. Hahn, “Some Notes on the Religion and Superstitions of the Orāōs” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) p. 17; compare H. C. Streatfield, _ibid._ p. 37.

_ 494 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. pp. 55, 74 _sq._, 77, §§ 417, 499, 516 (July and August, 1891), quoting G. W. Traill, _Statistical Sketch of Kumaun_, pp. 68 sq., and Moorcroft and Trebeck, _Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjáb_, i. 17 _sq._ Compare E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884), pp. 834 _sq._

M150 Tibetan New Year ceremony of sliding down a rope.

495 W. Woodville Rockhill, “Tibet, A Geographical, Ethnographical, and Historical Sketch, derived from Chinese Sources,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1891_ (London, 1891), p. 209. Compare Hue, _Souvenirs d’un Voyage dans la Tartarie et le Thibet_, Sixième Édition (Paris, 1878), ii. 379 _sq._ For a description of Potala Hill and its grand palace, see L. Austine Waddell, _Lhasa and its Mysteries_ (London, 1905), pp. 330 _sqq._, 387 _sqq._

M151 Periodic expulsion of evils in a material vehicle. Periodic expulsion of spirits in rafts from Perak.

_ 496 Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Notes and Queries_, No. 3 (Singapore, 1886), pp. 80 _sq._

M152 Annual expulsion of evils in small ships in the Indian Archipelago.

497 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 393.

498 A. Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), ii. 93.

499 Ivor H. N. Evans, “Notes on the Religious Beliefs, Superstitions, Ceremonies and Tabus of the Dusuns of the Tuaran and Tempassuk Districts, British North Borneo,” _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xlii. (1912) pp. 382-384.

M153 Annual expulsion of demons in little ships in the Nicobar Islands.

500 A. Bastian, _op. cit._ ii. 91.

501 V. Solomon, “Extracts from Diaries kept in Car Nicobar,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 228 _sq._

M154 Annual expulsion of embodied evils in India, China, and Corea. Annual expulsion or destruction of demons embodied in images in Tibet.

502 Captain F. Wilford, “An Essay on the Sacred Isles in the West,” _Asiatic Researches_, ix. (London, 1809) pp. 96 _sq._

503 J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), ii. 306 _sq._

504 W. Woodville Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions of Corea,” _The American Anthropologist_, iv. (1891) p. 185; Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), ii. 56.

505 Stewart Culin, _Korean Games_ (Philadelphia, 1895), p. 12.

_ 506 Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet and of the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa_, edited by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (London, 1876), pp. 106 _sq._ Compare Sarat Chandra Das, _Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet_ (London, 1902), p. 116.

507 Missionary Fage, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxix. (1857) p. 321.

M155 Biennial expulsion of demons embodied in effigies at Old Calabar.

508 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858), p. 162; Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 105-107; Hugh Goldie, _Calabar and its Mission_, New Edition (Edinburgh and London, 1901), pp. 49 _sq._; Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 495; Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), pp. 449-451. The ceremony takes place both in Creek Town and Duke Town. The date of it, according to Miss Kingsley, is either every November or every second November; but with the exception of Mr. Macdonald, who does not mention the period, the other authorities agree in describing the ceremony as biennial. According to Major Leonard it is celebrated usually towards the end of the year. Miss Kingsley speaks of the effigies being set up in the houses themselves; but all the other writers say or imply that they are set up at the doors of the houses in the streets. According to Mr. Goldie the spirits expelled are “all the ghosts of those who have died since the last lustration.” He makes no mention of devils.

M156 Annual expulsion of demons embodied in effigies at Porto Novo.

509 Missionary F. Terrien, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, liv. (1882) pp. 375-377.

M157 Annual expulsion of embodied evils among the Hos of Togoland.

_ 510 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 58 _sqq._

511 Jakob Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 305-307. We have seen (above, p. 193) that these people used a toad as a scapegoat to free them from the influenza.

M158 Annual expulsion of embodied evils among the gypsies.

512 H. von Wlislocki, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Zigeuner_ (Münster i. W., 1891), pp. 65 _sq._

M159 Annual expulsion of evils in an animal scapegoat among the Garos of Assam.

513 Major A. Playfair, _The Garos_ (London, 1909), p. 92.

M160 Dogs as scapegoats in India, Scotland and America. The Jewish scapegoat.

514 E. T. Atkinson, “Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalaya of the North-West Provinces,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, liii. Pt. i. (1884) p. 62; _id._, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 871.

_ 515 Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS. of John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 439.

516 W. M. Beauchamp, “The Iroquois White Dog Feast,” _American Antiquarian_, vii. (1885) p. 237.

_ 517 Ibid._ p. 236; T. Dwight, _Travels in New England and New York_ (London, 1823), iv. 202.

