i. 350, 351;

expulsion of devils in, ii. 203; self-beating in, ii. 216. _See also under_ Incas.

Philippine Islands, belief in the souls of trees in the, i. 62; cannibalism in the, ii. 88

Philosophy, primitive, defect of, i. 210-212; rules of life of sacred men are the outcome of, _ib._

Phoenician custom at vintage, i. 365; Linus song, i. 398, 399

Phrygia, mock human sacrifices in, i. 300; reapers’ song in, i. 365, 366

Piedmont, midsummer peasant custom in, i. 288

Pig, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 26-31; sacred, ii. 50-57; Osiris as a, ii. 52-60

Pigs, Demeter and Proserpine as, ii. 44-49; Attis and Adonis as, ii. 49, 50

Pilsen, Whitsuntide custom near, i. 92

Pine-tree sacred to Dionysus, i. 321

Pinsk, Whit Monday customs by Russian girls in, i. 87, 88

Plas, Whitsuntide custom in the neighbourhood of, i. 92

Po, excavations in the valley of the, i. 57

Poachers and the fir-cones, ii. 288

Point Barrow, hunting the evil spirit by the Eskimo of, ii. 164, 165

Poitou, midsummer fire festival in, ii. 261

Poland, ceremony of carrying out Death in, i. 261; harvest custom in, i. 339, 340, 342, 343; Christmas custom in, ii. 6, 7

Polynesians, superstition held by the, concerning the head, i. 189, 190; and sacred contagion, ii. 55

Pomerania, cut hair buried in, i. 205; reaping custom in, i. 205

Pomos of California, expulsions of devils by the, ii. 183

Pongol festival, ii. 73

Pont à Mousson, harvest ceremony at, ii. 21

Poplar, burning of a, on St. Peter’s Day, i. 101

Portrait, the soul in the, i. 148, 149

Portraits, life in, i. 148

Potato-dog, ii. 4

—— wolf, ii. 2, 5

Potatoes, custom at the digging of new, in Sutherlandshire, ii. 71

Potniae, rites of Dionysus at, i. 329

Pouilly, harvest ceremony at, ii. 20, 21, 47

Preacher to the fish, ii. 119, 120

Pregnancy, i. 239

Priestly kings, i. 7, 8

Priests, Roman and Sabine, not shaved with iron razors, i. 172

Primitive man and the supernatural, i. 6-30

—— philosophy, rules of life are the outcome of, i. 208-210

Prophesying, drinking blood before, i. 34, 35

Propitiation of the fish, ii. 118, 119

Proserpine and the pig, ii. 44-49

Prussia, reverence for the oak in, i. 58; high trees worshipped by the ancient Prussians, i. 64; custom after a funeral by the old Prussians, i. 177; self-immolation of the supreme ruler of the old Prussians, i. 223; ceremony at spring ploughing in, i. 286; corn drenching in, i. 287; gardens of Adonis in, i. 294, 295; harvest custom in, i. 336, 338, 343; ceremony at the sowing of the winter corn by the Prussian Slavs, ii. 18, 19; midsummer fire festival in, ii. 265

Puberty, girls at, not allowed to touch the ground or see the sun, ii. 225-253; girls secluded at, ii. 225; reasons for the seclusion, ii. 238 _sq._

Pulverbatch, oak tree superstition at, ii. 368

Punjaub, Gen. Nicholson worshipped by a sect in the, i. 41; ceremony at the bursting of the cotton boles in the, i. 353; custom at the festival of lamps, ii. 176

Purification after travel, i. 157, 158

Pyrenees, customs in the, i. 101

Quauhtitlans, human sacrifices by the, ii. 221

Queen of the sacred rites, i. 7

Queensland, initiatory rites in, ii. 343, 344

Quilacare, self-immolation of the king of, i. 224

Quoja, initiatory rites in, ii. 347

Ra, the sun-god, i. 313-316

Rain-charm, i. 93, 199, 287, 289, 299, 333, 374, 390, 400; ii. 42

—— kings of, i. 52, 53

—— making, i. 13-22

Rajah, custom at the death of a, i. 232

Rajah Vijyanagram, his aversion to iron, i. 174

Rajamahall, offerings of first-fruits in, ii. 374, 375

Rali fair, the, i. 276, 277

Ram, sacred, ii. 63; Egyptian sacrifice of the, ii. 92-94; consecration of the white ram by the Kalmucks, ii. 136

Ramin, harvest custom in, i. 377

Raskolniks, the, and mirrors, i. 147

Rattlesnake not killed, ii. 110

Ratzeburg, harvest custom in, i. 376, 377

Red cock, ii. 9

—— haired victims, i. 306, 307

Reflection, the soul in the, i. 145-148

Religion, marks of a primitive, i. 348, 349

—— and magic, relation of, i. 30-32

Religious aspect of Peruvian, Parthian and Egyptian sovereigns, i. 48-50

Resurrection, the, of animals, ii. 123-125; traces in folk-tales of the belief in, ii. 125; simulation of death and resurrection at initiatory rites, ii. 342-358

Rhetra, priest tastes the sacrificial blood at, i. 35

Rhön mountains, fire festivals in the, ii. 249

Rice-bride, the, i. 355

Rice harvest, ceremonies at the, ii. 71, 72

Rio de la Plata, seclusion of girls amongst the Indians of, ii. 230, 231

Roman cure for fever, ii. 152

—— haircutting custom, i. 199

Romans, tree worship by the, i. 99

Rome, ceremony of driving out the old Mars from, ii. 208-210

Romove, sacred oak at, i. 58, 64

Rook, expulsion of evil in the island of, ii. 158; initiation festival, ii. 352

Rosenheim, harvest custom in, ii. 20

Roti, haircutting ceremony in the island of, i. 201, 205, 206

Rottenburg, midsummer ceremony in, ii. 266, 267

Roumanians, rain-making by the, i. 16; custom after a death by the, i. 176; corn-drenching by the, i. 286

Rowan, the, effective against witchcraft, ii. 361

Royal and priestly taboos, i. 109-120, 149-209

—— blood not spilt upon the ground, i. 179-183

Ruhla, springtide custom in, i. 88

Rupture, cure for, ii. 330

Russia, Whitsuntide customs in, i. 76, 77; first-born sacrificed by the heathen in, i. 237; Eastertide customs in Little Russia, i. 272, 273; harvest custom in, i. 341; ceremony on the cutting of the first sheaf in, i. 364; Easter custom in White Russia, ii. 29; Russian wood-spirits, ii. 35, 36; Russian corn-spirits, ii. 36; beating as a charm in, ii. 216; midsummer customs in, ii. 265, 267

Ruthenia, fire festival in, ii. 265

Rye-boar, ii. 26, 27

—— goat, ii. 12

—— wolf, ii. 1-3, 5

Sabaea, kings of, not allowed out of their palaces, i. 164

Sabarios, festival of, ii. 69

Sables, superstition about killing, ii. 115

Sacaea festival at Babylon, i. 226, 400

Sacramental bread, traces of the use of, at Aricia, ii. 82-84

—— character of the harvest supper, corn-spirit eaten in animal form, ii. 31

—— killing of an animal, two types of the, ii. 134 _sq._

Sacramental killing of sacred animal by pastoral peoples, ii. 135-138

Sacraments in ancient Mexico, ii. 78, 79

Sacred cattle in Egypt, ii. 60, 61

—— persons’ vessels not to be used by others, i. 166; sacred persons are dangerous, i. 166, 167; not allowed to see the sun, ii. 225, 243 _note_; not allowed to touch the ground, ii. 224, 243 _note_

Sacredness and uncleanness not distinguished by primitive man, i. 169-172

Sacrifices, human, i. 235-237, 251, 252

Sacrificial king, i. 7

Saddle Island, the reflection and the soul in the, i. 145

Saffron Walden, May-day custom in, i. 76

Sagar, influenza in, ii. 189, 190

Saligné, harvest custom in, i. 343

Salii, the, ii. 210 _note_

Salmon-catching, ii. 121, 122

Salza district, Shrove Tuesday custom in the, ii. 29

Salzwedel, Whitsuntide custom in, i. 90

Samoan gods, i. 39; ii. 54

Samoans, the, and bleeding trees, i. 61; recall of the soul amongst the, i. 135; turtle not eaten by the, i. 163;

Samoans and the butterfly, ii. 56; presentation of first-fruits by the, ii. 381

Samogitians, tree superstition amongst the, i. 65; birds and beasts of the wood held sacred by the, i. 105

Samorin kings, i. 225

Samoyed story, the external soul in a, ii. 321

Sankara and his shadow, i. 142

Santals, story of a soul by the, i. 126

Sardinia, Gardens of Adonis in, i. 290

Satyrs, representation of the, ii. 35

Savage, our debt to the, i. 210-212

Savage Island, kings killed in the, i. 48; collapse of the monarchy in the, i. 118; killing of strangers in the, i. 158

Savages and the soul, i. 121, 122

“Sawing the old woman,” i. 261, 262

Saxon villages, Whitsuntide custom in, i. 95

Saxons of Transylvania, charm for keeping sparrows from the corn used by the, ii. 130

Saxony, Whitsuntide ceremonies in, i. 243

Scandinavian Christmas custom, ii. 29

Scapegoat, ii. 182-217; animal employed as a, ii. 189-191, 194 _sq._; human, ii. 191 _sq._; dog used as a, ii. 194, 195; Tibetan ceremony of the, ii. 197, 198; divine, ii. 199-201, 205; cow and bull as, ii. 201, 202; use of, in classical antiquity, ii. 208-217; reason for beating the, ii. 213-215

Schaumburg, Easter fires in, ii. 253

Schluckenau, Shrovetide custom in, i. 244

Scotland, representation of spring in the Highlands of, i. 97; iron as a charm in, i. 175, 176; harvest custom in, i. 339, 345; cowherd clothed in cow’s hide in the Highlands of, ii. 145, 146; midsummer fires in, ii. 264, 265

Scythian kings put in bonds in times of scarcity, i. 46

Sea-lion, respect for the, ii. 111

Seal, respect for the, ii. 111

Self-immolation, i. 216, 224

Semites, sacrifice of children by the, i. 235; the king’s son sacrificed, _ib._; worship of Adonis, i. 279

Senegambia, the Python clan in, ii. 95; soul detention among the Sereres of, i. 139

Senjero, first-born sacrificed in, i. 236, 237

Servia, rain-making in, i. 16; torchlight procession in, ii. 266

Seven Oaks, May-day custom in, i. 76

Sex-totems in Australia, ii. 334-337

Shadow, the soul in the, i. 141-149

Shamans, the, sacrifice their chief on account of pestilence, i. 48

Shans, expulsion of the fire-spirit by the, ii. 178, 179

Shark Point the home of the priestly King Kukulu, i. 112

Sharp instruments supposed to wound spirits, i. 176, 177

Sheaf, the last, various names given to, and ceremonies in connection with, i. 336-338, 340-346, 408; ii. 4, 7, 8, 68

Shepherd’s Isle, precautions taken against strangers in, i. 152, 153

Shetland seamen and wind buying, i. 27

Shropshire, “Neck” the name given to the last handful of corn in, i. 407, 408; harvest custom, ii. 24, 25; sin-eating in, ii. 155

Shrovetide Bear, i. 254, 255

—— customs, i. 96, 244, 270; ii. 29, 250, 254-257, 283

Siam, soul superstition in, i. 59; mode of royal executions in, i. 179, 180; superstition concerning the head, i. 187, 188; temporary king of, i. 229; banishment of demons in, ii. 178; human scapegoats in, ii. 196; the external soul in Siamese story, ii. 304, 305

Siberian sable hunters, ii. 115, 116

Sicily, Gardens of Adonis in, i. 294, 295

Silenus both a wood and corn spirit, ii. 35; representation of, _ib._

Silesia, driving out Death in, i. 260; “carrying out Death” in, i. 267; bringing back summer in, i. 263; harvest custom in, i. 336, 346; ii. 8

Silvanus both a wood and corn spirit, ii. 35

Sin-bearers, ii. 151, 152

Sin-eating, ii. 154-157

“Sinew which shrank,” abstinence from the, ii. 126-128

Skye, harvest festival in, ii. 14; Beltane fires in, ii. 255, 256

Slaves sacrificed, i. 251, 252

Slavonia, “carrying out Death” in, i. 260; ii. 209; custom of “sawing the old woman” amongst the Slavs, i. 262; reaping custom amongst the Slavs, i. 334, 355; beating in, ii. 216; midsummer fires in, ii. 265; perpetual fire of the Slavs, ii. 293; the external soul in Slavonic stories, ii. 309, 310

Slovenes of Oberkrain, Shrove Tuesday custom amongst the, i. 96

Small-pox, driving away the, ii. 161; scapegoat used for, ii. 190, 191

Snake, communion with the, ii. 139

—— tribe, ii. 95; ceremony performed with a dough snake by the, ii. 139, 140

Soest, custom of flax pullers at, i. 375

Sofala, kings of, killed, i. 219, 220

Sogamoso, restrictions on the heir to the throne in, ii. 225

Solör, harvest custom in, i. 375

Somersetshire, midsummer fires in, ii. 262

Sorcerers, the soul extracted or detained by, i. 135-141

Soul, perils of the, i. 109 _sq._; a miniature of the body, i. 121-123; precautions to prevent its escape, i. 123; conceived as a bird, i. 124; its flight, i. 124, 125; absent in sleep, i. 125-129; its departure not always voluntary, i. 129; carried off by ghosts, i. 129-132; recall of the, i. 129-141; stolen by demons, i. 132-135; brought back in visible shape, i. 136-138; extracted or detained by sorcerers, i. 138-141; transference of the, i. 140; the soul thought to be in the portrait, i. 148, 149; in the shadow, i. 141-149; in the reflection, i. 145-148; in the blood, i. 178, 179; transmigration of the human soul into that of a turtle, ii. 98; the external soul in folk tales, ii. 296-326; in folk custom, ii. 327-359

Souls, of trees, i. 59-61; of divine persons transmitted to successors, i. 237-239; plurality of, ii. 339

South American Indians, foods eaten and avoided by the, ii. 86; beating by the, ii. 216

South Sea Islands, man-gods in the, i. 38, 39.