518 Above, p. 127.

519 Leviticus xvi. The word translated “scapegoat” in the Authorised Version is Azazel, which appears rather to be the name of a bad angel or demon, to whom the goat was sent away. “In later Jewish literature (Book of Enoch) Azazel appears as the prince of the fallen angels, the offspring of the unions described in Gen. vi. 1 ff. The familiar rendering ‘scapegoat,’ _i.e._ the goat which is allowed to escape, goes back to the _caper emissarius_ of the Vulgate, and is based on an untenable etymology” (Professor A. R. S. Kennedy, in his commentary on Leviticus xvi. 8, in the _Century Bible_). There is some ground for thinking that the animal was killed by being thrown over a certain crag that overhangs a rocky chasm not far from Jerusalem. See _Encyclopædia Biblica_, ed. T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, vol. i. (London, 1899) coll. 394 _sqq._, _s.v._ “Azazel.” Modern Jews sacrifice a white cock on the eve of the Day of Atonement, nine days after the beginning of their New Year. The father of the family knocks the cock thrice against his own head, saying, “Let this cock be a substitute for me, let it take my place, let death be laid upon this cock, but a happy life bestowed on me and on all Israel.” Then he cuts its throat and dashes the bird violently on the ground. The intestines are thrown on the roof of the house. The flesh of the cock was formerly given to the poor. See J. Buxtorf, _Synagoga Judaica_ (Bâle, 1661), ch. xxv. pp. 508 _sqq._

M161 Human scapegoats formerly put to death every year in Africa.

520 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_ (London, 1859), pp. 343-345. Compare J. F. Schön and S. Crowther, _Journals_ (London, 1848), pp. 48 _sq._ The account of the custom by J. Africanus B. Horton (_West African Countries and Peoples_, pp. 185 _sq._) is taken entirely from Taylor.

521 Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), pp. 446 _sqq._

522 An Igbodu is a sacred grove in which oracles are given. It is divided into three compartments by fences of palm branches and the _omu_ shrub. Into the first compartment women and uninitiated men may enter; into the other two only priestly officials are permitted, according to their rank in the hierarchy, to enter. See Bishop James Johnson, “Yoruba Heathenism,” quoted by R. E. Dennett, _At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind_ (London, 1906), p. 254.

523 Bishop James Johnson, _op. cit._ p. 263. Bishop Johnson is a native African. It does not appear whether the sacrifice which he describes is occasional or periodical.

M162 Human scapegoats formerly put to death every year in Siam. Annual human scapegoats in Japan and Sumatra.

524 Turpin, “History of Siam,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), ix. 579.

525 The _oho-harahi_ or “Great Purification” is a ceremony, which used to be performed in the Japanese capital twice every year, namely on the last days of the sixth and twelfth month. It included a preliminary lustration, expiatory offerings, and the recital of a _norito_ or formula (not a prayer), in which the Mikado, by virtue of an authority transmitted to him from the Sun-goddess, pronounced to his ministers and people the absolution and remission of their sins. See W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), pp. 294 _sqq._ The writer adds (p. 295): “The Chinese had an _oho-harahi_, defined by Mr. Giles in his _Chinese Dictionary_ as ‘a religious ceremony of purification performed in spring and autumn, with a view to secure divine protection for agricultural interests.’ ” The popular celebrations of the first of May and the first of November in Europe seem to be relics of similar biennial purifications.

526 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_, pp. 308 _sq._

527 W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter und ihr Verhältnis zum Brahmanismus,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) pp. 476, 478.

M163 Annual human scapegoats in Europe. The expulsion of Posterli in Switzerland.

528 Aeneas Sylvius, _Opera_ (Bâle, 1571), pp. 423 _sq._

529 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxx. (1875) p. 198; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) pp. 109 _sq._ The custom seems to have been revived in the latter part of the nineteenth century; perhaps it may still be observed. See H. Herzog, _Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Aarau, 1884), pp. 293 _sq._; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 101.

M164 Annual expulsion of the devil, personified by a man, from Munich on Ascension Day.

530 L. Curtius, “Christi Himmelfahrt,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, xiv. (1911) p. 307, quoting the _Münchener Neuesten Nachrichten_, No. 235, May 21st, 1909.

M165 The pardoned criminal at Rouen on Ascension Day may have been a public scapegoat.

_ 531 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 164 _sqq._

532 On the use of eponymous magistrates as annual scapegoats see above, pp. 39-41.

M166 Divine animals as scapegoats in India and ancient Egypt.

533 J. Thomas Phillips, _Account of the Religion, Manners, and Learning of the People of Malabar_ (London, 1717), pp. 6, 12 _sq._

534 Herodotus, ii. 39.

535 Herodotus, ii. 38-41; Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_, New Edition (London, 1878), iii. 403 _sqq._

536 Herodotus, _l.c._ As to the worship of sacred bulls in ancient Egypt, see further _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 34 _sqq._

_ 537 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 175 _sqq._, 314 _sq._

M167 Divine men as scapegoats among the Gonds of India and the Albanians of the Caucasus.

_ 538 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 54, § 335 (December, 1884).

539 Strabo, xi. 4. 7, p. 503. For the custom of standing upon a sacrificed victim, compare Demosthenes, _Or._ xxiii. 68, p. 642; Pausanias, iii. 20. 9.

M168 Annual human scapegoats in Tibet. The Jalno, the temporary ruler of Lhasa. M169 The Jalno and the King of the Years. Expulsion of the King of the Years.

540 The ceremony referred to is perhaps the one performed on the tenth day, as described in the text.

541 “Report of a Route Survey by Pundit—from Nepal to Lhasa,” etc., _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, xxxviii. (1868) pp. 167, 170 _sq._; “Four Years Journeying through Great Tibet, by one of the Trans-Himalayan Explorers,” _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. vii. (1885) pp. 67 _sq._; W. Woodville Rockhill, “Tibet, a Geographical, Ethnographical, and Historical Sketch, derived from Chinese Sources,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1891_ (London, 1891), pp. 211 _sq._; L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895), pp. 504 _sqq._, 512 _sq._; J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, _Mission Scientifique dans la Haute Asie 1890-1895: Récit du Voyage_ (Paris, 1897), pp. 257 _sq._ The accounts supplement each other, though they differ in some particulars. I have endeavoured to combine them. According to Mr. Rockhill’s account, which is drawn from Chinese sources, at one point of the ceremonies the troops march thrice round the temple and fire volleys of musketry to drive away the devil. With the like intent they discharge a great old cannon, which bears the inscription, “My power breaks up and destroys rebellion.” The same account speaks of a fencing with battle-axes by a troop of boy-dancers, a great illumination of the cathedral with lanterns, and its decoration with figures made out of butter and flour to represent men, animals, dragons, etc.; also it makes mention of a horse-race and a foot-race, both run by boys. The clerical invasion of the capital at this season is graphically described by an eye-witness. See Huc, _Souvenirs d’un Voyage dans la Tartarie et le Thibet_, Sixième Édition (Paris, 1878), ii. 380 _sq_.

M170 The Grand Lama, the Jalno, and the King of the Years in their relations to each other. Probability that of old the Tibetan scapegoat was put to death as a substitute for the Grand Lama. M171 General remarks. M172 First, the immediate and the mediate expulsions of evil are identical in intention. M173 Second, the annual expulsion of evil generally coincides with some well-marked change of season, such as the beginning or end of winter, the beginning or end of the rainy season, etc. M174 Third, the annual expulsion of evil is commonly preceded or followed by a period of general license.

542 In the Dassera festival, as celebrated in Nepaul, we seem to have another instance of the annual expulsion of demons preceded by a time of license. The festival occurs at the beginning of October and lasts ten days. “During its continuance there is a general holiday among all classes of the people. The city of Kathmandu at this time is required to be purified, but the purification is effected rather by prayer than by water-cleansing. All the courts of law are closed, and all prisoners in jail are removed from the precincts of the city.... The Kalendar is cleared, or there is a jail-delivery always at the Dassera of all prisoners.” This seems a trace of a period of license. At this time “it is a general custom for masters to make an annual present, either of money, clothes, buffaloes, goats, etc., to such servants as have given satisfaction during the past year. It is in this respect, as well as in the feasting and drinking which goes on, something like our ‘boxing-time’ at Christmas.” On the seventh day at sunset there is a parade of all the troops in the capital, including the artillery. At a given signal the regiments begin to fire, the artillery takes it up, and a general firing goes on for about twenty minutes, when it suddenly ceases. This probably represents the expulsion of the demons. “The grand cutting of the rice-crops is always postponed till the Dassera is over, and commences all over the valley the very day afterwards.” See the description of the festival in H. A. Oldfield’s _Sketches from Nipal_ (London, 1880), ii. 342-351. On the Dassera in India, see J. A. Dubois, _Mœurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l’Inde_ (Paris, 1825), ii. 329 _sqq._ The Besisi of the Malay Peninsula hold a regular carnival at the end of the rice-harvest, when they are said to be allowed to exchange wives. See W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ (London, 1906), ii. 70, 76, 145, compare 120 _sq._ Amongst the Swahili of East Africa New Year’s Day was formerly a day of general license, “every man did as he pleased. Old quarrels were settled, men were found dead on the following day, and no inquiry was instituted about the matter.” See Ch. New, _Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1873), p. 65; and _The Golden Bough_,2 iii. 250. An annual period of anarchy and license, lasting three days, is reported by Borelli to be observed by some of the Gallas. See Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somal_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 158. In Ashantee the annual festival of the new yams is a time of general license. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 62.

M175 Fourth, the use of a divine man or animal as a scapegoat is remarkable. M176 Why a dying god should serve as a scapegoat. M177 The use of a divinity as scapegoat explains an ambiguity in the ceremony of “Carrying out Death.”

543 See _The Dying God_, pp. 233 _sqq._, 264.

544 Above, pp. 186, 189, 201.

545 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F. (1875) xxx. 194; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) p. 105.

M178 Annual expulsion of “the Old Mars” in the month of March in ancient Rome.

546 Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iii. 29, iv. 36. Lydus places the expulsion on the Ides of March, that is 15th March. But this seems to be a mistake. See H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, xxx. (1875) pp. 209 _sqq._; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913) pp. 122 _sqq._ Again, Lydus does not expressly say that Mamurius Veturius was driven out of the city, but he implies it by mentioning the legend that his mythical prototype was beaten with rods and expelled the city. Lastly, Lydus only mentions the name Mamurius. But the full name Mamurius Veturius is preserved by Varro, _De lingua latina_, vi. 45; Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, p. 131; Plutarch, _Numa_, 13. Mr. W. Warde Fowler is disposed to be sceptical as to the antiquity of the ceremony of expelling Mamurius. See his _Roman Festivals of the period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 44-50.