Sowing-time custom, ii. 28-30, 32, 48

Spachendorf, fire festivals in, ii. 249, 250

Spain, custom of “sawing the old woman” in, i. 261, 262; midsummer fires in, ii. 266

Sparrows, the, and the corn, ii. 130

Sparta, state sacrifices offered by the kings of, i. 7

Spices, sprinkling the sick with, i. 154

Spirit, of vegetation, in human shape, i. 87, 88

—— robbing the, i. 380

Spirits, sharp instruments supposed to wound, i. 176, 177

Spitting as a protective charm, i. 205

Spring and harvest customs compared, i. 346, 347

—— ceremony in, in China, ii. 42, 43; European fire festivals in, ii. 247-254

Storms, Motumotu theory of, i. 27

Strangers, precautions against the magic arts of, i. 150-160; tied up in the sheaves by the reapers as representatives of the corn-spirit, i. 374-380

Straw goats, ii. 16

Sucla-Tirtha, expulsion of sins to sea by the, ii. 192

Suicide of Fijians at old age, i. 216

Sumatra, rain-charm in, i. 17; tree-superstition in, i. 63; reluctance to wound a tiger in, ii. 110

Summer, bringing back, i. 263, 268

—— tree, i. 268, 269

Sun, staying the, i. 24; sacred person not allowed to see the, ii. 225, 243 _note_; girls at puberty not allowed to see the, ii. 225-253; traces in folktales of the rule which forbids girls at puberty to see the sun, ii. 235-237; belief that the sun can impregnate women, ii. 236; tabooed persons may not see the, ii. 243 _note_; fires as sun charms, ii. 267-274

Suni Mohammedans, covering up mirrors by the, i. 147

Sunshine, making, i. 22-24

Superb warbler, ii. 336, 337

Surenthal, midsummer fire ceremony in the, ii. 259, 260

Surinam, the bush negroes of, and their totems, ii. 53, 54

Sutherland, cure for cough in, ii. 154

Sutherlandshire, custom at the digging of new potatoes in, ii. 71

Swabia, burying of cut hair in, i. 202; burying the carnival in, i. 254-257; harvest custom, ii. 27; fire festival, ii. 248-249; Easter fires in, ii. 254; midsummer fires in, ii. 258

Sweden, harvest superstition in, i. 68; King Domalde sacrificed on account of famine, i. 47, 48; May Eve customs in, i. 78; midsummer ceremonies, i. 78, 79; Christmas customs in, ii. 29-31; superstitious use of Yule straw in, ii. 30, 31; May Day fires in, ii. 258; midsummer bonfires in, ii. 289; mistletoe superstition in, _ib._; divining rods made from the mistletoe in, ii. 367

Swineherds, restrictions on, in Egypt, ii. 52

Syleus, legend of, i. 398

Sympathetic eating, Savage belief that a man acquires the character of the animal or man whose flesh he eats, ii. 85-89

—— magic, i. 9-12

Syria, caterpillars in, ii. 132

Taboo, i. 121, 178; fatal effects of, i. 167-170; seclusion of tabooed persons, i. 170, 171; the object of, is to preserve life, i. 149; royal and priestly taboos, i. 109-120, 149-150, 209

Tabor, in Bohemia, ceremony of carrying out Death in, i. 258

Tahiti, abdication of kings of, i. 120; the bodies of the king and queen not allowed to be touched, i. 172; superstition concerning the head in, i. 190, 191; burying of cut hair in, i. 200

Tâif, hair cut on returning from a journey in, i. 194

Tamaniu, the, of the Bank Islanders, ii. 331, 332

Tana, disposal of unconsumed food by the islanders, i. 166; offerings of first-fruits in, ii. 378

Tarnow, reaping custom in, i. 335

Tartar Khan, ceremony on a visit by a stranger to a, i. 158, 159

—— poems, the external soul in, ii. 321-324

Ta-ta-thi tribe of New South Wales, rain-making by the, i. 14

Tâ-uz, festival in honour of, i. 283, 284

Temporary kings, i. 228-234; sometimes hereditary, i. 228, 232

Tenedos, rites of Dionysus at, i. 329

Tenimber Islands, offering of first-fruits in the, ii. 376, 377

Teutonic kings exercised the powers of high priests, i. 8

Texas, initiatory ceremony among the Toukaway Indians of, ii. 352

Thammuz as a corn-spirit, i. 283, 288

Thann, May-Day customs in, i. 83

Theban ritual, ii. 92, 93; rams sacred at Thebes, ii. 63

Thesmophoria, the, ii. 44-48

Thlinket of Alaska, festival to the halibut by the, ii. 121

Thuringen, Whitsuntide customs in, i. 90, 91, 243; Mid-Lent customs in, i. 257, 258; threshing custom in, i. 371

Tibetan New Year’s day custom, ii. 193-195; scapegoat, ii. 197-198

Tiger, flesh of, eaten, ii. 86; reluctance to wound a, ii. 110

Tikopia islanders, ceremony by the, in cases of epidemic, ii. 188

Tillot, threshing custom in the canton of, i. 372

Timor, West, custom of a speaker in, i. 163

Timorese rain-charm, i. 18

Timorlaut, married men not allowed to cut their hair in, i. 194; disease-boats in, ii. 186, 187

Tjumba, harvest festival in, ii. 375, 376

Todas, the dairy a sanctuary amongst the, i. 41; buffalo held sacred by the, ii. 136, 137

Tom-cat, ii. 11

Tona, the, of the Zapotecs, ii. 332, 333

Tonga, king of, not seen eating, i. 162; ceremony in, with regard to sacred contagion, ii. 55; festival of the first-fruits in, ii. 379-381

Tongues of birds given to backward children to eat, ii. 87

Tonquin, the test of a suitable sacrificial victim in, i. 36; selection of guardian spirits in, i. 40; the monarchy, i. 119, 120; kings not allowed to be viewed in public, i. 165; mode of royal executions in, i. 180, 181; expulsion of evil spirits in, ii. 176-178; time of licence in, ii. 204

Toothache cure, ii. 149

Torchlight processions, ii. 266, 273

Totem, a, is an object (animal, plant, etc.) in which a man deposits his soul for safety, ii. 337-342

Totemism, ii. 38, 53, 54, 56, 133, 337-342, 358, 359

Totems, sex, ii. 334

Touaregs of the Sahara, custom of veiling the face amongst the, i. 163

Transmigration of divine spirit, i. 42-44

Transylvania, rain-charm in, i. 17; burying the carnival amongst the Saxons of, i. 255; “carrying out Death” in, i. 265, 266; corn-drenching in, i. 286; custom for preserving the crops from insects, etc. in, ii. 130

Transylvanian story of a soul, i. 126, 127

Traunstein district, harvest custom in the, ii. 27

Travancore, transference of sickness in, ii. 151

Travel, purification after, i. 157, 158

Tree-spirit represented by leaf-clad persons alone, i. 87-90; killing the, i. 240-253; reason for annually killing the, i. 247-249; the goat as an embodiment of the, ii. 34-37; burnt in effigy, ii. 274-277; human beings burnt as representatives of the, ii. 277-285

—— spirits give rain and sunshine, i. 66; cause the crops to grow, i. 67-70; influence of, on women and cattle, i. 70-74

—— worship, i. 56-98; in antiquity, 98-108

Trees, bleeding, i. 61; souls of, i. 59-61; souls of the dead believed to animate, i. 62; inhabited by spirits, i. 62-65; planted at the births of children, ii. 329, 330; regarded as storehouses of the sun’s fire, ii. 369 _sq._

—— and cattle, i. 72 _sq._

Trier, harvest custom in, ii. 6

Tukaitawa and his shadow, i. 142, 143

Turks, parings from the nails preserved by the, i. 204; Turks of Central Asia give backward children tongues of birds to eat, ii. 87

Turner’s picture of the Golden Bough, i. 1

Turtle, the, not eaten, i. 163; sacrifice of the sacred, ii. 95-99; belief in the transmigration of human souls into, ii. 98, 99

Twelfth Day customs, ii. 143, 144, 182

Tycoons, the, i. 119

Types, two, of animal worship, ii. 133, 134

Typhon, ii. 57-60

Tyrol, expulsion of witches in the, i. 181, 182; witches said to make use of the hair cut in the, i. 199; midsummer customs in the, ii. 267

Ualaroi, ceremony at initiatory rites in, ii. 344

Uapes of Brazil, treatment of girls at the age of puberty in, ii. 334

Udvarhely, harvest home in, i. 370, 371; ceremony with the last sheaf in, ii. 9, 48

Uea, power ascribed to the souls of the dead in, i. 132

Uelzen, harvest ceremony in, ii. 13

Uganda, custom of burning the king’s brothers in, i. 181; king of, and his courtiers, i. 222

Ugi, dread of women’s blood in, i. 186; burying of cut hair in, i. 202

Uliase, sprinkling the sick with spices in, i. 154

Unyoro, kings killed in, i. 218

Upsala, sacred grove at, i. 58

Utch Kurgan, sin eating in, ii. 156, 157

Val di Ledro, fire festival in, ii. 251

Vaté, burying alive at, i. 217

Vegetation, spirit of, in human shape, i. 87, 88; slain at midsummer, i. 274, 275

Veiling, i. 162, 163

Venison not eaten, ii. 86, 87

Vermin, respect shown by primitive people for, ii. 129-132

Vestal fire, i. 5

—— virgins, hair of, i. 200

Victoria, Queen, worshipped by a sect in Orissa, i. 41

Vine, not to walk under a, i. 183; sacred to Dionysus, i. 321

Vintage, Phoenician custom at, i. 365

Virbius, legend of, i. 6; possible explanation of his relation to the Arician Diana, i. 362; and the horse, ii. 62-67; reason why he was confounded with the sun, ii. 369

Volders, threshing custom at, i. 374

Vorarlberg, fire festival at, ii. 248

Vosges Mountains, May Day customs in the, i. 76

Wadai, veiling of the Sultan of, i. 163; he must have no bodily defect, i. 221

Waganda, worship in, i. 45

Walber, the, i. 84, 86

Wallachia, corn-drenching in, i. 286

Wanika, the, believers in the souls of trees, i. 59; do not shed the blood of animals, i. 182

Wanyoro, secretion of cut hair and nails by the, i. 203

Wanzleben, harvest custom in, ii. 5

Warts, cure for, ii. 153

Warua, the, not seen eating, i. 160, 161

Wa-teita, the, their reluctance to be photographed, i. 148

Water, kings of, i. 53-56

—— fairy, English superstition regarding the, i. 146

Watjobaluk, the, and the bat, ii. 334

Weather kings, i. 44-46

—— omens, ii. 270, 271

Weevil, the, ii. 129, 130

Weiden, harvest custom in, i. 338

Welsh custom of sin eating, ii. 154, 155

Wends dancing round the oak-tree, i. 72

Wermland, custom among the threshers in, i. 378; ceremony with regard to the last sheaf in, ii. 68

West African rain-makers, i. 20

Westerhüsen, reaping custom in, i. 334

Westphalia, Whitsuntide customs in, i. 98; harvest custom in, i. 336; ii. 8, 9

Wetar, men injured by attacking their shadows in, i. 142; superstition concerning the blood of women in, i. 187; opinion of the inhabitants as to their descent, ii. 53

Wheat-bride, a name given to the binder of the last sheaf, i. 346

—— dog, a name given to the binder of the last sheaf, ii. 4

White dog, sacrifice of the, ii. 166

—— mice spared, ii. 131, 132

Whitsuntide basket, i. 89

—— bride, i. 98

—— customs, i. 76, 77, 80, 87, 88, 90-96, 98, 242, 243-247

—— flower, i. 88

—— king, i. 90

—— queen, i. 93

Wiedingharde, threshing custom in, i. 378

Wild man, i. 243, 244, 248, 250, 270; ii. 41

Wind, buying and selling, i. 27; fighting the, i. 28-30; wind-making, i. 26, 27

Wine the blood of the vine, i. 184, 185; abstention from, _ib._

Winenthal, midsummer fire ceremony in the, ii. 259, 260

Witchcraft, protection against, ii. 361, 362

Witches, expulsion of, ii. 181

Wolf, the corn-spirit as a, ii. 3-7

Wolfeck, midsummer bonfire in, ii. 277

Women, superstition concerning the blood of, i. 185-187

—— secluded, ii. 238-242

—— and tree-spirits, i. 70-74

Wotjaks, sacred groves of the, i. 65; driving out Satan by the, ii. 179, 180

Wren, hunting the, ii. 140-144; English tradition concerning the hunting of the, ii. 140, 141

Wurmlingen, Whit Monday custom in, i. 242, 243; threshing custom in, ii. 21

Yakut charm for making wind, i. 26; sacrifices, i. 36

Yawning, Hindoo custom when, i. 123

Yarilo, funeral of, i. 273

Yorkshire custom of the clergyman cutting the first corn, ii. 71

Yoruba, precautions against strangers in, i. 151

Yucutan charm for staying the sun, i. 25; New Year’s festival, ii. 272, 273

Yule boar, ii. 29-32, 48

—— straw, ii. 30, 31

Zabern, May Day custom in, i. 77; harvest custom in, ii. 18

Zacynthus, strength thought to be in the hair by the people of, ii. 328

Zafimanelo, the, not seen eating, i. 160

Zaparo Indians of South America, foods eaten and avoided by the, ii. 86

Zapotecs, high pontiff of the, i. 113, 114; ii. 224; harvest custom, i. 352, 353; the tona of the, ii. 332

Zealand, custom at the madder harvest in, i. 378, 379

Zend Avesta, directions by the, concerning the clippings of hair and nails, i. 202

Zeus, a man’s shadow lost on entering the sanctuary of, i. 143; represented by an oak at Dodona, ii. 291

—— and Hera, representation of the marriage of, i. 103

Zoolas, qualities required for the king of the, i. 219

Zulu rain-charm, i. 19; belief in the reflection as the soul, i. 145; kings put to death, i. 218, 219; custom in time of disease, ii. 86; cannibalism, ii. 89; girls secluded at puberty, ii. 226; the Ihlozi of the, ii. 332

Zuni sacrifice of the turtle, ii. 95-99; totem clans, ii. 99

Zürich, fire festival in, ii. 250, 251

FOOTNOTES

1 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, pp. 1-6.

2 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_ (Danzig, 1865), p. 5; _id._, _Antike Wald-und Feldkulte_, p. 318 _sq._; _id._, _Mythol. Forsch._ p. 103; Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 213.

3 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf u. Roggenhund_, p. 7 _sqq._; _id._, _A. W. F._ p. 319.

4 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf_, etc. p. 10.

5 W. Mannhardt, _M. F._ p. 104.

_ 6 Ib._

_ 7 Ib._ p. 104 _sq._ On the Harvest-May, see above, vol. i. p. 68.

_ 8 Ib._ p. 105.

_ 9 Ib._ p. 30.

_ 10 Ib._ pp. 30, 105.

_ 11 Ib._ p. 105 _sq._

_ 12 A. W. F._ p. 320; _Roggenwolf_, p. 24.

_ 13 Roggenwolf_, p. 24.

_ 14 Roggenwolf_, p. 24.

_ 15 Ib._ p. 25.

_ 16 Ib._ p. 28; _A. W. F._ p. 320.

_ 17 Roggenwolf_, p. 25.

_ 18 Ib._ p. 26.

_ 19 Ib._ p. 26; _A. W. F._ p. 320.

_ 20 A. W. F._ p. 321.

_ 21 A. W. F._ p. 321 _sq._

_ 22 A. W. F._ p. 320.

_ 23 A. W. F._ p. 320 _sq._

_ 24 A. W. F._ p. 322.

_ 25 Ib._ p. 323.

_ 26 Die Korndämonen_, p. 13.

_ 27 Ib._; Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen des Eifler Volkes_, i. p. 95; Kuhn, _Westfälische Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, ii. p. 181; Kuhn und Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, p. 398.

28 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_, p. 21.

_ 29 Die Korndämonen_, p. 13. Cp. Kuhn and Schwartz, _l.c._

_ 30 Die Korndämonen_, p. 13.

31 Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 220.

_ 32 Die Korndämonen_, p. 13 _sq._; _Kuhn, Westfälische Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, ii. p. 180 _sq._; Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_, p. 110.

_ 33 Die Korndämonen_, p. 14; Pfannenschmid, _op. cit._ pp. 111, 419 _sq._

_ 34 Die Korndämonen_, p. 15. So in Shropshire, where the corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander (see above, vol. i. p. 407), the expression for overthrowing a load at harvest is “to lose the goose,” and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose at the harvest supper (Burne and Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 375); and in some parts of England the harvest supper was called the Harvest Gosling, or the Inning Goose (Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 23, 26, Bohn’s ed.)

_ 35 Die Korndämonen_, p. 14.

_ 36 Ib._ p. 15.

_ 37 M. F._ p. 30.

_ 38 Die Korndämonen_, p. 15.

_ 39 Ib._ p. 15 _sq._

_ 40 Ib._ p. 15; _M. F._ p. 30.

_ 41 Die Korndämonen_, p. 1.

_ 42 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 47.

_ 43 Die Korndämonen_, p. 3.

44 Lemke, _Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen_, i. 24.

45 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_, p. 21.

46 Above, vol. i. p. 408.

_ 47 M. F._ p. 29.

_ 48 M. F._ p. 29 _sq._; _Die Korndämonen_, p. 5.

_ 49 A. W. F._ pp. 172-174; _M. F._ p. 30.

50 W. Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ p. 155 _sq._

_ 51 Ib._ p. 157 _sq._

_ 52 Ib._ p. 159.

_ 53 Ib._ p. 161 _sq._

54 W. Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ p. 162.

55 Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 232 _sq._ No. 426; _A. W. F._ p. 162.

56 Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. p. 228 _sq._ No. 422; _A. W. F._ p. 163.

_ 57 A. W. F._ p. 163.

_ 58 Ib._ p. 164.

_ 59 A. W. F._ p. 164.

_ 60 Ib._ p. 164 _sq._

_ 61 Ib._ p. 165.

62 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 24, Bohn’s ed.; _A. W. F._ p. 165.

63 Above, vol. i. p. 380.

_ 64 A. W. F._ p. 165.

_ 65 A. W. F._ p. 166; _M. F._ p. 185.

_ 66 A. W. F._ p. 166.