547 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” pp. 212 _sq._; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. 125 _sq._; W. H. Roscher, _Apollon und Mars_ (Leipsic, 1873), p. 27; L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 360; A. Vaniček, _Griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch_ (Leipsic, 1877), p. 715. The three latter scholars take Veturius as = _annuus_, because _vetus_ is etymologically equivalent to ἔτος. But, as Usener argues, it seems quite unallowable to take the Greek meaning of the word instead of the Latin.

548 Cato, _De agri cultura_, 141.

549 Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 85.

550 See the song of the Arval Brothers in _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_, ed. G. Henzen (Berlin, 1874), pp. 26 _sq._; J. Wordsworth, _Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin_ (Oxford, 1874), p. 158; H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, ii. Pars i. (Berlin, 1902) p. 276.

_ 551 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 42 _sqq._

552 Cato, _De agri cultura_, 83.

_ 553 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 50 _sq._, 55, 124 _sq._

554 L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 360; W. H. Roscher, _Apollon und Mars_, p. 49; _id._, _Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie_, ii. 2408 _sq._; H. Usener, _op. cit._ The ceremony also closely resembles the Highland New Year ceremony already described. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 322 _sqq._

555 But the Biyârs, a mixed tribe of North-Western India, observe an annual ceremony which they call “burning the old year.” The old year is represented by a stake of the wood of the cotton-tree, which is planted in the ground at an appointed place outside of the village, and then burned on the day of the full moon in the month of Pûs. Fire is first put to it by the village priest, and then all the people follow his example, parch stalks of barley in the fire, and afterwards eat them. Next day they throw the ashes of the burnt wood in the air; and on the morrow the festival ends with a regular saturnalia, at which decency and order are forgotten. See W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), ii. 137 _sq._ Compare _id._, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 319.

556 Propertius, v. 2. 61 _sq._; H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” p. 210; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. 123.

M179 “The Old Mars” seems to have been beaten by the Salii, the dancing priests of Mars. The dances of the Salii in spring and autumn were perhaps intended to quicken the growth of the corn sown at these seasons. The armed processions of the Salii may have been intended to rout out and expel the demons lurking in the city.

557 Varro, _De lingua latina_, vi. 45 ed. C. O. Müller; Festus, _s.v._ “Mamuri Veturi,” p. 131 ed. C. O. Müller; Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 389 _sqq._; Plutarch, _Numa_, 13.

558 Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 188, “_Cui [scil. Mamurio] et diem consecrarunt, quo pellem virgis feriunt_”; Minucius Felix, _Octavius_, 24, “_Nudi cruda hieme discurrunt, alii incedunt pilleati, scuta vetera circumferunt, pelles caedunt_.” Neither Servius nor Minucius Felix expressly mentions the Salii, but the description given by the latter writer (“_pilleati, scuta vetera circumferunt_”) proves that he alludes to them. The expression of Minucius Felix _pelles caedunt_ is conclusive in favour of _pellem_ in the passage of Servius, where some would wrongly substitute _peltam_, the reading of a single MS. That the beating of the skin-clad representative of Mamurius was done by the Salii was long ago rightly pointed out by Dr. W. H. Roscher (_Apollon und Mars_, p. 49).

559 Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 85, “_Saliia salitando, quod facere in comitio in sacris quotannis et solent et debent_.” Compare Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 387, “_Iam dederat Saliis a saltu nomina dicta_”; Plutarch, _Numa_, 13; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquitates Romanae_, ii. 70.

560 J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 (Leipsic, 1885) p. 431; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_2 (Munich, 1912), p. 144; W. Warde Fowler, _The Religious Experience of the Roman People_ (London, 1911), pp. 96 _sq._

561 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, p. 325, “_Qui deus in saliaribus Saturnus nominatur, videlicet a sationibus_.” In this passage Ritschl reads _Saeturnus_ for _Saturnus_. The best MSS. of the epitome read _Sateurnus_. See J. Wordsworth, _Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin_ (Oxford, 1884), p. 405. As to Saturn in this capacity see below, p. 306.

562 Columella, _De re rustica_, ii. 9. 6 _sq._

_ 563 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 137 _sqq._

564 J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 (Leipsic, 1885) pp. 427 _sq._

565 L. Preller, _Römische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 359. As to the lunar year of the old Roman Calendar see L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), ii. 38 _sqq._

566 As to their number and badge see Aulus Gellius, vi. (vii., ed. M. Hertz) 7. 8; as to their function see Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 85, “_Fratres Arvales dicti sunt, qui sacra publica faciunt propterea ut fruges ferant arva, a ferendo et arvis fratres arvales dicti_.”

567 Livy, i. 20. 4; Plutarch, _Numa_, 13; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquitates Romanae_, ii. 70. Livy only mentions the shields. From an ancient relief we learn that the staves of the Salii terminated in a knob at each end. Hence we may correct the statement of Dionysius, who describes the weapon doubtfully as λόγχην ἣ ῥάβδον ἤ τι τοιοῦθ ἕτερον. See J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 432, note 6.

568 See above, pp. 113, 116, 117, 132, 139, 141, 147, 158, 159, 161, 163, 165, 166, 186, 191, 196, 200, 204, 214.

569 Livy, i. 20. 4; J. Marquardt, _op. cit._ iii.2 432 _sq._; W. Smith, _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_, Third Edition (London, 1891), vol. ii. p. 590, _s.v._ “Salii.”

570 See above, pp. 111 _sqq._

M180 The demons expelled by the Salii may have been above all the demons of blight and infertility. This conjecture is supported by analogous ceremonies performed by savages for the purpose of driving off the demons that would harm the crops.

571 See above, p. 138.

572 Labat, _Voyage du Chevalier Des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne_ (Amsterdam, 1731), ii. 80 (p. 99 of the Paris edition).

573 Olivier de Sanderval, _De l’Atlantique au Niger par le Foutah-Djallon_ (Paris, 1883), p. 230. The phrase which I have translated “for exorcising the spirits” is “_pour conjurer les esprits_.”

M181 Dances of masked men in India, Borneo, and South America to promote the growth of the crops.

574 Ludovico di Varthema, _Travels in Egypt, Syria_, etc., translated by J. W. Jones (Hakluyt Society, London, 1863), pp. 166 _sq._

_ 575 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 95, 186 _sq._

_ 576 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 111 _sq._

M182 Dances in Aracan for the sake of the crops. Dances of the Tarahumare Indians of Mexico to procure rain for their crops.

_ 577 Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, liii. (1881) p. 178.

578 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 330 _sq._

M183 Dances of the Tarahumare Indians to cause rain to fall, corn to sprout, grass to grow, and animals to multiply.

579 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 335 _sqq._, 352 _sq._

M184 Dance of the Cora Indians at the sowing festival.

580 K. Th. Preuss, _Die Nayarit-Expedition_, I. _Die Religion der Cora-Indianer_ (Leipsic, 1912), pp. xcviii. _sq._, 61-63. As to the sowing festival of the Mexican Indians, compare K. Th. Preuss, “Die religiösen Gesänge und Mythen einiger Stämme der mexikanischen Sierra Madre,” _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, xi. (1908) pp. 374 _sqq._

M185 Dances and leaps of European peasants to make the corn grow tall.

_ 581 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 137-139.

582 Dr. F. J. Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie gesammelt in Churrhaetien_ (Chur, 1862), p. 21, quoting J. Stumpf and Ulr. Campell. As the passage is curious and the work probably rare, I will quote the original in full: “_Sicherlich auch im zusammenhange mit Donarcultus war ein brauch der leute in der Grub (in Graubünden)._ ‘_Die landleute in der Grub haben noch etwas anererbte bräuche, indem dass sie sich zu etlichen jahren (meistens zur zeit der sonnenwende) besammelten, verbutzten (sich als masken vermummten) und einander unbekannt machten, legten harnisch und geweer an, und nahm jeder ein grossen kolben oder knüttel, zugen in einer rott mit einander von einem dorf zum andern, triben hohe sprünge und seltsame abentheur.—Sie luffen gestracks laufs aneinander, stiessen mit kräften je einer den andern, dass es erhillt, stiessen laut mit ihren grössen stöcken und knütteln, deswegen sie vom landvolk genannt werden die Stopfer. Diese thorechte abentheuer triben sie zum aberglauben, dass ihnen das korn destobas gerathen sölle, haben aber anjetzo abgelassen, und sind diese Stopfer in keiner achtung mehr_.’ (Joh. Stumpf). _Auch Ulr. Campell erwähnt dieses volksbrauch (s. 11) und bemerkt_: ‘_mit diesem gebrauche hing früher der glaube zusammen, dass dessen ausübung ein fruchtbares jahr bringe._’ ” The word _Stopfer_ means “stopper,” “rammer,” “crammer,” etc.

M186 Dances of mummers called _Perchten_ in Austria for the good of the crops. The mythical old woman called Perchta.

583 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4 (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 226 _sqq._, iii. 88 _sq._; Fr. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), i. 247 _sq._, ii. 381; I. V. Zingerle, “Perahta in Tirol,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie_, iii. (Göttingen, 1855), pp. 203-206; _id._, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 128 _sq._, 138 _sq_.; J. M. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zürich, 1857), pp. 46-51, 63-65; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), i. 365; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), § 25, pp. 25-27; W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 542 _sq._; Karl Weinhold, _Weinacht-Spiele und Lieder aus Süddeutschland und Schlesien_ (Vienna, 1875), pp. 19 _sqq._; E. Mogk, in H. Paul’s _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_,2 iii. (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 280 _sq_. (where it is said that Perchta “_spendet dem Acker Fruchtbarkeit und lässt das Vieh gedeihen_”); E. H. Meyer, _Mythologie der Germanen_ (Strasburg, 1903), pp. 424 _sqq._; P. Herrmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 303 _sqq._; M. Andree-Eysen, _Volkskundliches aus dem bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet_ (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 156 _sqq._; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zürich, 1913), pp. 118 _sqq._

M187 The running and leaping of the _Perchten_ mummers on Twelfth Night. The Beautiful _Perchten_ and the Ugly _Perchten_.