67 Above, p. 11.

68 Holzmayer, _Osiliana_, p. 107.

69 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten u. Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_, p. 19. Cp. B. K. p. 482 _sqq._

70 Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 225 _sqq._ No. 421; _A. W. F._ p. 167 _sq._

_ 71 A. W. F._ p. 168.

72 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 445, No. 162; _A. W. F._ p. 168.

_ 73 A. W. F._ p. 169.

74 Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. p. 224 sq. No. 420; _A. W. F._ p. 169.

_ 75 A. W. F._ p. 169.

_ 76 Ib._ p. 170.

_ 77 Ib._ p. 170.

78 Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_, p. 23 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 394 _sq._

_ 79 M. F._ p. 58.

_ 80 Ib._

_ 81 M. F._ p. 62.

_ 82 M. F._ p. 59.

83 Above, p. 6.

_ 84 M. F._ p. 59.

85 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 440 _sq. Nos._ 151, 152, 153; Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 234, No. 428; _M. F._ p. 59.

86 Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. p. 233, No. 427; _M. F._ p. 59.

_ 87 M. F._ p. 59 _sq._

_ 88 M. F._ p. 58.

89 M. F. p. 58 _sq._

_ 90 M. F._ p. 60.

91 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 444 _sq._ No. 162; _M. F._ p. 61.

92 Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 233, No. 427.

_ 93 M. F._ p. 61 _sq._

_ 94 M. F._ p. 62.

_ 95 M. F._ p. 62.

96 E. Meier, _op. cit._ p. 445 _sq._ No. 163.

_ 97 M. F._ p. 60.

_ 98 M. F._ p. 62.

99 Above, vol. i. p. 343 _sq._

100 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_, ii. 135.

_ 101 M. F._ p. 62, “_Il fait le veau_.”

_ 102 M. F._ p. 62.

_ 103 M. F._ p. 63.

_ 104 M. F._ p. 167.

105 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 24, Bohn’s ed.

106 Burne and Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 373 _sq._

_ 107 M. F._ p. 167.

108 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_, ii. 133; _M. F._ p. 167 _sq._

109 Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 213, No. 4.

110 Holzmayer, _Osiliana_, p. 107; _M. F._ p. 187.

111 Birlinger, _Aus Schwaben_, ii. 328.

112 Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 223, 224, Nos. 417, 419.

_ 113 M. F._ p. 112.

114 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 445, No. 162.

115 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 425, No. 379.

116 Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 221-224, Nos. 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 418.

_ 117 M. F._ p. 186 _sq._

118 Above, p. 3.

119 Above, p. 26 _sq._

_ 120 M. F._ p. 187.

_ 121 M. F._ p. 187 _sq._; Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, pp. 189, 218; W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Marburg, 1888), p. 35.

_ 122 M. F._ p. 188; Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 220.

_ 123 A. W. F._ p. 197 _sq._; Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 491; Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, _s.v._ “Maiden”; Afzelius, _Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und neuerer Zeit_, übersetzt von Ungewitter, i. 9.

124 Above, p. 6 _sq._

125 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, pp. 169 _sq._, 182. On Christmas night children sleep on a bed of the Yule straw (_ib._ p. 177).

126 Jahn, _Deutsche Opfergebräuche_, p. 215. Cp. above, vol. i. p. 60.

127 Afzelius, _op. cit._ i. 31.

128 Afzelius, _op. cit._ i. 9; Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, pp. 181, 185.

129 Above, pp. 8 _sq._, 11, 12, 15 _sq._, 21, 23, 28. In regard to the hare the substitution of brandy for hare’s blood is doubtless comparatively modern.

_ 130 Die Korndämonen_, p. 1.

131 Herodotus, ii. 46.

132 Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_, 3 i. 600; _A. W. F._ p. 138.

_ 133 A. W. F._ p. 139.

134 Pollux, iv. 118.

_ 135 A. W. F._ p. 142 _sq._

136 Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 361; iii. 312; v. 101; _id._, _Heroides_, iv. 49.

137 Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 22, 3.

138 Homer, _Hymn to Aphrodite_, 262 _sqq._

139 Pliny, _N. H._ xii. 3; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 392; _id._, _Fasti_, iii. 303, 309; Gloss. Isid. Mart. Cap. ii. 167, cited by Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ p. 113.

140 Pliny, _N. H._ xii. 3; Martianus Capella, ii. 167; Augustine, _Civ. Dei_, xv. 23; Aurelius Victor, _Origo gentis Romanae_, iv. 6.

141 Servius on Virgil, _Ecl._ vi. 14; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 392 _sq._; Martianus Capella, ii. 167.

_ 142 B. K._ p. 138 _sq._; _A. W. F._ p. 145.

143 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 10.

144 Above, p. 12 _sqq._

_ 145 A. W. F._ ch. iii.

146 Above, vol. i. p. 379 _sq._

147 Above, vol. i. p. 326 _sq._

148 Above, vol. i. p. 325 _sq._

149 Above, p. 19 _sqq._

150 A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, ii. 232.

151 Pausanias, i. 24, 4; _id._, i. 28, 10; Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 29 _sq._; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ viii. 3; Schol. on Aristophanes, _Peace_, 419; Hesychius, Suidas, and _Etymol. Magnum_, _s.v._ βούφονια. The date of the sacrifice (14th Skirophorion) is given by the Schol. on Aristophanes and the _Etym. Magn._; and this date corresponds, according to Mannhardt (_M. F._ p. 68), with the close of the threshing in Attica. No writer mentions the trial of both the axe and the knife. Pausanias speaks of the trial of the axe, Porphyry and Aelian of the trial of the knife. But from Porphyry’s description it is clear that the slaughter was carried out by two men, one wielding an axe and the other a knife, and that the former laid the blame on the latter. Perhaps the knife alone was condemned. That the King Archon (on whom see above, vol. i. p. 7), presided at the trial of all lifeless objects, is mentioned by Pollux, viii. 90; cp. _id._ viii. 120.

152 The real import of the name _bouphonia_ was first perceived by Prof. W. Robertson Smith. See his _Religion of the Semites_, i. 286 _sqq._

153 Varro, _De re rustica_, ii. 5, 4. Cp. Columella, vi. praef. § 7. Perhaps, however, Varro’s statement may be merely an inference drawn from the ritual of the _bouphonia_ and the legend told to explain it.

_ 154 B. K._ p. 409.

155 See above, vol. i. p. 243.

156 Hecquard, _Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika_, pp. 41-43.

157 Above, p. 3, and vol. i. p. 408.

_ 158 China Review_, i. 62, 154, 162, 203 _sq._; Doolittle, _Social Life of the Chinese_, p. 375 _sq._, ed. Paxton Hood; Gray, _China_, ii. 115 _sq._

159 Above, vol. i. pp. 261, 267.

160 See above, p. 26 _sqq._

161 Schol. on Aristophanes, _Acharn._ 747.

162 Overbeck, _Griechische Kunstmythologie_, ii. 493; Müller-Wieseler, _Denkmäler d. alt. Kunst_, ii. pl. viii. 94.

163 Hyginus, _Fab._ 277; Cornutus, _De nat. deor._ c. 28; Macrobius, _Sat._ i. 12, 23; Schol. on Aristophanes, _Acharn._ 747; _id._ on _Frogs_, 338; _id._ on _Peace_, 374; Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 380; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ x. 16.

164 For the authorities on the Thesmophoria and a discussion of some doubtful points in the festival, I may be permitted to refer to my article “Thesmophoria” in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, ninth ed.

165 Photius, _s.v._ στήνια, speaks of the ascent of _Demeter_ from the lower world; and Clement of Alexandria speaks of both Demeter and Proserpine as having been engulfed in the chasm (_Protrept._ ii. § 17). The original equivalence of Demeter and Proserpine must be borne steadily in mind.

166 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 69; Photius, _s.v._ στήνια.

167 E. Rohde, “Unedirte Luciansscholien, die attischen Thesmophorien und Haloen betreffend,” in _Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. xxv. (1870) 548 _sqq_. Two passages of classical writers (Clemens Alex., _Protrept._ ii. § 17 and Pausanias, ix. 8, 1) refer to the rites described by the Scholiast on Lucian, and had been rightly interpreted by Lobeck (_Aglaophamus_, p. 827 _sqq._)

168 The scholiast speaks of them as _megara_ and _adyta_. _Megara_ (from a Phoenician word meaning “cavern,” “subterranean chasm,” Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. 220) were properly subterranean vaults or chasms sacred to the gods. See Hesychius, quoted by Movers, _l.c._ (the passage does not appear in M. Schmidt’s minor edition of Hesychius); Porphyry, _De antro nymph._ 6.

169 We infer this from Pausanias, ix. 8, 1, though the passage is incomplete and apparently corrupt. For ἐν Δωδώνῃ Lobeck proposes to read ἀναδῦναι or ἀναδοθῆναι. At the spring and autumn festivals of Isis at Tithorea geese and goats were thrown into the _adyton_ and left there till the following festival, when the remains were removed and buried at a certain spot a little way from the temple. Pausanias, x. 32, 14 (9). This analogy supports the view that the pigs thrown into the caverns at the Thesmophoria were left there till the next festival.

170 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 461-466, upon which Gierig remarks, “_Sues melius poeta omisisset in hac narratione_.” Such is the wisdom of the commentator.

171 Pausanias, i. 14, 3.

172 Schol. on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 338.

173 Above, p. 15 _sq._

174 Above, p. 20 _sq._

175 Above, p. 9.

176 Above, p. 29.

177 Above, p. 29 _sq._

178 In Clemens Alex., _Protrept._ ii. 17, for μεγαρίζοντες χοίρους ἐκβάλλουσι Lobeck (Aglaophamus, p. 831) would read μεγάροις ζῶντας χοίρους ἐμβάλλουσι. For his emendation of Pausanias, see above, p. 45.

179 It is worth noting that in Crete, which was an ancient seat of Demeter worship (see above, vol. i. p. 331), the pig was esteemed very sacred and was not eaten, Athenaeus, 375 F·376 A. This would not exclude the possibility of its being eaten sacramentally, as at the Thesmophoria.

180 Pausanias, viii. 42.

181 Above, p. 24 _sqq._

182 Pausanias, viii. 25 and 42. On the Phigalian Demeter, see W. Mannhardt, _M. F._ p. 244 _sqq._

183 Above, vol. i. p. 296 _sq._

184 Above, vol. i. p. 296.

185 Demosthenes, _De corona_, p. 313.

186 Above, vol. i. p. 281.

187 Cureton, _Spicilegium Syriacum_, p. 44.

188 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 54.

189 The heathen Harranians sacrificed swine once a year and ate the flesh; En-Nedim, in Chwolsohn’s _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_, ii. 42. My friend Professor W. Robertson Smith has conjectured that the wild boars annually sacrificed in Cyprus on 2d April (Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 45) represented Adonis himself. See his _Religion of the Semites_, i. 272 sq., 392.

190 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iv. 5.

191 Isaiah lxv. 3, 4, lxvi. 3, 17.

192 Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ x. 16.

193 Herodotus, _l.c._

194 Plutarch and Aelian, _ll.cc._

195 Herodotus, _l.c._

196 Herodotus, ii. 47 _sq._; Aelian and Plutarch, _ll.cc._ Herodotus distinguishes the sacrifice to the moon from that to Osiris. According to him, at the sacrifice to the moon, the extremity of the pig’s tail, together with the spleen and the caul, were covered with fat and burned; the rest of the flesh was eaten. On the evening (not the eve, see Stein on the passage) of the festival the sacrifice to Osiris took place. Each man slew a pig before his door, then gave it to the swineherd, from whom he had bought it, to take away.

197 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, pp. 432, 452.

_ 198 Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington), p. 225.

_ 199 Ib._ p. 231.

200 J. Crevaux, _Voyages dans l’Amérique au Sud_, p. 59.

201 Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 17 _sq._, 50 _sq._

202 Leviticus xvi. 23 _sq._

203 Porphyry, _De abstin._ ii. 44. For this and the Jewish examples I am indebted to my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith.

204 Mariner, _Tonga Islands_, i. 434, _note_; ii. 82, 222 _sq._

205 Above, vol. i. p. 167 _sqq._

206 Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 211; Livingstone, _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_, p. 255; John Mackenzie, _Ten Years north of the Orange River_, p. 135 _note_.

207 J. Mackenzie, _l.c._

_ 208 Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington), p. 225.

_ 209 Ib._ p. 275.

210 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 76.

_ 211 Ib._ p. 70.

212 Diogenes Laertius, _Vitae Philos._ viii. 8.

213 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ x. 16. The story is repeated by Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 168.

214 Lefébure, _Le mythe Osirien_, i. 44.

215 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8. Lefébure (_op. cit._ p. 46) recognises that in this story the boar is Typhon himself.

216 This important principle was first recognised by Prof. W. Robertson Smith. See his article “Sacrifice,” _Encycl. Britann._ 9th ed. xxi. 137 sq. Cp. his _Religion of the Semites_, pp. 353 _sq._, 391 _sq._

217 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31.

218 Lefébure, _Le mythe Osirien_, p. 48 _sq._

219 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 33, 73; Diodorus, i. 88.

220 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31; Diodorus, i. 88. Cp. Herodotus, ii. 38.

221 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20, 29, 33, 43; Strabo, xvii. 1, 31; Diodorus, i. 21, 85; Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5 i. 55 _sqq._ On Apis and Mnevis, see also Herodotus, ii. 153, iii. 27 _sq._; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14, 7; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 184 _sqq._; 17.; Solinus, xxxii. 17-21; Cicero, _De nat. deor._ i. 29; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xi. 10 _sq._; Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ viii. 1, 3; _id._, _Isis et Osiris_, 5, 35: Eusebius, _Praepar. Evang._ iii. 13, 1 _sq._; Pausanias, i. 18, 4, vii. 22, 3 _sq._ Both Apis and Mnevis were black bulls, but Apis had certain white spots.

222 Diodorus, i. 21.

223 On the religious reverence of pastoral peoples for their cattle, and the possible derivation of the Apis and Isis-Hathor worship from the pastoral stage of society, see W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, i. 277 _sqq._

224 Herodotus, ii. 41.

225 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 184; Solinus, xxxii. 18; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14, 7. The spring or well in which he was drowned was perhaps the one from which his drinking water was procured; he might not drink the water of the Nile. Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 5.

226 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 56.

227 Maspero, _Histoire ancienne_,4 p. 31. Cp. Duncker, _Geschichte des Alterthums_,5 i. 56.

228 See above, p. 24 _sqq._

229 Athenaeus, 587 A; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 204. Cp. _Encycl. Britann._ 9th ed. art. “Sacrifice,” xxi. 135.

230 Varro, _De agri cult._ i. 2, 19 _sq._

231 Herodotus, ii. 42.

232 Festus, ed. Müller, pp. 178, 179, 220; Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 97; Polybius, xii. 4 B. The sacrifice is referred to by Julian, _Orat._ 176 D.

233 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 731 _sqq._, cp. 629 _sqq._; Propertius, v. 1, 19 _sq._

234 Above, p. 41 _sq._

235 Above, vol. i. p. 408, vol. ii. p. 3.

236 Above, p. 30.

237 Livy, ii. 5.

238 Festus, ed. Müller, pp. 130, 131.

239 The October horse is the subject of an essay by Mannhardt (_Mytholog. Forsch._ pp. 156-201), of which the above account is a summary.

_ 240 M. F._ p. 179.

_ 241 B. K._ p. 205. It is not said that the dough-man is made of the new corn; but probably this is, or once was, the case.

242 Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_, pp. 60-64; _A. W. F._ p. 249 _sqq._

243 Bezzenberger, _Litauische Forschungen_ (Göttingen, 1882), p. 89.

244 Simon Grunau, _Preussische Chronik_, ed. Perlbach, i. 91.

245 Holzmayer, _Osiliana_, p. 108.

246 On iron as a charm against spirits, see above, vol. i. p. 175 _sq._

_ 247 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 54.

248 Communicated by the Rev. J. J. C. Yarborough, of Chislehurst, Kent. See _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 50.

249 G. A. Wilken, _Bijdrage tot de kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland Boeroe_, p. 26.

250 P. N. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” in _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, vii. (1863) p. 127.

251 N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaang Mongondou,” in _Mededeel. v. w. h. Nederl. Zendelinggen_. xi. 369 _sq._

252 H. Harkness, _Description of a Singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills_, p. 56 _sq._

253 Gover, _Folk-songs of Southern India_, p. 105 _sqq._; _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 302 _sqq._

254 Gover, “The Pongol Festival in Southern India,” _Journ. R. Asiatic Society_, N. S. v. (1871) p. 91 _sqq._

255 Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 103.

256 Crowther and Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_, p. 287 _sq._ Mr. Taylor’s information is repeated in _West African Countries and Peoples_, by J. Africanus B. Horton (London, 1868), p. 180 _sq._

257 Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika_, p. 150 _sq._ On the Zulu feast of first-fruits, see also N. Isaacs, _Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa_, ii. 291 _sq._; Arbousset et Daumas, _Voyage d’exploration_, etc. p. 308 _sq._; Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, p. 389 _note_; _South African Folk-lore Journal_, i. 135 _sqq._; Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_, p. 143; Lewis Grout, _Zululand_, p. 160 _sqq._ From Mr. Grout’s description it appears that a bull is killed and its gall drunk by the king and people. In killing it the men must use nothing but their naked hands. The flesh of the bull is given to the boys to eat what they like and burn the rest; the men may not taste it. As a final ceremony the king breaks a green calabash in presence of the people, “thereby signifying that he opens the new year, and grants the people leave to eat of the fruits of the season.” If a man eats the new fruits before the festival, he will die or is actually put to death.

258 The ceremony is described independently by James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 96-111; W. Bartram, _Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida_ (London, 1792), p. 507 _sq._; B. Hawkins, “Sketch of the Creek country,” in _Collections of the Georgia Historical Society_, iii. (Savannah, 1848), pp. 75-78; A. A. M’Gillivray, in Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes_, v. 267 _sq._ Adair’s description is the fullest and has been chiefly followed in the text. In _Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians_, by William Bartram (1789), _with prefatory and supplementary notes_, by E. G. Squier, p. 75, there is a description—extracted from an MS. of J. H. Payne (author of _Home, Sweet Home_)—of the similar ceremony observed by the Cherokees. I possess a copy of this work in pamphlet form, but it appears to be an extract from the transactions or proceedings of a society, probably an American one. Mr. Squier’s preface is dated New York, 1851.

259 W. Bartram, _Travels_, p. 507.

260 So amongst the Cherokees, according to J. H. Payne, an arbour of green boughs was made in the sacred square; then “a beautiful bushy-topped shade-tree was cut down close to the roots, and planted in the very centre of the sacred square. Every man then provided himself with a green bough.”

261 So Adair. Bartram, on the other hand, as we have seen, says that the old vessels were burned and new ones prepared for the festival.

262 B. Hawkins, “Sketch,” etc., p. 76.

263 See Note on “Offerings of first-fruits” at the end of the volume.

264 Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_, bk. v. c. 24, vol. ii. pp. 356-360 (Hakluyt Society, 1880).

265 Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, iii. 297-300 (after Torquemada); Clavigero, _History of Mexico_, trans. by Cullen, i. 309 _sqq._; Sahagun, _Histoire générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne_, traduite et annotée par Jourdanet et Siméon (Paris, 1880), p. 203 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_, p. 605.

266 Clavigero, i. 311; Sahagun, pp. 74, 156 _sq._; Müller, p. 606; Bancroft, iii. 316. This festival took place on the last day of the 16th month (which extended from 23d December to 11th January). At another festival the Mexicans made the semblance of a bone out of paste and ate it sacramentally as the bone of the god. Sahagun, p. 33.

267 See above, vol. i. p. 5 _sq._

268 Festus, ed. Müller, pp. 128, 129, 145. The reading of the last passage is, however, uncertain (“_et Ariciae genus panni fieri; quod manici † appelletur_”).

269 Varro, _De ling. lat._ ix. 61; Arnobius, _Adv. nationes_, iii. 41; Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 7, 35; Festus, p. 128, ed. Müller. Festus speaks of the mother or grandmother of the _larvae_; the other writers speak of the mother of the _lares_.

270 Macrobius, _l.c._; Festus, pp. 121, 239, ed. Müller. The effigies hung up for the slaves were called _pilae_, not _maniae_. _Pilae_ was also the name given to the straw-men which were thrown to the bulls to gore in the arena. Martial, _Epigr._ ii. 43, 5 _sq._; Asconius, _In Cornel._ p. 55, ed. Kiessling and Schoell.

271 The ancients were at least familiar with the practice of sacrificing images made of dough or other materials as substitutes for the animals themselves. It was a recognised principle that when an animal could not be easily obtained for sacrifice, it was lawful to offer an image of it made of bread or wax. Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 116. (Similarly a North-American Indian dreamed that a sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary for the recovery of a sick girl; but the elans could not be procured, and the girl’s parents were allowed to sacrifice twenty loaves instead. _Relations des Jesuites_, 1636, p. 11, ed. 1858). Poor people who could not afford to sacrifice real animals offered dough images of them. Suidas, _s.v._ βοῦς ἕβδομος; cp. Hesychius, _s. vv._ βοῦς, ἕβδομος βοῦς. Hence bakers made a regular business of baking cakes in the likeness of all the animals which were sacrificed to the gods. Proculus, quoted and emended by Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 1079. When Cyzicus was besieged by Mithridates and the people could not procure a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of Proserpine, they made a cow of dough and placed it at the altar. Plutarch, _Lucullus_, 10. In a Boeotian sacrifice to Hercules, in place of the ram which was the proper victim, an apple was regularly substituted, four chips being stuck in it to represent legs and two to represent horns. Pollux, i. 30 _sq._ The Athenians are said to have once offered to Hercules a similar substitute for an ox. Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 22. And the Locrians, being at a loss for an ox to sacrifice, made one out of figs and sticks, and offered it instead of the animal. Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 5. At the Athenian festival of the Diasia cakes shaped like animals were sacrificed. Schol. on Thucydides, i. 126, quoted by Lobeck, _l.c._ We have seen above (p. 53) that the poorer Egyptians offered dough images of pigs and ate them sacramentally.

272 P. J. Veth, _Borneo’s Wester Afdeeling_, ii. 309.

273 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_, i. 326.

274 Shway Yoe, _The Burman_, ii. 138.

275 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_, p. 133.

276 Alfred Simson, _Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador_ (London, 1887), p. 168; _id._ in _Journal of the Anthrop. Institute_, vii. 503.

277 Theophilus Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_, p. 106. Compare John Buchanan, _The Shire Highlands_, pg. 138; Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, p. 438 _note_.

278 Jerome Becker, _La Vie en Afrique_, (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 366.

279 Callaway, _Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus_, p. 175 _note_.

280 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 33.

281 St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_,2 i. 186, 206.

282 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, pp. 10, 262.

283 James Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_, p. 166.

_ 284 Proceedings Royal Geogr. Society_, N. S. viii. (1886) p. 307.

285 J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” _Journ. North China Branch R. Asiatic Society_, New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) p. 35 _sq._

286 Müller on Saxo Grammaticus, vol. ii. p. 60.

287 Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_, p. 281.

288 Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_, p. 218.

289 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. 8.

290 Felkin, “Notes on the For tribe of Central Africa,” in _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xiii. (1884-1886) p. 218.

291 W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_, p. 160.

292 Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, ii. 313.

293 Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” in _Mittheilungen d. Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 154.

294 Magyar, _Reisen in Süd-Afrika in den Jahren_ 1849-1857, pp. 273-276.

295 Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 257 _sq._

296 Callaway, _Nursery Tales, Traditions and Histories of the Zulus_, p. 163 _note_.

297 John Buchanan, _The Shire Highlands_, p. 138.

_ 298 Journal of the North China Branch Royal Asiatic Society, l.c._

299 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_ (London, 1870), p. 352. Cp. _ib._ p. 173; Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, i. 358; J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du Monde sur la corvette Astrolabe_, ii. 547; _Journal of the Anthrop. Inst._ xix. 108.

300 On the custom of eating a god, see also a paper by Felix Liebrecht, “Der aufgegessene Gott,” in _Zur Volkskunde_, pp. 436-439; and especially W. R. Smith, art. “Sacrifice,” _Encycl. Britann._ 9th ed. vol. xxi. p. 137 _sq._ On wine as the blood of a god, see above, vol. i. p. 183 _sqq._

301 This does not refer to the Californian peninsula, which is an arid and treeless wilderness of rock and sand.

302 Boscana, in Alfred Robinson’s _Life in California_ (New York, 1846), p. 291 sq.; Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, iii. 168.

303 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 21, cp. pp. 26, 61.

304 Herodotus, ii. 42. The custom has been already referred to, above, p. 63.

305 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_, i. § 58. Cp. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_, iii. 1 _sqq._ (ed. 1878).

306 Above, p. 61 _sq._

307 Above, p. 15 _sq._

308 The Italmens of Kamtchatka, at the close of the fishing season, used to make the figure of a wolf out of grass. This figure they carefully kept the whole year, believing that it wedded with their maidens and prevented them from giving birth to twins; for twins were esteemed a great misfortune. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_, p. 327 _sq._ According to Hartknoch (_Dissertat. histor. de variis rebus Prussicis_, p. 163; _Altpreussen_, p. 161) the image of the old Prussian god Curcho was annually renewed. But see Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 27.

309 Above, vol. i. p. 81.

310 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858), p. 196 _sq._ The writer does not expressly state that a serpent is killed annually, but his statement implies it.

_ 311 Revue d’Ethnographie_, iii. 397.

312 Varro in Priscian, x. 32, vol. i. p. 524, ed. Keil; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. § 14. Pliny’s statement is to be corrected by Varro’s.

313 Mr. Frank H. Cushing, “My Adventures in Zuñi,” in _The Century_, May 1883, p. 45 _sq._

314 Mr. Cushing, indeed, while he admits that the ancestors of the Zuni may have believed in transmigration, says, “Their belief, to-day, however, relative to the future life is spiritualistic.” But the expressions in the text seem to leave no room for doubting that the transmigration into turtles is a living article of Zuni faith.

315 Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, iv. 86. On the totem clans of the Moquis, see J. G. Bourke, _Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona_, pp. 116 _sq._, 334 _sqq._

316 For this information I am indebted to the kindness of Captain J. G. Bourke, 3d. Cavalry, U.S. Army, author of the work mentioned in the preceding note.

317 The old Prussian and Japanese customs are typical. For the former, see above, vol. i. p. 177. For the latter, Charlevoix, _Histoire et Description générale du Japon_, i, 128 _sq._ Thunberg, _Voyages au Japon_, etc. iv. 18 _sqq._ A general account of such customs must be reserved for another work.

318 B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” in _Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens_ (Yokama), Heft xxii. p. 45.

_ 319 Transactions of the Ethnological Society_, iv. 36.

320 Rein, _Japan_, i. 446.

321 H. von Siebold, _Ethnologische Studien über die Ainos auf der Insel Yesso_, p. 26.

322 Miss Bird, _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_ (new ed. 1885), p. 275.

_ 323 Trans. Ethnol. Soc._ _l.c._

324 Miss Bird, _op. cit._ p. 269.

325 Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 4.

326 Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc. p. 45; Joest, in _Verhandlungen d. Berliner Gesell. f. Anthropologie_, 1882, p. 188.

_ 327 Trans. Ethnol. Soc. l.c._

328 Miss Bird, _op. cit._ p. 277.

329 Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 15; Siebold, _op. cit._ p. 26; _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._ _l.c._; Rein, _Japan_, i. 447; Von Brandt, “The Ainos and Japanese,” in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ iii. 134; Miss Bird, _op. cit._ pp. 275, 276.

330 Scheube, _Die Ainos_, pp. 15, 16; _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ iii. 134.

331 Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 16.

332 Reclus (_Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_, vii. 755) mentions a (Japanese?) legend which attributes the hairiness of the Ainos to the fact of their first ancestor having been suckled by a bear. But in the absence of other evidence this is no proof of totemism.

333 Rein, _Japan_, i. 447.

334 “Der Baerencultus,” etc. See above.

335 Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc. p. 46; _id._, _Die Ainos_, p. 15; Miss Bird, _op. cit._ p. 273 _sq._

336 Miss Bird, _op. cit._ p. 276 _sq._ Miss Bird’s information must be received with caution, as there are grounds for believing that her informant deceived her.

337 Siebold, _Ethnolog. Studien über die Ainos_, p. 26.

338 “Baerencultus,” etc. p. 50 _note_.

339 They inhabit the banks of the lower Amoor and the north of Saghalien. E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_, p. 389.

340 “Notes on the River Amur and the adjacent districts,” translated from the Russian, _Journal Royal Geogr. Soc._ xxviii. (1858) p. 396.

341 Compare the custom of pinching the frog before cutting off his head, above vol. i. p. 93. In Japan sorceresses bury a dog in the earth, tease him, then cut off his head and put it in a box to be used in magic. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_, i. 475 _note_, who adds “_wie im ostindischen Archipelago die Schutzseele gereizt wird_.” He probably refers to the Batta _Pang-hulu-balang_. See Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_, p. 59 _sq._; W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” in _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) 478 _sq._; Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” in _Tijdschrift v. h. Nederl. Aardrijks Genootsch_. ii. series, dl. iii. Afdeeling: meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 306.

342 W. Joest, in Scheube, _Die Ainos_, p. 17; _Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. 307 _sq._ (on the authority of Mr. Seeland); _Internationales Archiv für Ethnologie_, i. 102 (on the authority of Captain Jacobsen). What exactly is meant by “dancing as bears” (“_tanzen beide Geschlechter Reigentänze, wie Bären_,” Joest, _l.c._) does not appear.

343 Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_, p. 379 _sq._; T. W. Atkinson, _Travels in the Regions of the Upper and Lower Amoor_ (London, 1860), p. 482 _sq._

344 A Bushman, questioned by the Rev. Mr. Campbell, “could not state any difference between a man and a brute—he did not know but a buffalo might shoot with bows and arrows as well as a man, if it had them.” John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, being a Narrative of a Second Journey in the Interior of that Country_, ii. 34. When the Russians first landed on one of the Alaskan islands the people took them for cuttle-fish, “on account of the buttons on their clothes.” Petroff, _Alaska_, p. 145.

345 Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10, p. 221. Cp. C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” in _Tijdschrift voor Neêrland’s Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. 160; S. Müller, _Reizen en onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel_, i. 238; Perelaer, _Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dayaks_, p. 7.

346 Sibree, _The Great African Island_, p. 269.

347 Raffenel, _Voyage dans l’Afrique Occidentale_ (Paris, 1846), p. 84 _sq._

348 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v. 65.

349 Marsden, _History of Sumatra_, p. 292.

350 Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_, pp. 280, 331.

_ 351 Voyages au Nord_ (Amsterdam, 1727), viii. 41, 416; Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs_, iii. 64; Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs_, p. 83.

352 Erman, _Travels in Siberia_, ii. 43. For the veneration of the polar bear by the Samoyedes, who nevertheless kill and eat it, see _ib._ 54 _sq._

353 Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_, iii. 26.

354 Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_, p. 139.

355 Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), p. 233 _sq._ The Lapps “have still an elaborate ceremony in hunting the bear. They pray and chant to his carcase, and for several days worship before eating it.” E. Rae, _The White Sea Peninsula_ (London, 1881), p. 276.

356 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, v. 173 _sq._; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 172-181 (Paris, Michel Lévy, 1870).

_ 357 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, vi. 171. Morgan states that the names of the Otawa totem clans had not been obtained (_Ancient Society_, p. 167). From the _Lettres édifiantes_, vi. 168-171, he might have learned the names of the Hare, Carp, and Bear clans, to which may be added the Gull clan, as I learn from an extract from _The Canadian Journal_ (Toronto) for March 1858, quoted in the _Academy_, 27th September 1884, p. 203.

_ 358 A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_, p. 117 (Middletown, 1820), p. 133 (Edinburgh, 1824).

359 Stephen Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833), p. 138.

360 Alberti, _De Kaffers aan de Zuidkust van Afrika_ (Amsterdam, 1810), p. 95. Alberti’s information is repeated by Lichtenstein (_Reisen im südlichen Afrika_, i. 412), and by Rose (_Four Years in Southern Africa_, p. 155). The burial of the trunk is also mentioned by Kay, _l.c._

361 Jerome Becker, _La Vie en Afrique_ (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 298 _sq._ 305.

362 Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, ii. 243.