584 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 231; I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 138 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 542 _sq._; J. M. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zürich, 1857), pp. 50 _sq._; K. Weinhold, _Weinacht-Spiele und Lieder aus Süddeutschland und Schlesien_ (Vienna, 1875), pp. 21 _sqq._

M188 The Ugly _Perchten_ in Salzburg. M189 The Beautiful _Perchten_ in Salzburg.

585 Marie Andree-Eysn, _Volkskundliches aus dem bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet_ (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 156-175.

M190 Mrs. Andree-Eysn on the _Perchten_; according to her, the processions of Perchten are intended to promote fertility by banishing the demons that would thwart it.

586 Marie Andree-Eysn, _Volkskundliches aus dem bayrisch-österreichischen Alpengebiet_ (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 179 _sq._ The authoress kindly presented me with a copy of her valuable work in May 1910, when I had the pleasure of visiting her and her husband, the eminent anthropologist, the late Dr. Richard Andree, in their home at Munich.

M191 The bells worn by the _Perchten_ mummers may be intended to ban demons. Bells rung to make the grass grow in spring. Bells rung to make the flax grow. Whips cracked to make the flax grow.

587 See P. Sartori, “Glockensagen und Glockenaberglaube,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) pp. 360 _sqq._ The use in classical antiquity of bells, gongs, and the clash of bronze generally to ban the demon host has been learnedly illustrated by Mr. A. B. Cook in his article, “The Gong at Dodona,” _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxii. (1902) pp. 14 _sqq._

588 Rev. A. L. Kitching, _On the Backwaters of the Nile_ (London, 1912), p. 264. As to the country of the Teso people, who do not belong to the Bantu stock, see _id._, pp. 26 _sq._

589 Marie Andree-Eysn, _op. cit._ pp. 180-182. As to the custom of “ringing-out the grass,” see further W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 540; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 343 _sq._

590 Marie Andree-Eysn, _op. cit._ p. 182.

591 Marie Andree-Eysn, _l.c._

592 K. Seifart, _Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift Hildesheim_2 (Hildesheim, 1889), p. 180. For more evidence of the supposed fertilizing influence of bells, see P. Sartori, “Glockensagen und Glockenaberglaube,” _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) pp. 363 _sq._

593 I. V. Zingerle, Sitten, _Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 135 _sq._, 139, § 1196, 1211, 1212.

594 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 268 _sq._

M192 Certain features in these processions or races of mummers seem to shew that the mummers represent beneficent spirits of fertility, who quicken the seed in the ground and offspring in the wombs of women. The view of W. Mannhardt.

595 Marie Andree-Eysn, _op. cit._ pp. 182 _sq._

596 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 548.

597 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._

M193 Confirmations of this view. The use of bells and swords in these ceremonies.

598 See above, p. 236.

_ 599 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 325 _sqq._

600 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 32; _County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, No. 3, Leicestershire and Rutlandshire_, collected and edited by C. J. Billson (London, 1895), pp. 93 _sq._

601 Mrs. Lilly Grove (Mrs. J. G. Frazer), _Dancing_ (London, 1895), pp. 147 _sqq._; E. K. Chambers, _The Mediaeval Stage_ (Oxford, 1903), i. 195 _sqq._

602 As to the swords carried by the _Perchten_ see above, p. 245; as to those carried by the dancers on Plough Monday, see J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 505. As to the sword-dance in general, see K. Müllenhoff, “Über den Schwerttanz,” in _Festgaben für Gustav Homeyer_ (Berlin, 1871), pp. 111-147 (who compares the dances of the Salii); Mrs. Lilly Grove, _op. cit._ pp. 189 _sqq._, 211 _sqq._; E. K. Chambers, _op. cit._ i. 182 _sqq._

603 See below, pp. 331 _sqq._

M194 These masquerades originally intended both to stimulate vegetation in spring and to expel demons. M195 Application of these conclusions to the expulsion of “the Old Mars” in ancient Rome. M196 Human scapegoats in ancient Greece. The “Expulsion of Hunger” at Chaeronea.

604 Plutarch, _Quaest. conviv._ vi. 8.

605 See above, pp. 143 _sqq._, 209.

M197 Human scapegoats at Marseilles. Human scapegoats put to death at Athens. Human scapegoats annually stoned to death at Abdera.