363 Im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, p. 352.

364 Mouhot, _Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China_, i. 252; Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 422.

365 Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, v. 420.

366 J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_, ii. 278.

367 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_, p. 89.

_ 368 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 24, ed. 1858. Nets are regarded by the Indians as living creatures who not only think and feel but also eat, speak, and marry wives. Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 256 (p. 178 _sq._ of the Paris reprint, Librairie Tross, 1865); S. Hearne, _Journey to the Northern Ocean_, p. 329 _sq._; _Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 109; _ib._ 1639, p. 95; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, v. 225; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, p. 140 _sqq._

369 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 175, 178. They will not let the blood of beavers fall on the ground, or their luck in hunting them would be gone. _Relations des Jésuites_, 1633, p. 21. Compare the rule about not allowing the blood of kings to fall on the ground, above, vol. i. p. 179 _sqq._

370 Hennepin, _Nouveau voyage d’un pais plus grand que l’Europe_ (Utrecht, 1698), p. 141 _sq._; _Relations des Jésuites_, 1636, p. 109; Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 255 (p. 178 of the Paris reprint). Not quite consistently the Canadian Indians used to kill every elan they could overtake in the chase, lest any should escape to warn their fellows (Sagard, _l.c._)

_ 371 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, viii. 339.

372 Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, iii. 230.

_ 373 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 26.

374 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, v. 443.

375 Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, First Part, bk. i. ch. 10, vol. i. p. 49 _sq._, Hakluyt Society. Cp. _id._, ii. p. 148.

_ 376 Relations des Jésuites_, 1667, p. 12.

377 Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 255 _sqq._ (p. 178 _sqq._ of the Paris reprint).

378 Schleiden, _Das Salz_, p. 47. For this reference I am indebted to my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith.

379 W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_, p. 66 _sq._

380 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, p. 200; A. S. Thomson, _The Story of New Zealand_, i. 202; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journal Anthrop. Inst._ xix. 109.

381 Lubbock, _Origin of Civilisation_,4, p. 277, quoting _Metlahkatlah_, p. 96.

382 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_, p. 413.

383 Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 31 _sq._

384 Alex. Ross, _Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River_, p. 97.

385 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition_, iv. 324, v. 119, where it is said, “a dog must never be permitted to eat the heart of a salmon; and in order to prevent this, they cut the heart of the fish out before they sell it.”

386 H. C. St. John, “The Ainos,” in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ ii. 253; _id._ _Notes and Sketches from the Wild Coasts of Nipon_, p. 27 _sq._

387 Scheffer, _Lapponia_, p. 242 _sq._; _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ vii. 207; _Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. 308 _sq._

388 James, _Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_, i. 257.

389 Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 278.

390 Keating, _Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River_, i. 452.

391 E. J. Jessen, _De Finnorum Lapponumque Norwegicorum religione pagana tractatus singularis_, pp. 46 _sq._, 52 _sq._, 65. The work of Jessen is bound up (paged separately) with the work of C. Leem, _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita, et religione pristina commentatio_ (Latin and Danish), Copenhagen, 1767. Compare Leem’s work, pp. 418-420 (Latin), 428 _sq._, also Acerbi, _Travels through Sweden, Finnland, and Lapland_, ii. 302.

392 Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_, p. 269; Kraschennikow, _Kamtschatka_, p. 246.

393 See Erman, referred to above, p. 111 _sq._; Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_, i. 274, ii. 182 _sq._, 214; Vambery, Das _Türkenvolk_, p. 118 sq. When a fox, the sacred animal of the Conchucos in Peru, had been killed, its skin was stuffed and set up. Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_, i. 443. Cp. the _bouphonia_, above, p. 38 _sq._

394 At the annual sacrifice of the White Dog, the Iroquois were careful to strangle the animal without shedding its blood or breaking its bones. The dog was afterwards burned. L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_, p. 210. It is a rule with some of the Australian blacks that in killing the native bear they must not break his bones. They say that the native bear once stole all the water of the river, and that if they were to break his bones or take off his skin before roasting him, he would do so again. Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 447 _sqq._ When the Tartars whom Carpini visited killed animals for eating, they might not break their bones but burned them with fire. Carpini, _Historia Mongalorum_ (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. § i. 2, p. 620. North American Indians might not break the bones of the animals which they ate at feasts. Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. 72. In the war feast held by Indian warriors after leaving home, a whole animal was cooked and had to be all eaten. No bone of it might be broken. After being stripped of the flesh the bones were hung on a tree. _Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner_, p. 287. On St. Olaf’s Day (29th July) the Karels of Finland kill a lamb, without using a knife, and roast it whole. None of its bones may be broken. The lamb has not been shorn since spring. Some of the flesh is placed in a corner of the room for the house-spirits, some is deposited on the field and beside the birch-trees which are destined to be used as May-trees next year. W. Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ p. 160 _sq._ _note_. The Innuit (Esquimaux) of Point Barrow, Alaska, carefully preserve unbroken the bones of the seals which they have caught and return them to the sea, either leaving them in an ice-crack far out from the land or dropping them through a hole in the ice. By doing so they think they secure good fortune in the pursuit of seals. _Report of the International Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska_ (Washington, 1885), p. 40. In this last custom the idea probably is that the bones will be reclothed with flesh and the seals come to life again. The Mosquito Indians of Central America carefully preserved the bones of deer and the shells of eggs, lest the deer or chickens should die or disappear. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 741. The Yurucares of Bolivia “carefully put by even small fish bones, saying that unless this is done the fish and game will disappear from the country.” Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 278.

_ 395 Relations des Jésuites_, 1634, p. 25, ed. 1858; A. Mackenzie, _Voyages through the Continent of America_, civ; J. Dunn, _History of the Oregon Territory_, p. 99; Whymper in _Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc._ xxxviii. (1868) p. 228; _id._ in _Transact. Ethnolog. Soc._ vii. 174; A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ iii. 111. After a meal the Indians of Costa Rica gather all the bones carefully and either burn them or put them out of reach of the dogs. W. M. Gabb, _On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica_ (read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th Aug. 1875), p. 520 (Philadelphia, 1875). The fact that the bones are often burned to prevent the dogs getting them does not contradict the view suggested in the text. It may be a way of transmitting the bones to the spirit-land. The aborigines of Australia burn the bones of the animals which they eat, but for a different reason; they think that if an enemy got hold of the bones and burned them with charms, it would cause the death of the person who had eaten the animal. _Native Tribes of South Australia_, pp. 24, 196.

396 Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_, pp. 57-74; _id._, _B. K._ p. 116; Cosquin, _Contes populaires de Lorraine_, ii. 25; Hartland, “The physicians of Myddfai,” _Archaeological Review_, i. 30 _sq._ In folk-tales, as in primitive custom, the blood is sometimes not allowed to fall on the ground. See Cosquin, _l.c._

397 W. Mannhardt, _Germ. Myth._ p. 66.

398 Jamblichus, _Vita Pythag._ §§ 92, 135, 140; Porphyry, _Vit. Pythag._ § 28.

399 Pindar, _Olymp._ i. 37 _sqq._, with the Scholiast.

400 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18. This is one of the sacred stories which the pious Herodotus (ii. 48) concealed and the pious Plutarch divulged.

401 Adam Hodgson, _Letters from North America_, i. 244.

402 Adair, _History of the American Indians_, p. 137 _sq._

403 Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié?_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 77, 81 _sq._; _id._, _Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-ouest_ (Paris, 1886), p. 132 _sqq._, cp. pp. 41, 76, 213, 264.

404 The first part of this suggestion is that of my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith. See his _Lectures on the Religion of the Semites_, first series, p. 360, _note_ 2. The Faleshas, a Jewish sect of Abyssinia, after killing an animal for food, “carefully remove the vein from the thighs with its surrounding flesh.” Halévy, “Travels in Abyssinia,” in _Publications of the Society of Hebrew Literature_, second series, vol. ii. p. 220.

405 It seems to be a common custom with hunters to cut out the tongues of the animals which they kill. Omaha hunters remove the tongue of a slain buffalo through an opening made in the animal’s throat. The tongues thus removed are sacred and may not touch any tool or metal except when they are boiling in the kettles at the sacred tent. They are eaten as sacred food. _Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington), p. 289 _sq._ Indian bear-hunters cut out what they call the bear’s little tongue (a fleshy mass under the real tongue) and keep it for good luck in hunting or burn it to determine from its crackling, etc., whether the soul of the slain bear is angry with them or not. Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_, ii. 251 _sq._; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, v. 173; Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 179 _sq._, 184. In folk-tales the hero commonly cuts out the tongue of the wild beast which he has slain and preserves it as a token. The incident serves to show that the custom was a common one, since folk-tales reflect with accuracy the customs and beliefs of a primitive age. For examples of the incident, see Blade, _Contes populaires recueillis en Agenais_, pp. 12, 14; Dasent, _Tales from the Norse_, p. 133 _sq._ (“Shortshanks”); Schleicher, _Litauische Märchen_; Sepp, Altbayerischer Sagenschatz, p. 114; Köhler on Gonzenbach’s _Sicilianische Märchen_, ii. 230; Apollodorus, iii. 13, 3; Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ p. 53; Poestion, _Lapplandische Märchen_, p. 231 _sq._ It may be suggested that the cutting out of the tongues is a precaution to prevent the slain animals from telling their fate to the live animals and thus frightening away the latter. At least this explanation harmonises with the primitive modes of thought revealed in the foregoing customs.

406 Holzmayer, _Osiliana_, p. 105 _note_.

407 Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_, p. 15 _sq._

408 E. Krause, “Aberglaubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p. 93.

_ 409 Geoponica_, xiii. 5. According to the commentator, the field assigned to the mice is a neighbour’s, but it may be a patch of waste ground on the farmer’s own land.

410 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” in _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S. viii. (1879) p. 125.

411 Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_, § 405.

412 Lagarde, _Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae_, p. 135. For this passage I am indebted to my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith, who kindly translated it for me from the Syriac.

413 Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 255.

414 Compare _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 280, with the customs referred to in the following note.

415 Catlin, _O-Kee-pa_, Folium reservatum; Lewis and Clarke, _Travels to the Source of the Missouri River_ (London, 1815), i. 205 _sq._

416 A. Bastian, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_, 1870-71, p. 59. Reinegg (_Beschreibung des Kaukasus_, ii. 12 _sq._) describes what seems to be a sacrament of the Abghazses (Abchases). It takes place in the middle of autumn. A white ox called Ogginn appears from a holy cave, which is also called Ogginn. It is caught and led about amongst the assembled men (women are excluded) amid joyful cries. Then it is killed and eaten. Any man who did not get at least a scrap of the sacred flesh would deem himself most unfortunate. The bones are then carefully collected, burned in a great hole, and the ashes buried there.

417 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, vi. 632 _note_. On the Kalmucks as a people of shepherds and on their diet of mutton, see Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs_, p. 406 _sq._, cp. 207; B. Bergmann, _Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmücken_, ii. 80 _sqq._, 122; Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs_, i. 319, 325. According to Pallas, it is only rich Kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep or cattle for eating; ordinary Kalmucks do not usually kill them except in case of necessity or at great merry-makings. It is, therefore, especially the rich who need to make expiation.

418 W. E. Marshall, _Travels amongst the Todas_, p. 129 _sq._ On the Todas, see also above, vol. i. p. 41.

419 Marshall, _op. cit._ pp. 80 _sq._ 130.

420 R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Madi or Moru tribe of Central Africa,” _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xii. (1882-84) p. 336 _sq._

421 The fact that the flesh of sheep appears to be now eaten by the tribe as a regular article of food (Felkin, _op. cit._ p. 307), is not inconsistent with the original sanctity of the sheep.

422 See W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, i. p. 325 _sq._

_ 423 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 555.

424 See Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 195 _sq._, Bohn’s ed.; Swainson, _Folk-lore of British Birds_, p. 36; E. Rolland, _Faune populaire de la France_, ii. 288 _sqq._ The names for it are βασιλίσκος, _regulus_, _rex avium_ (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 90; x. 203), _re di siepe_, _reyezuelo_, _roitelet_, _roi des oiseaux_, _Zaunkönig_, etc.

425 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 194.

426 Chambers, _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, p. 188.

_ 427 Ib._ p. 186.

428 P. Sébillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute Bretagne_, ii. 214.

429 Rolland, _op. cit._ ii. 294 _sq._; Sébillot, _l.c._; Swainson, _op. cit._ p. 42.

430 G. Waldron, _Description of the Isle of Man_ (reprinted for the Manx Society, Douglas, 1865), p. 49 _sqq._; J. Train, _Account of the Isle of Man_, ii. 124 _sqq._ 141.

431 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 195; Swainson, _Folk-lore of British Birds_, p. 36 _sq._; Rolland, _Faune populaire de la France_, ii. 297; Professor W. Ridgeway in _Academy_, 10th May 1884, p. 332; Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 497.

432 Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_, p. 125.

433 Swainson, _op. cit._ p. 40 _sq._

434 Rolland, _op. cit._ ii. 295 _sq._; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 437 _sq._

435 Rolland, _op. cit._ ii. 296 _sq._

436 Brand’s _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 198. The “hunting of the wren” may be compared with a Swedish custom. On the 1st of May children rob the magpies’ nests of both eggs and young. These they carry in a basket from house to house in the village and show them to the housewives, while one of the children sings some doggerel lines containing a threat that, if a present is not given, the hens, chickens, and eggs will fall a prey to the magpie. They receive bacon, eggs, milk, etc., upon which they afterwards feast. L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 237 _sq._ The resemblance of such customs to the “swallow song” and “crow song” of the ancient Greeks (on which see Athenaeus, pp. 359, 360) is obvious and has been remarked before now. Probably the Greek swallow-singers and crow-singers carried about dead swallows and crows or effigies of them. In modern Greece it is said to be still customary for children on 1st March to go about the streets singing spring songs and carrying a wooden swallow, which is kept turning on a cylinder. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 636.

437 John Ramsay, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, ii. 438 sq.; cp. Chambers, _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, p. 166 _sq_.; Samuel Johnson, _Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland_, p. 228 _sq._ (first American edition, 1810). The custom is clearly referred to in the “Penitential of Theodore,” quoted by Kemble, _Saxons in England_, i. 525; Elton, Origins of English History, p. 411; “_Si quis in Kal. Januar. in cervulo vel vitula vadit, id est in ferarum habitus se communicant, et vestiuntur pellibus pecudum et assumunt capita bestiarum_,” etc.

438 Chambers, _l.c._

439 Such are the Bohemian processions at the Carnival when a man called the Shrovetide Bear, swathed from head to foot in peas-straw and sometimes wearing a bear’s mask, is led from house to house. He dances with the women of the house, and collects money and food. Then they go to the alehouse, where all the peasants assemble with their wives. For at the Carnival, especially on Shrove Tuesday, it is necessary that every one should dance, if the flax, the corn, and the vegetables are to grow well. The higher they leap the better will be the crops. Sometimes the women pull out some of the straw in which the Shrovetide Bear is swathed, and put it in the nests of the geese and fowls, believing that this will make them lay well. Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, pp. 49-52. On similar customs, see W. Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ pp. 183-200.

440 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, pp. 266 _sq._, 305, 357 _sq._; cp. id. pp. 141, 340.

441 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 59.

442 Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_, p. 117.

443 John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (second journey), ii. 207 _sq._

444 Ellis, _History of Madagascar_, i. 422 _sq_.; cp. _id._ pp. 232, 435, 436 _sq._; Sibree, _The Great African Island_, p. 303 _sq._

445 Ellis, _op. cit._ i. 374; Sibree, _op. cit_. p. 304; _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine_, iii. 263.

446 Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) 478.

447 Leviticus xiv. 7, 53. For a similar use in Arabia see Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 156; W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, i. 402.

448 R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallele und Vergleiche_, p. 29 _sq._

449 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_, p. 301.

450 J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” in _Journ. Straits Branch Royal Asiatic Soc._ No. 10, p. 232.

451 S. Mateer, _Native Life in Travancore_, p. 136.

452 H. Harkness, _Singular Aboriginal Race of the Neilgherry Hills_, p. 133; Metz, _The Tribes Inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills_, p. 78; Jagor, “Ueber die Badagas im Nilgiri-Gebirge,” _Verhandl. d. Berlin. Gesell. f. Anthropol._ (1876), p. 196 _sq._ For the custom of letting a bullock go loose after a death, compare also Grierson, _Bihar Peasant Life_, p. 409; Ibbetson, _Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal Parganah of the Karnal district_ (Allahabad, 1883) p. 137. In the latter case it is said that the animal is let loose “to become a pest.” Perhaps the older idea was that the animal carried away death from the survivors. The idea of sin is not primitive.

_ 453 Geoponica_, xiii. 9, xv. 1; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. § 155. The authorities for these cures are respectively Apuleius and Democritus. The latter is probably not the atomic philosopher. See _Archaeological Review_, i. 180, _note_.

454 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. § 86.

455 Plato, _Laws_, xi. c. 12, p. 933 B.

456 Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_, iii. 226.

457 G. Lammert, _Volkmedizin und medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern_, p. 264.

_ 458 Ib._ p. 263.

459 Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_, i. § 85.

460 Carl Meyer, _Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters_, p. 104.

461 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 979.

462 Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_, p. 143. Collections of cures by transference will be found in Strackerjan’s work, cited above, i. § 85 _sqq._; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_, ch. ii. Cp. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. c. 36.

_ 463 Blackwood’s Magazine_, February 1886, p. 239.

464 Aubrey, _Remains of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (Folk-lore Society, 1881), p. 35 _sq._

465 Bagford’s letter in Leland’s _Collectanea_, i. 76, quoted by Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 246 _sq._, Bohn’s ed.

466 In the _Academy_, 13th Nov. 1875, p. 505, Mr. D. Silvan Evans stated that he knew of no such custom anywhere in Wales; and Miss Burne knows no example of it in Shropshire. Burne and Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 307 _sq._

467 The authority for the statement is a Mr. Moggridge, reported in _Archaeologia Cambrensis_, second series, iii. 330. But Mr. Moggridge did not speak from personal knowledge, and as he appears to have taken it for granted that the practice of placing bread and salt upon the breast of a corpse was a survival of the custom of “sin-eating,” his evidence must be received with caution. He repeated his statement, in somewhat vaguer terms, at a meeting of the Anthropological Institute, 14th December 1875. See _Journ. Anthrop. Inst_. v. 423 _sq._

468 Dubois, _Moeurs des Peuples de l’Inde_, ii. 32.

469 R. Richardson, in _Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 674.

_ 470 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 674; ii. No. 559. Some of these customs have been already referred to in a different connection. See above, vol. i. p. 232.

_ 471 Op. cit._ iii. No. 745.

472 E. Schuyler, _Turkistan_, ii. 28.

473 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, p. 356 _sq._

474 Paul Reina, “Ueber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_, N. F. iv. 356.

475 R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck-Archipel_, p. 142.

476 [P. N. Wilken], “De godsdienst en godsdienstplegtigheden der Alfoeren in de Menahassa op het eiland Celebes,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, December 1849, pp. 392-394; id., “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” _Mededeelingen v. w. het Nederland. Zendelinggenootsch_. vii. (1863) 149 _sqq._; J. G. F. Riedel, “De Minahasa in 1825,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xviii. (1872), 521 _sq._ Wilken’s first and fuller account is reprinted in Graafland’s _De Minahassa_, i. 117-120.

477 Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” in _Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) 82; G. A. Wilken, _Het Shamanisme bij de Volken van de Indischen Archipel_, p. 58.

478 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 239.

479 Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, _Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias_, p. 116 _sq._, Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_, p. 174 _sq._ Cp. Chatelin, “Godsdienst en Bijgeloof der Niassers,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvi. 139. The Dyaks also drive the devil at the point of the sword from a house where there is sickness. See Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers” in _Tijdschrift voor Neêrland’s Indië_, viii. (1846) dl. iii. p. 149.

480 Forbes, _British Burma_, p. 233; Shway Yoe, _The Burman_, i. 282, ii. 105 _sqq._; Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. 98.

481 Lewin, _Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India_, p. 226.

482 Hecquard, _Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West Afrika_, p. 43.

483 Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons_, p. 279 _sqq._ (195 _sq._ of the Paris reprint). Compare _Relations des Jésuites_, 1639, pp. 88-92 (Canadian reprint), from which it appears that each man demanded the subject of his dream in the form of a riddle, which the hearers tried to solve. The propounding of riddles is not uncommon as a superstitious observance. Probably enigmas were originally a kind of divination. Cp. Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_, p. 232 _sq._; Riedel, _De sluiken kroesharige rassen_, etc. p. 267 _sq._ In Bolang Mongondo (Celebes) riddles may never be asked except when there is a corpse in the village. N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaäng Mongondou,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsch. Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) p. 357.

484 The Rev. W. Ridley, in J. D. Lang’s _Queensland_, p. 441; cp. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_, p. 149.

_ 485 Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska_ (Washington, 1885), p. 42 _sq._

486 Franz Boas, “The Eskimo,” _Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada for 1887_, vol. v. (Montreal, 1888), sect. ii. 36 _sq._

487 Above, p. 162.

488 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. 82 _sqq._; Timothy Dwight, _Travels in New England and New York_, iv. 201 _sq._; L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_, p. 207 _sqq._; Mrs. E. A. Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1883), p. 112 _sqq._; Horatio Hale, “Iroquois sacrifice of the White Dog,” _American Antiquarian_, vii. 7 _sqq._; W. M. Beauchamp, “Iroquois White Dog feast,” _ib._ p. 235 _sqq._

489 Squier’s notes upon Bartram’s _Creek and Cherokee Indians_, p. 78, from the MS. of Mr. Payne. See above, p. 75 _note_.

490 Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the Yncas_, pt. i. bk. vii. ch. 6, vol. ii. p. 228 _sqq._, Markham’s translation; Molina, “Fables and Rites of the Yncas,” in _Rites and Laws of the Yncas_ (Hakluyt Society, 1873), p. 20 _sqq._; Acosta, _History of the Indies_, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. p. 375 _sq._ (Hakluyt Society, 1880). The accounts of Garcilasso and Molina are somewhat discrepant, but this may be explained by the statement of the latter that “in one year they added, and in another they reduced the number of ceremonies, according to circumstances.” Molina places the festival in August, Garcilasso and Acosta in September. According to Garcilasso there were only four runners in Cuzco; according to Molina there were four hundred. Acosta’s account is very brief. In the description given in the text features have been borrowed from all three accounts, where these seemed consistent with each other.

491 Bosman’s “Guinea,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. 402. Cp. Pierre Bouche, _La Côte des Esclaves_, p. 395.

492 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor. _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_, p. 320.

493 Mansfield Parkyns, _Life in Abyssinia_, p. 285 _sqq._

494 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 196 _sq._

495 Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 103.

496 W. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India_, p. 357 _sq._ Possibly this case belongs more strictly to the class of mediate expulsions, the devils being driven out upon the car. Perhaps, however, the car with its contents is regarded rather as a bribe to induce them to go than as a vehicle in which they are actually carted away. Anyhow it is convenient to take this case along with those other expulsions of demons which are the accompaniment of an agricultural festival.

497 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N. S. viii. (1879) 58-60. Van Eck’s account is reprinted in J. Jacobs’s _Eenigen tijd onder de Baliërs_ (Batavia, 1883), p. 190 _sqq._

_ 498 U.S. Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_, by H. Hale, p. 67 _sq._; Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition_, iii. 90 _sq._ According to the latter, the sea-slug was eaten by the men alone, who lived during the four days in the temple, while the women and boys remained shut up in their houses.

499 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v. 367.

_ 500 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 792; D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_, p. 119.

501 Baron, “Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen,” Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, ix. 673, 695 _sq._; cp. Richard, “History of Tonquin,” _ib._ p. 746. The account of the ceremony by Tavernier (whom Baron criticises very unfavourably) is somewhat different. According to him the expulsion of wicked souls at the New Year is combined with sacrifice to the honoured dead. See Harris, _Voyages and Travels_, i. 823.

502 Aymonier, _Notice sur le Cambodge_, p. 62.

503 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iii. 237, 298, 314, 529 _sq._; Pallegoix, _Royaume Thai ou Siam_, i. 252. Bastian (p. 314), with whom Pallegoix seems to agree, distinctly states that the expulsion takes place on the last day of the year. Yet both state that it occurs in the fourth month of the year. According to Pallegoix (i. 253) the Siamese year is composed of twelve lunar months, and the first month usually begins in December. Hence the expulsion of devils would commonly take place in March, as in Cambodia.

504 J. Anderson, _Mandalay to Momien_, p. 308.

505 Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_, p. 153 _sq._

506 Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_, ii. 94.

507 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_, i. 160. Cp. above, vol. i. p. 276.

508 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_, p. 42 _sq._

509 Von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_, p. 260 _sq._ A Westphalian form of the expulsion of evil is the driving out the _Süntevögel_, _Sunnenvögel_, or _Sommervögel_, _i.e._, the butterfly. On St. Peter’s Day, 22d February, children go from house to house knocking on them with hammers and singing doggerel rhymes in which they bid the _Sommervögel_ to depart. Presents are given to them at every house. Or the people of the house themselves go through all the rooms, knocking on all the doors, to drive away the _Sunnenvögel_. If this ceremony is omitted, it is thought that various misfortunes will be the consequence. The house will swarm with rats, mice, and other vermin, the cattle will be sick, the butterflies will multiply at the milk-bowls, etc. Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_, p. 24; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, i. 87; A. Kuhn, _Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen_, ii. §§ 366-374; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche_, etc., p. 21 _sq._; Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_, pp. 94-96.

510 Usener, “Italische Mythen,” in _Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. xxx. 198.

511 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 159.

512 G. Catlin, _North American Indians_, i. 166 _sqq._; _id._, _O-kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans_.

513 Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 172. Cp. above, p. 178.

514 A. Bastian, in _Verhandl. d. Berlin. Gesellsch. f. Anthropol._ 1881, p. 151; cp. _id._, _Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_, p. 6 _sq._ Amongst the Chukmas of South-east India the body of a priest is conveyed to the place of cremation on a car; ropes are attached to the car, the people divide themselves into two equal bodies and pull at the ropes in opposite directions. “One side represents the good spirits; the other, the powers of evil. The contest is so arranged that the former are victorious. Sometimes, however, the young men representing the demons are inclined to pull too vigorously, but a stick generally quells this unseemly ardour in the cause of evil.” Lewin, _Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India_, p. 185. The contest is like that between the angels and devils depicted in the frescoes of the Campo Santo at Pisa. In Burma a similar contest takes place at the funeral of a holy man; but there the original meaning of the ceremony appears to be forgotten. See Sangermano, _Description of the Burmese Empire_ (ed. 1885), p. 98; Forbes, _British Burma_, p. 216 _sq._; Shway Yoe, _The Burman_, ii. 334 _sq._, 342. Sometimes ceremonies of this sort are instituted for a different purpose. In some East Indian islands when the people want a rainy wind from the west, the population of the village, men, women, and children, divide into two parties and pull against each other at the ends of a long bamboo. But the party at the eastern end must pull the harder, in order to draw the desired wind out of the west. Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 282. The Cingalese perform a ceremony like “French and English” in honour of the goddess Patiné. Forbes, _Eleven Years in Ceylon_ (London, 1840), i. 358.

_ 515 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 174.

516 François Valentyn, _Oud-en nieuw Ost-Indiën_, iii. 14. Backer, _L’Archipel Indien_, p. 377 _sq._, copies from Valentyn.

517 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 304 _sq._

_ 518 Ib._ p. 25 _sq._

_ 519 Ib._ p. 141.

520 Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 78.

_ 521 Ib._ p. 357.

_ 522 Ib._ pp. 266, 304 _sq._, 327, 357. For other examples of sending away disease-laden boats in these islands, _ib._ pp. 181, 210; Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S. viii. (1879) p. 104; Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 147; Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” _Tijdschrift voor Neêrland’s Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. 150; Campen, “De godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche Alfoeren,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvii. (1882) p. 441; _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 12, pp. 229-231; Van Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra_, p. 98.

523 J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse, sur la corvette Astrolabe_, v. 311.

524 Roepstorff, “Ein Geisterboot der Nicobaresen,” _Verhandl. der Berlin. Gesellsch. f. Anthropologie_ (1881), p. 401. For Siamese applications of the same principle to the cure of individuals, see Bastian, _Die Volker des östlichen Asien_, iii. 295 _sq._, 485 _sq._

_ 525 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 418.

_ 526 Id._ iii. No. 373.

_ 527 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 1127.

_ 528 Id._ ii. No. 1123.

529 F. Fawcett, “On the Saoras (or Savaras),” _Journ. Anthrop. Soc. Bombay_, i. 213 _note_.

_ 530 Journ. Anthrop. Soc. Bombay_, i. 37.

531 R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_ (first series), p. 30.

532 J. H. Gray, _China_, ii. 306.

_ 533 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. 598.

534 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 393.

535 Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_, ii. 93.

_ 536 Id._ ii. 91.

_ 537 Asiatic Researches_, ix. 96 _sq._

538 J. H. Gray, _China_, ii. 306 _sq._

539 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_, p. 162.

540 Bogle and Manning, _Tibet_, edited by C. R. Markham, p. 106 _sq._

541 E. T. Atkinson, “Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalaya of the North-West Provinces,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, liii. pt. i. (1884), p. 62.

_ 542 Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS. of John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 439.

543 W. M. Beauchamp, “The Iroquois White Dog Feast,” _American Antiquarian_, vii. 237.

_ 544 Ib._ p. 236; T. Dwight, _Travels in New England and New York_, iv. 202.

545 Above, p. 165 _sq._

546 Leviticus xvi. Modern Jews sacrifice a white cock on the eve of the Festival of Expiation, nine days after the beginning of their New Year. The father of the family knocks the cock thrice against his own head, saying, “Let this cock be a substitute for me, let it take my place, let death be laid upon this cock, but a happy life bestowed on me and on all Israel.” Then he cuts its throat and dashes the bird violently on the ground. The intestines are thrown on the roof of the house. The flesh of the cock was formerly given to the poor. Buxtorf, _Synagoga Judaica_, c. xxv.

547 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_, pp. 343-345. Cp. J. F. Schon and S. Crowther, _Journals_, p. 48 _sq._ The account of the custom by J. Africanus B. Horton (_West African Countries and Peoples_ p. 185 _sq._) is entirely from Taylor.

548 Turpin, “History of Siam,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, ix. 579.

549 Ködding, “Die Bataksche Götter,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) pp. 476, 478.

550 The ceremony referred to is probably the one performed on the tenth day, as described in the text.

551 “Report of a Route Survey by Pundit—from Nepal to Lhasa,” etc., _Journal Royal Geogr. Soc._ xxxviii. (1868) pp. 167, 170 _sq._; “Four Years’ Journeying through Great Tibet, by one of the Trans-Himalayan Explorers,” _Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc._ N.S. vii. (1885) p. 67 _sq._

552 Aeneas Sylvius, _Opera_ (Bâle, 1571), p. 423 _sq._

553 Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F. xxx. 198.

554 J. Thomas Phillips, _Account of the Religion, Manners, and Learning of the People of Malabar_, pp. 6, 12 _sq._

555 Herodotus, ii. 39.

556 Herodotus, ii. 38-41; Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_, iii. 403 _sqq._ (ed. 1878).

557 Herodotus, _l.c._

558 See above, pp. 95 _sqq._, 137 _sq._

_ 559 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 335.

560 Strabo, xi. 4, 7. For the custom of standing upon a sacrificed victim, cp. Demosthenes, p. 642; Pausanias, iii. 20, 9.