606 Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 57, following Petronius; Lactantius Placidius, _Commentarii in Statii Thebaida_ x. 793, p. 452, ed. R. Jahnke (Leipsic, 1898). According to the former writer, the scapegoat was cast out (“_projiciebatur_”); according to the latter, he was stoned to death by the people outside of the walls (“_extra pomeria saxis occidebatur a populo_”). The statement of some modern writers that he was killed by being hurled from a height rests on a reading (“_praecipitabatur_” for “_projiciebatur_”) in the text of Servius, which appears to have no manuscript authority and to be merely a conjecture of R. Stephan’s. Yet the conjecture has been inserted in the text by F. Buecheler in his edition of Petronius (Third Edition, Berlin, 1882, p. 109) without any intimation that all the MSS. present a different reading. See the critical edition of Servius edited by G. Thilo and H. Hagen, vol. i. (Leipsic, 1881), p. 346.

607 Helladius, in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 534 A, ed. Im. Bekker (Berlin, 1824); Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 734, and on _Knights_, 1136; Hesychius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ φαρμακοὶ; compare Suidas, _Lexicon_, _s.vv._ κάθαρμα, φαρμακός, and φαρμακούς; Lysias, _Orat._ vi. 53. That they were stoned is an inference from Harpocration. See next note. When the people of Cyrene sacrificed to Saturn (Cronus), they wore crowns of fresh figs on their heads. See Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 7. 25.

608 Harpocration, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ φαρμακός, who says δύο ἄνδρας ᾽Αθήνησιν ἐξῆγον καθάρσια ἐσομένους τῆς πόλεως ἐν τοῖς Θαργηλίοις, ἕνα μὲν ὑπὲρ τῶν ἀνδρῶν, ἕνα δὲ ὑπὲρ τῶν γυναικῶν. He does not expressly state that they were put to death; but as he says that the ceremony was an imitation of the execution of a mythical Pharmacus who was stoned to death, we may infer that the victims were killed by being stoned. Suidas (_s.v._ φαρμακός) copies Harpocration. As to the human scapegoats employed by the Greeks at the Thargelia and on other occasions see W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 124 _sqq._; J. Töpffer, _Beiträge zur griechischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1897), pp. 130 _sqq._; August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 468 _sqq._; Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 95 _sqq._; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 105 _sqq._; W. R. Paton, “The φαρμακοί and the Story of the Fall,” _Revue Archéologique_, iv. Série ix. (1907) pp. 51-57.

609 Ovid, _Ibis_, 467 _sq._:

“_Aut te devoveat certis Abdera diebus_ _ Saxaque devotum grandine plura petant_,”

with the two scholia quoted respectively by M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_, p. 108 note 6, and by O. Schneider, in his _Callimachea_ (Leipsic, 1870-1873), ii. 684. The scholiast refers to Callimachus as his authority.

M198 Annual human scapegoats in Leucadia. Human scapegoats annually put to death at the festival of the Thargelia in Asia Minor.

610 Strabo, x. 2. 9, p. 542; Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ Λευκάτης; L. Ampelius, _Liber Memorialis_, viii. 4; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 279; Ptolemaeus Hephaest., _Nov. Histor._ in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, cod. 190, p. 153, ed. Im. Bekker; _Mythographi Graeci_, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick, 1843), pp. 198 _sq._ According to the manuscript reading in Photius, _l.c._, the priests flung themselves into the sea; but the reading has been altered by the editors. As to the Kumaon ceremony see above, pp. 196 _sq._

611 Suidas and Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ περίψημα. The word which I have translated “offscouring” (περίψημα) occurs in 1 Corinthians iv. 13, where it is similarly translated in the English version. It means properly that on which something is wiped off, like a sponge or a duster.

612 J. Tzetzes, _Chiliades_, v. 726-761 (ed. Th. Kiesseling, Leipsic, 1826). Tzetzes’s authority is the satirical poet Hipponax. The tune which was played by the flutes while the man was being beaten is mentioned by Hesychius, _s.v._ Κραδίης νόμος. Compare _id._, _s.v._ Κραδησίτης; Plutarch, _De musica_, 8.

613 This may be inferred from the verse of Hipponax, quoted by Athenaeus, ix. 9, p. 370 B, where for φαρμάκου we should perhaps read φαρμακοῦ with Schneidewin (_Poetae lyrici Graeci_,3 ed. Th. Bergk, ii. 763).

M199 Mannhardt’s interpretation of the custom of beating the human scapegoat on the genitals: it was intended to free his reproductive energies from any restraint laid on them by demoniacal or other malignant agency.

614 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 113 _sqq._, especially 123 _sq._, 133.

615 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xx. 101; Dioscorides, _De materia medica_, ii. 202; Lucian, _Necyom._ 7; _id._, Alexander, 47; Theophrastus, _Superstitious Man_.

616 Theocritus, vii. 106 _sqq._ with the scholiast.

617 Compare Aug. Mommsen, _Heortologie_ (Leipsic, 1864), pp. 414 _sqq._, _id._, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 468 _sq._, 479 _sqq._; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 105, iii _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), p. 215.

618 At certain sacrifices in Yucatan blood was drawn from the genitals of a human victim and smeared on the face of the idol. See Diego de Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_, texte espagnol et traduction française par l’Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864), p. 167. Was the original intention of this rite to transfuse into the god a fresh supply of reproductive energy?

619 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ ix. 26.

_ 620 The Dying God_, pp. 239 _sq._

_ 621 The Dying God_, p. 114.