561 In the Dassera festival, as celebrated in Nepaul, we seem to have another instance of the annual expulsion of demons preceded by a time of licence. The festival occurs at the beginning of October and lasts ten days. “During its continuance there is a general holiday among all classes of the people. The city of Kathmandu at this time is required to be purified, but the purification is effected rather by prayer than by water-cleansing. All the courts of law are closed, and all prisoners in jail are removed from the precincts of the city.... The Kalendar is cleared, or there is a jail-delivery always at the Dassera of all prisoners.” This seems a trace of a period of licence. At this time “it is a general custom for masters to make an annual present, either of money, clothes, buffaloes, goats, etc., to such servants as have given satisfaction during the past year. It is in this respect, as well as in the feasting and drinking which goes on, something like our ‘boxing-time’ at Christmas.” On the seventh day at sunset there is a parade of all the troops in the capital, including the artillery. At a given signal the regiments commence firing, the artillery takes it up, and a general firing goes on for about twenty minutes, when it suddenly ceases. This probably represents the expulsion of the demons. “The grand cutting of the rice-crops is always postponed till the Dassera is over, and commences all over the valley the very day afterwards.” See the description of the festival in Oldfield’s _Sketches from Nipal_, ii. 342-351. On the Dassera in India, see Dubois, _Moeurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l’Inde_, ii. 329 _sqq._ Amongst the Wasuahili of East Africa New Year’s Day was formerly a day of general licence, “every man did as he pleased. Old quarrels were settled, men were found dead on the following day, and no inquiry was instituted about the matter.” Ch. New, _Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa_, p. 65. In Ashantee the annual festival of the new yams is a time of general licence. See the Note on “Offerings of first fruits” at the end of the volume.

562 See above, vol. i. p. 275 _sq._

563 Above, pp. 186 _sq._, 192.

564 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. (1875) xxx. 194.

565 Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iii. 29, iv. 36. Lydus places the expulsion on the Ides of March, that is 15th March. But this seems to be a mistake. See Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, xxx. 209 _sqq._ Again, Lydus does not expressly say that Mamurius Veturius was driven out of the city, but he implies it by mentioning the legend that his mythical prototype was beaten with rods and expelled the city. Lastly, Lydus only mentions the name Mamurius. But the full name Mamurius Veturius is preserved by Varro, _Ling. Lat._ vi. 45; Festus, ed. Muller, p. 131; Plutarch, _Numa_, 13.

566 Usener, _op. cit._ p. 212 _sq._; Roscher, _Apollon und Mars_, p. 27; Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 360; Vaniček, _Griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch_, p. 715. The three latter scholars take Veturius as = _annuus_, because _vetus_ is etymologically equivalent to ἔτος. But, as Usener argues, it seems quite unallowable to take the Greek meaning of the word instead of the Latin.

567 Cato, _De agri cult._ 141.

568 Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 85.

569 See the song of the Arval Brothers in _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_, ed. Henzen, p. 26 _sq._; Wordsworth, _Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin_, p. 158.

570 Above, p. 64.

571 Cato, _De agri cult._ 83.

572 Above, vol. i. p. 70 _sqq._ p. 105 _sq._

573 Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 360; Rosscher, _Apollon und Mars_, p. 49; Usener, _op. cit._ The ceremony also closely resembles the Highland New Year ceremony described above, p. 145 _sq._

574 Propertius, v. 2, 61 _sq._; Usener, _op. cit._ p. 210. One of the functions of the Salii or dancing priests, who during March went up and down the city dancing, singing, and clashing their swords against their shields (Livy, i. 20; Plutarch, _Numa_, 13; Dionysius Halicarn. _Antiq._ ii. 70) may have been to rout out the evils or demons from all parts of the city, as a preparation for transferring them to the scapegoat Mamurius Veturius. Similarly, as we have seen (above, p. 194 _sq._), among the Iroquois, men in fantastic costume went about collecting the sins of the people as a preliminary to transferring them to the scapegoat dogs. We have had many examples of armed men rushing about the streets and houses to drive out demons and evils of all kinds. The blows which were showered on Mamurius Veturius seem to have been administered by the Salii (Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 188; Minucius Felix, 24, 3; Preller, _Röm. Myth._3 i. 360, _note_ 1; Rosscher, _Apollon und Mars_, p. 49). The reason for beating the scapegoat will be explained presently. As priests of Mars, the god of agriculture, the Salii probably had also certain agricultural functions. They were named from the remarkable _leaps_ which they made. Now dancing and leaping high are common sympathetic charms to make the crops grow high. See Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Oesterreichisch Schlesien_, ii. 266; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 499, No. 333; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 49; O. Knoop, _Volkssagen_, etc., _aus dem östlichen Hinterpommern_, p. 176, No. 197; E. Sommer, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen_, p. 148; Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 190, No. 13; Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_, p. 56; _Bavaria_, ii. 298; _id._, iv. Abth. ii. pp. 379, 382; Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten u. Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_, p. 11 _sq._; Schulenberg, _Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche_, p. 252; Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 § 657; Jahn, _Die deutsche Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_, p. 194 _sq._; cp. Schott, _Walachische Mährchen_, p. 301 _sq._; Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_, i. 264; Cieza de Leon, _Travels_ (Hakluyt Soc. 1864), p. 413. Was it one of the functions of the Salii to dance and leap on the fields at the spring or autumn sowing, or at both? The dancing processions of the Salii took place in October as well as in March (Marquardt, _Sacralwesen_,2 p. 436 _sq._), and the Romans sowed both in spring and autumn (Columella, ii. 9, 6 _sq._) In their song the Salii mentioned Saturnus or Saeturnus the god of sowing (Festus, p. 325, ed. Müller. _Saeturnus_ is an emendation of Ritschl’s. See Wordsworth, _Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin_, p. 405). The weapons borne by the Salii, while effective against demons in general, may have been especially directed against the demons who steal the seed corn or the ripe grain. Compare the Khond and Hindoo Koosh customs described above, p. 173. In Western Africa the field labours of tilling and sowing are sometimes accompanied by dances of armed men on the field. See Labat, _Voyage du Chevalier des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne_, ii. p. 99 of the Paris ed., p. 80 of the Amsterdam ed.; Olivier de Sanderval, _De l’Atlantique au Niger par le Foulah-Djallon_ (Paris, 1883), p. 230. In Calicut (Southern India) “they plough the land with oxen as we do, and when they sow the rice in the field they have all the instruments of the city continually sounding and making merry. They also have ten or twelve men clothed like devils, and these unite in making great rejoicing with the players on the instruments, in order that the devil may make that rice very productive.” Varthema, _Travels_ (Hakluyt Soc. 1863), p. 166 _sq._ The resemblance of the Salii to the sword-dancers of northern Europe has been pointed out by K. Müllenhoff, “Ueber den Schwerttanz,” in _Festgaben für Gustav Homeyer_ (Berlin, 1871). In England the Morris Dancers who accompanied the procession of the plough through the streets on Plough Monday (the first Monday after Twelfth Day) sometimes wore swords (Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 505, Bohn’s ed.), and sometimes they “wore small bunches of corn in their hats, from which the wheat was soon shaken out by the ungainly jumping which they called dancing.... Bessy rattled his box and danced so high that he showed his worsted stockings and corduroy breeches.” Chambers, _Book of Days_, i. 94. It is to be observed that in the “Lord of Misrule,” who reigned from Christmas till Twelfth Night (see Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 497 _sqq._), we have a clear trace of one of those periods of general licence and suspension of ordinary government which so commonly occur at the end of the old year or beginning of the new one in connection with a general expulsion of evils. The fact that this period of licence immediately preceded the procession of the Morris Dancers on Plough Monday seems to indicate that the functions of these dancers were like those which I have attributed to the Salii. But the parallel cannot be drawn out here. Cp. meantime Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, pp. 31, 39. The Salii were said to have been founded by _Morrius_, King of Veii (Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 285). _Morrius_ seems to be etymologically the same with _Mamurius_ and _Mars_ (Usener, _Italische Mythen_, p. 213). Can the English _Morris_ (in _Morris_ dancers) be the same? Analogy suggests that at Rome the Saturnalia, which fell in December when the Roman year began in January, may have been celebrated in February when the Roman year began in March. Thus at Rome, as in so many places, the public expulsion of evils at the New Year would be preceded by a period of general licence, such as the Saturnalia was. A trace of the former celebration of the Saturnalia in February or the beginning of March may perhaps be seen in the _Matronalia_, celebrated on 1st March, at which mistresses feasted their slaves, just as masters feasted theirs at the Saturnalia. Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12, 7; Solinus, i. 35, p. 13, ed. Mommsen; Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iii. 15.

575 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ vi. 8.

576 See above, pp. 176, 194.

577 Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 57, from Petronius.

578 Helladius, in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 534 A, ed. Bekker; Schol. on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 734, and on _Knights_, 1136; Hesychius, _s.v._ φαρμακοί; cp. Suidas, _s.vv._ κάθαρμα, φαρμακοός, and φαρμακούς; Lysias, _Orat._ vi. 53. That they were stoned is an inference from Harpocration. See next note.

579 Harpocration, _s.v._ φαρμακός, who says δύο ἄνδρας Ἀθήνησιν ἑξῆγον καθάρσια ἐσομένους τῆς πόλεως ἐν τοῖς Θαργηλίοις, ἕνα μὲν ὑπερ τῶν ἀνδρῶν, ἕνα δὲ ὑπερ τῶν γυναικῶν. He does not expressly state that they were put to death; but as he says that the ceremony was an imitation of the execution of a mythical Pharmacus who was stoned to death, we may infer that the victims were killed by being stoned. Suidas (_sv._ φάρμακος) copies Harpocration.

580 Strabo, x. 2, 9. I do not know what authority Wordsworth (_Greece, Pictorial, Historical, and Descriptive_, p. 354) has for saying that the priests of Apollo, whose temple stood near the edge of the cliff, sometimes flung themselves down in this way.

581 Tzetzes, _Chiliades_, v. 726-761. Tzetzes’s authority is the satyrical poet Hipponax.

582 This may be inferred from the verse of Hipponax, quoted by Athenaeus, 370 B, where for φαρμάκου we should perhaps read φαρμακοῦ with Schneidewin (_Poetae lyr. Gr._3 ed. Bergk, ii. 763).

583 See his _Mytholog. Forschungen_, p. 113 _sqq._, especially 123 _sq._ 133.

584 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xx. 101; Dioscorides, _De mat. med._ ii. 202; Lucian, _Necyom._ 7; _id._, _Alexander_, 47; Theophrastus, _Superstitious Man_.

585 Theocritus, vii. 106 _sqq._ with the scholiast.

586 Cp. Aug. Mommsen, _Heortologie_, 414 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ p. 215.

587 At certain sacrifices in Yucatan blood was drawn from the genitals of a human victim and smeared on the face of the idol. De Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_, ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864) p. 167. Was the original intention of this rite to transfuse into the god a fresh supply of reproductive energy?

588 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ ix. 26.

589 De Santa-Anna Nery, _Folk-lore Brésilien_ (Paris, 1889) p. 253.

590 Above, pp. 148 _sq._ 187. Compare Plutarch, _Parallela_, 35, where a woman is represented as going from house to house striking sick people with a hammer and bidding them be whole.

591 Acosta, _History of the Indies_, ii. 375 (Hakluyt Soc.) See above, p. 169.

592 Osculati, _Esplorazione delle regioni equatoriali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle Amazzoni_ (Milan, 1854), p. 118.

593 Ed. Beardmore, _Anthropological Notes collected at Mowat, Dandai, New Guinea_ (1888) (in manuscript).

594 Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_, i. 155.

595 F. S. Krauss, _Kroatien und Slavonien_ (Vienna, 1889), p. 108.

596 W. Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 257.

597 W. Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 258-263. See his whole discussion of such customs, pp. 251-303, and _Myth. Forsch._ pp. 113-153.

598 Acosta, _History of the Indies_, ii. 323 (Hakluyt Soc. 1880).

599 Sahagun, _Histoire des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_ (Paris, 1880), pp. 61 _sq._, 96-99, 103; Acosta, _History of the Indies_, ii. 350 _sq._; Clavigero, _History of Mexico_, trans. by Cullen, i. 300; Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, ii. 319 _sq._ For other Mexican instances of persons representing deities and slain in that character, see Sahagun, pp. 75, 116 _sq._, 123, 158 _sq._, 164 _sq._, 585 _sqq._, 589; Acosta, ii. 384 _sqq._; Clavigero, i. 312; Bancroft, ii. 325 _sqq._, 337 _sq._

600 Sahagun, pp. 18 _sq._, 68 _sq._, 133-139; Bancroft, iii. 353-359.

601 Sahagun, p. 584 _sq._ For this festival see also _id._ pp. 37 _sq._ 58 _sq._ 60, 87 _sqq._ 93; Clavigero, i. 297; Bancroft, ii. 306 _sqq._

602 Clavigero, i. 283.

603 Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, ii. 142.

_ 604 Memorials of Japan_ (Hakluyt Society, 1850), pp. 14, 141; Varenius, _Descriptio regni Japoniae_, p. 11; Caron, “Account of Japan,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, vii. 613; Kaempfer, “History of Japan,” in _id._, vii. 716.

605 Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, iii. 102 _sq._ ed. 1836; James Wilson, _Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean_, p. 329.

606 Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_, iii. 81.

607 Athenaeus, 514 C.

608 Bancroft, _l.c._

609 Kaempfer, “History of Japan,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, vii. 717; Caron, “Account of Japan,” _id._ vii. 613; Varenius, _Descriptio regni Japoniae_, p. 11, “_Radiis solis caput nunquam illustrabatur: in apertum aërem non procedebat_.”

610 Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, iv. 359.

611 Alonzo de Zurita, “Rapport sur les differentes classes de chefs de la Nouvelle-Espagne,” p. 30, in Ternaux-Compans’s _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux_ (Paris, 1840); Waitz, _l.c._; Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_, ii. 204.

612 Cieza de Leon, _Second Part of the Chronicle of Peru_ (Hakluyt Soc. 1883), p. 18.

613 Pechuel-Loesche, “Indiscretes aus Loango,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, x. (1878) 23.

614 Rev. James Macdonald (Reay Free Manse, Caithness), _Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of South African Tribes_ (in manuscript).

615 The Rev. G. Brown, quoted by the Rev. B. Danks, “Marriage Customs of the New Britain Group,” _Journ. Anthrop. Institute_, xviii. 284 _sq._; cp. Rev. G. Brown, “Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain, and New Ireland,” _Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc._ xlvii. (1877) p. 142 _sq._ Powell’s description of the New Ireland custom is similar (_Wanderings in a Wild Country_, p. 249). According to him the girls wear wreaths of scented herbs round the waist and neck; an old woman or a little child occupies the lower floor of the cage: and the confinement lasts only a month. Probably the long period mentioned by Mr. Brown is that prescribed for chiefs’ daughters. Poor people could not afford to keep their children so long idle. This distinction is sometimes expressly stated; for example, among the Goajiras of Colombia rich people keep their daughters shut up in separate huts at puberty for periods varying from one to four years, but poor people cannot afford to do so for more than a fortnight or a month. F. A. Simons, “An exploration of the Goajira Peninsula,” _Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc._ N.S. vii. (1885) p. 791. In Fiji, brides who were being tattooed were kept from the sun. Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_, i. 170. This was perhaps a modification of the Melanesian custom of secluding girls at puberty. The reason mentioned by Mr. Williams, “to improve her complexion,” can hardly have been the original one.

616 Chalmers and Gill, _Work and Adventure in New Guinea_, p. 159.

617 Schwaner, _Borneo, Beschrijving van het stroomgebied van den Barito_, etc. ii. 77 _sq._; Zimmerman, _Die Inseln des Indischen und Stillen Meeres_, ii. 632 _sq._; Otto Finsch, _Neu Guinea und seine Bewohner_, p. 116.

618 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 138.

619 Sproat, _Scenes and Studies of Savage Life_, p. 93 _sq._

620 Erman, “Ethnographische Wahrnehmungen u. Erfahrungen an den Küsten des Berings-Meeres,” _Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie_, ii. 318 _sq._; Langsdorff, _Reise um die Welt_, ii. 114 _sq._; Holmberg, “Ethnogr. Skizzen über die Völker d. russischen Amerika,” _Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae_, iv. (1856) p. 320 _sq._; Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 110 _sq._; Krause, _Die Tlinkit-Indianer_, p. 217 _sq._; Rev. Sheldon Jackson, “Alaska and its Inhabitants,” _American Antiquarian_, ii. 111 _sq._; W. M. Grant, in _Journal of American Folk-lore_, i. 169. For caps, hoods, and veils worn by girls at such seasons, compare G. H. Loskiel, _History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians_, i. 56; _Journal Anthrop. Institute_, vii. 206; G. M. Dawson, _Report of the Queen Charlotte Islands_, 1878 (Geological Survey of Canada), p. 130 B; Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié_, pp. 72, 75; _id._, _Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest_, p. 258.