M200 W. R. Paton’s view that the human scapegoats at the Thargelia personated the spirits of fig-trees, and that the ceremony was a magical rite for the fertilization of fig-trees, being copied from the process of caprification.

622 On the other hand, W. Mannhardt regarded the victims as representing the demons of infertility, dearth, and sickness, who in the persons of their representatives were thus hounded with blows out of the city. See his _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 129.

623 W. R. Paton, “The φαρμακοί and the Story of the Fall,” _Revue Archéologique_, iv. Série, ix. (1907) pp. 51 _sqq._

M201 This theory is confirmed by a comparison with the Roman rites of the _Nonae Caprotinae_.

_ 624 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 313 _sqq._

625 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquitates Romanae_, ii. 56. 4. Compare Livy, i. 16. 4; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 27.

_ 626 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 248. Compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 331 _sqq._

627 See, for example, Helladius, cited by Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 534 _a_, ed. Im. Bekker, καὶ ἐκράτει τὸ ἔθος ἀεὶ καθαίρειν τὴν πόλιν τοῖς φαρμακοῖς; Harpocration, _s.v._ φαρμακός (vol. i. p. 298, ed. G. Dindorf), δύο ἄνδρας Ἀθήνησιν ἐξῆγον καθάρσια ἐσομένους τῆς πόλεως; Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Knights_, 1136, δημοσίους δέ, τοὺς λεγομένους φαρμακούς, οἵπερ καθαίρουσι τὰς πόλεις τῷ ἑαυτῶν φόνῳ.

628 Mr. Paton ingeniously suggests that in the Biblical narrative of Adam and Eve, who for eating a particular fruit were condemned to death and driven out of the happy garden with aprons of fig-leaves about their loins (Genesis iii.), we have a reminiscence of a custom of fertilizing fig-trees by a pair of human scapegoats, who, like the victims at the Thargelia, assimilated themselves to the tree by wearing its foliage or fruit. See W. R. Paton, “The φαρμακοί and the Story of the Fall,” _Revue Archéologique_, iv. Série, ix. (1907) pp. 55 _sq._

M202 Beating as a mode of dispelling evil influences.

629 Above, pp. 2, 186. Compare Plutarch, _Parallela_, 35, where a woman is represented as going from house to house striking sick people with a hammer and bidding them be whole.

630 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 99, 155; _id._, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 333, 441, 445.

631 A. Certeux et E. H. Carnoy, _L’Algérie Traditionnelle_ (Paris and Algiers, 1884), p. 189.

632 H. Kern, “Een Spanisch schrijver over den godsdienst der heidensche Bikollers,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvii. (1897) pp. 232 _sq._ The Spanish authority is Father José Castaño. An ancient Egyptian relief from Saqqarah represents a mummy at the entrance of the tomb, while the women tear out their hair and the men wave palm-branches, apparently to drive evil spirits away. The custom has been inherited by the modern Arabs, who similarly beat off the invisible foes with palm-branches. See A. Wiedemann, _Herodots Zweites Buch_ (Leipsic, 1890), p. 347. However, in these cases the blows seem to be administered to the demons and not to the corpse.

M203 Beating people to rid them of clinging ghosts. Exorcism of ghosts by means of leaves and pig’s blood.

633 J. M. van Baarda, “Ile de Halmaheira,” _Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, Quatrième Série, iii. (1892) p. 545. As to throwing a banana-trunk into the grave, see _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 97.

634 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), p. 550.

_ 635 Revue d’Ethnographie_, iii. (1885) pp. 395 _sq._

636 R. Schomburgk, _Reisen in Britisch-Guiana_ (Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii. 457 _sqq._; Rev. J. H. Bernau, _Missionary Labours in British Guiana_ (London, 1847), p. 52; C. F. Ph. von Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s, zumal Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 694 _sq._; J. Crevaux, _Voyages dans l’Amérique du Sud_ (Paris, 1883), p. 548.

637 Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ i. 329. For more evidence see C. Boetticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_ (Berlin, 1856), pp. 369 _sqq._

638 See my note on Pausanias, ii. 31. 8, vol. ii. pp. 276 _sqq._

639 V. Solomon, “Extracts from Diaries kept in Car Nicobar,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 227.

M204 Beating practised by South American Indians and others as a mode of conveying good qualities.

640 J. de Acosta, _History of the Indies_, vol. ii. p. 375 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). See above, pp. 128 _sqq._

641 P. Lozano, _Descripcion Chorographica del terreno, rios, arboles, y animales de las dilatadissimas provincias del Gran Chaco, Gualamba_, etc. (Cordova, 1733), p. 67. The reappearance of the Pleiades probably marked the beginning of the year for these people. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 307 _sqq._

642 G. Osculati, _Esplorazione delle regioni equatoriali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle Amazzoni_ (Milan, 1850), p. 118.

643 H. Coudreau, _Chez nos Indiens: quatre années dans la Guyane Française_ (Paris, 1895), p. 544.

644 G. H. Loskiel, _History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians in North America_ (London, 1794), Part i. p. 37.

645 The _Satapatha Brahmana_, v. 4. 4. 7, translated by J. Eggeling,