621 Holmberg, _op. cit._ p. 401; Bancroft, i. 82; Petroff, _Report on the Population_, etc. _of Alaska_, p. 143.

622 Lafitau, _Moeurs des Sauvages amériquains_ i. 262 _sq._

_ 623 Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, viii. 333. On the Chiriguanos see Von Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s zumal Brasiliens_, p. 212 _sqq._

624 Thevet, _Cosmographie Universelle_ (Paris, 1575) ii. 946 B _sq._; Lafitau, _op. cit._ i 290 _sqq._

625 Schomburgk, _Reisen in Britisch Guiana_, ii. 315 _sq._; Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika’s_, p. 644.

626 Labat, _Voyage du Chevalier des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne_, iv. p. 365 _sq._ (Paris ed.), p. 17 _sq._ (Amsterdam ed.)

627 Above, p. 213 _sq._, vol. i. p. 153 _sq._

628 This interpretation of the custom is supported by the fact that beating or scourging is inflicted on inanimate objects expressly for the purpose indicated in the text. Thus the Indians of Costa Rica hold that there are two kinds of ceremonial uncleanness, _nya_ and _bu-ku-rú_. Anything that has been connected with a death is _nya_. But _bu-ku-rú_ is much more virulent. It can not only make one sick but kill. “The worst _bu-ku-rú_ of all is that of a young woman in her first pregnancy. She infects the whole neighbourhood. Persons going from the house where she lives carry the infection with them to a distance, and all the deaths or other serious misfortunes in the vicinity are laid to her charge. In the old times, when the savage laws and customs were in full force, it was not an uncommon thing for the husband of such a woman to pay damages for casualties thus caused by his unfortunate wife.... _Bu-ku-rú_ emanates in a variety of ways; arms, utensils, even houses become affected by it after long disuse, and before they can be used again must be purified. In the case of portable objects left undisturbed for a long time, the custom is to beat them with a stick before touching them. I have seen a woman take a long walking stick and beat a basket hanging from the roof of a house by a cord. On asking what that was for, I was told that the basket contained her treasures, that she would probably want to take something out the next day, and that she was driving off the _bu-ku-rú_. A house long unused must be swept, and then the person who is purifying it must take a stick and beat not only the movable objects, but the beds, posts, and in short every accessible part of the interior. The next day it is fit for occupation. A place not visited for a long time or reached for the first time is _bu-ku-rú_. On our return from the ascent of Pico Blanco, nearly all the party suffered from little calenturas, the result of extraordinary exposure to wet and cold and want of food. The Indians said that the peak was especially _bu-ku-rú_, since nobody had ever been on it before.” One day Mr. Gabb took down some dusty blow-guns amid cries of _bu-ku-rú_ from the Indians. Some weeks afterwards a boy died, and the Indians firmly believed that the _bu-ku-rú_ of the blow-guns had killed him. “From all the foregoing, it would seem that _bu-ku-rú_ is a sort of evil spirit that takes possession of the object, and resents being disturbed; but I have never been able to learn from the Indians that they consider it so. They seem to think of it as a property the objects acquires.” W. M. Gabb, _Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica_ (read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th August 1875), p. 504 _sq._

629 A. R. Wallace, _Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro_, p. 496.

630 Bose, _The Hindoos as they are_, p. 86. Similarly, after a Brahman boy has been invested with the sacred thread, he is for three days strictly forbidden to see the sun. He may not eat salt, and he is enjoined to sleep either on a carpet or a deer’s skin, without a mattress or mosquito curtain. _Ib._ p. 186. In Bali, boys who have had their teeth filed, as a preliminary to marriage, are kept shut up in a dark room for three days. Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N. S. ix. (1880) 428 _sq._

631 Moura, _Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 377.

632 Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” _Cochinchine Française, Excursions et Reconnaissances_, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), p. 193 _sq._ Cp. _id._ _Notice sur le Cambodge_, p. 50.

633 B. Schmidt, _Griechische Märchen, Sagen und Volkslieder_, p. 98.

634 Schneller, _Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol_, No. 22.

635 J. G. von Hahn, _Griechische und albanesische Märchen_, No. 41.

636 Gonzenbach, _Sicilianische Märchen_, No. 28. The incident of the bone occurs in other folk-tales. A prince or princess is shut up for safety in a tower and makes his or her escape by scraping a hole in the wall with a bone which has been accidentally conveyed into the tower; sometimes it is expressly said that care was taken to let the princess have no bones with her meat. Hahn, _op. cit._ No. 15; Gonzenbach, Nos. 26, 27; _Pentamerone_, No. 23. From this we should infer that it is a rule with savages not to let women handle the bones of animals during their monthly seclusions. We have already seen the great respect with which the savage treats the bones of game (see above, p. 116 _sqq._); and women in their courses are specially forbidden to meddle with the hunter or fisher, as their contact or neighbourhood would spoil his sport (see below, p. 238 _sqq._) In folk-tales the hero who uses the bone is sometimes a boy; but the incident might easily be transferred from a girl to a boy after its real meaning had been forgotten. Amongst the Hare-skin Indians a girl at puberty is forbidden to break the bones of hares. Petitot, _Traditions indiennes du Canada Nordouest_, p. 258. On the other hand, she drinks out of a tube made of a swan’s bone (Petitot, _l.c._ and _id._, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié_, p. 76), and we have seen that a Thlinkeet girl in the same circumstances used to drink out of the wing-bone of a white-headed eagle (Langsdorff, _Reise um die Welt_, ii. 114).

637 W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme Süd-Sibiriens_, iii. 82 _sq._

638 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, i. 416, vi. 25; Turner, _Samoa_, p. 200; _Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 797.

639 Amongst the Chaco Indians of South America a newly-married couple sleep the first night on a skin with their heads towards the west; “for the marriage is not considered as ratified till the rising sun shines on their feet the succeeding morning.” T. J. Hutchinson, “The Chaco Indians,” _Transact. Ethnolog. Soc._ iii. 327. At old Hindoo marriages, the first ceremony was the “Impregnation-rite” (_Garbhādhāna_). “During the previous day the young married woman was made to look towards the sun, or in some way exposed to its rays.” Monier Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in India_, p. 354. Amongst the Turks of Siberia it was formerly the custom on the morning after marriage to lead the young couple out of the hut to greet the rising sun. The same custom is said to be still practised in Iran and Central Asia, the belief being that the beams of the rising sun are the surest means of impregnating the new bride. Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_, p. 112.

640 Above, vol. i. p. 170.

_ 641 Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 186; E. J. Eyre, _Journals_, ii. 295, 304; W. Ridley, _Kamilaroi_, p. 157; _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ ii. 268, ix. 459 _sq._; Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 65, 236. Cp. Sir George Grey, _Journals_, ii. 344; J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, ci. _sq._

642 Bleek, _Brief Account of Bushman Folk-lore_, p. 14; cp. _ib._ p. 10.

643 Gumilla, _Histoire de l’Orénoque_, i. 249.

644 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_, p. 123 _sq._

645 S. Hearne, _Journey to the Northern Ocean_, p. 314 _sq._; Alex. Mackenzie, _Voyages through the Continent of North America_, cxxiii.; Petitot, _Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié_, p. 75 _sq._

646 C. Leemius, _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua vita et religione pristina_ (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 494.

647 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. § 64 _sq._, xxviii. § 77 _sqq._ Cp. _Geoponica_, xii. c. 20, 5, and c. 25, 2; Columella, xi. 3, 50.

648 A. Schleicher, _Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg_; p. 134; B. Souché, _Croyances, Présages et Traditions diverses_, p. 11; V. Fossel, _Volksmedicin und medicinischer Aberglaube in Steiermark_ (Graz, 1886), p. 124. The Greeks and Romans thought that a field was completely protected against insects if a menstruous woman walked round it with bare feet and streaming hair. Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvii. 266, xxviii. 78; Columella, x. 358 _sq._, xi. 3, 64; Palladius, _De re rustica_, i. 35, 3; _Geoponica_, xii. 8, 5 _sq._; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ vi. 36. A similar remedy is employed for the same purpose by North American Indians and European peasants. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, v. 70; Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten_, p. 484. Cp. Haltrich, _Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen_, p. 280; Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens_, p. 14; Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 468.

649 For an example of the beneficent application of the menstrual energy, see note on p. 241.

650 The rules just discussed do not hold exclusively of the persons mentioned in the text, but are applicable in certain circumstances to other tabooed persons and things. Whatever, in fact, is permeated by the mysterious virtue of taboo may need to be isolated from earth and heaven. Mourners are taboo all the world over; accordingly in mourning the Ainos wear peculiar caps in order that the sun may not shine upon their heads. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v. 366. During a solemn fast of three days the Indians of Costa Rica eat no salt, speak as little as possible, light no fires, and stay strictly indoors, or if they go out during the day they carefully cover themselves from the light of the sun, believing that exposure to the sun’s rays would turn them black. W. M. Gabb, _Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica_, p. 510. On Yule night it has been customary in parts of Sweden from time immemorial to go on pilgrimage, whereby people learn many secret things and know what is to happen in the coming year. As a preparation for this pilgrimage, “some secrete themselves for three days previously in a dark cellar, so as to be shut out altogether from the light of heaven. Others retire at an early hour of the preceding morning to some out-of-the way place, such as a hayloft, where they bury themselves in the hay, that they may neither hear nor see any living creature; and here they remain, in silence and fasting, until after sundown; whilst there are those who think it sufficient if they rigidly abstain from food on the day before commencing their wanderings. During this period of probation a man ought not to see fire.” L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 194. During the sixteen days that a Pima Indian is undergoing purification for killing an Apache he may not see a blazing fire. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 553. Again warriors on the war-path are strictly taboo; hence Indians may not sit on the bare ground the whole time they are out on a warlike expedition. J. Adair, _History of the American Indians_, p. 382; _Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner_, p. 123. The holy ark of the North American Indians is deemed “so sacred and dangerous to be touched” that no one, except the war chief and his attendant, will touch it “under the penalty of incurring great evil. Nor would the most inveterate enemy touch it in the woods for the very same reason.” In carrying it against the enemy they never place it on the ground, but rest it on stones or logs. Adair, _History of the American Indians_, p. 162 _sq._ The sacred clam shell of the Elk clan among the Omahas is kept in a sacred bag, which is never allowed to touch the ground. E. James, _Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_, ii. 47; J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p. 226. Newly born infants are strongly taboo; accordingly in Loango they are not allowed to touch the earth. Pechuel-Loesche, “Indiscretes aus Loango,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, x. (1878) p. 29 _sq._ In Laos the hunting of elephants gives rise to many taboos; one of them is that the chief hunter may not touch the earth with his foot. Accordingly when he alights from his elephant, the others spread a carpet of leaves for him to step upon. E. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_, p. 26. In some parts of Aberdeenshire, the last bit of standing corn (which, as we have seen, is very sacred) is not allowed to touch the ground; but as it is cut, it is placed on the lap of the “gueedman.” W. Gregor, “Quelques coutumes du Nord-Est du Comté d’Aberdeen,” _Revue des Traditions populaires_, iii. (1888) 485 B. Sacred food may not, in certain circumstances, touch the ground. F. Grabowsky, “Der Distrikt Dusson Timor in Südost-Borneo und seine Bewohner,” _Ausland_ (1884), No. 24, p. 474; Ch. F. Hall, _Narrative of the Second Arctic Expedition_, edited by Prof. J. E. Nourse (Washington, 1879), p. 110; Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_, ii. 7. In Scotland, when water was carried from sacred wells to sick people, the water-vessel might not touch the ground. C. F. Gordon Cumming, _In the Hebrides_, p. 211. On the relation of spirits to the ground, compare Denzil Ibbetson in _Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 5.

_ 651 Die Edda_, übersetzt von K. Simrock,8 pp. 286-288, cp. pp. 8, 34, 264. In English the Balder story is told at length by Prof. Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 529 _sqq._

652 It is strange to find so learned and judicious a student of custom and myth as H. Usener exactly inverting their true relation to each other. After showing that the essential features of the myth of the marriage of Mars and Nerio have their counterpart in the marriage customs of peasants at the present day, he proceeds to infer that these customs are the reflection of the myth. “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. xxx. 228 _sq._ Surely the myth is the reflection of the custom. Men not only fashion gods in their own likeness (as Xenophanes long ago remarked) but make them think and act like themselves. Heaven is a copy of earth, not earth of heaven.

653 See Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 502, 510, 516.

654 Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 518 _sq._

655 In the following survey of these fire-customs I follow chiefly W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, kap. vi. p. 497 _sqq._ Compare also Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 500 _sqq._

656 Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen_ etc. _des Eifler Volkes_, i. pp. 21-25; _B. K._ p. 501.

_ 657 B. K._ p. 501.

658 Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, p. 20; _B. K._ p. 501.

659 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 380 _sqq_.; Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 59 _sq._ , 66 _sq._; _Bavaria_, ii. 2, p. 838 _sq._; Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 211, No. 232, _B. K._ p. 501 _sq._

_ 660 Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 189; Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 207; _B. K._ p. 500 _sq._

661 Th. Vernalcken, _Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_, p. 293 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 498. See above, vol. i. p. 267.

_ 662 Schmitz, Sitten, u. Sagen des Eifler Volkes_, i. p. 20; _B. K._ p. 499.

663 Strackerjan, _Aberglaube u. Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_, ii. 39, No. 306; _B. K._ p. 499.

_ 664 B. K._ p. 499.

_ 665 B. K._ p. 498 _sq._

_ 666 B. K._ p. 499.

667 Schneller, _Märchen u. Sagen aus Wälschtirol_, p. 234 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 499 _sq._

_ 668 B. K._ pp. 502-505; Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 § 81; Zingerle, _Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_,2 p. 149, §§ 1286-1289; _Bavaria_, i. 1, p. 371.

669 Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 212 _sq._, ii. p. 78 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 505.

670 Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_, ii. p. 43 _sq._, No. 313; _B. K._ p. 505 _sq._

671 Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. 75 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 506.

672 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 512; _B. K._ p. 506 _sq._

673 H. Pröhle, _Harzbilder_, p. 63; Kuhn und Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, p. 373; _B. K._ p. 507.

674 Kuhn, _Markische Sagen und Märchen_, p. 312 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 507.

675 Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 211 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 507 _sq._

676 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. p. 82, No. 106; _B. K._ p. 508.

_ 677 B. K._ p. 508; cp. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutsch. Myth._ i. 74; Grimm, _Deutsche Myth._4 i. 512. The two latter writers only state that before the fires were kindled it was customary to hunt squirrels in the woods.

678 Kuhn, _l.c._; _B. K._ p. 508.

679 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 224 _sq._, Bohn’s ed., quoting Sinclair’s _Statistical Account of Scotland_, 1794, xi. 620; _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS. of John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce, ii. 439-445; _B. K._ p. 508.

680 Pennant, “Tour in Scotland,” Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 49; Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 226.

681 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 233 _sq._

_ 682 B. K._ p. 509; Brand, _Pop. Antiq._ i. 298 _sq._; Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 516.

683 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. p. 96 _sqq._ No. 128, p. 103 _sq._ No. 129; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 423 _sqq._; _B. K._ p. 510.

684 Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_, p. 182 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 510. Cp. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. 210; _Bavaria_, iii. 956.

685 Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. 549.

686 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, pp. 306-311; _B. K._ p. 510. For the custom of burning a tree in the midsummer bonfires, see vol. i. p. 79.

687 Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_, ii. 144 _sqq._

688 Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 515 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 510 _sq._

689 Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 393; Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 517; _B. K._ p. 511.

690 Sébillot, Coutumes populaires de la Haute Bretagne, p. 193 _sq._ Wolf, _op. cit._ ii. 392 _sq._

691 Zingerle, _Sitten, etc. des Tiroler Volkes_,2 p. 159, No. 1354; Panzer, _Beitrag_, i. 210; _B. K._ p. 511.

692 Kuhn u. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, p. 390; _B. K._ 511.

693 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 300 _sq._, 318, cp. pp. 305, 306, 308 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 512.

694 Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_, p. 96, cp. _id._ p. 26.

695 Brand, _op. cit._ i. 311.

_ 696 Id._ i. 303, 318, 319; Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 315.

697 Brand, _op. cit._ i. 318.

698 J. Train, _Account of the Isle of Man_, ii. 120.

699 Brand, i. 303, quoting Sir Henry Piers’s _Description of Westmeath_.

700 Brand, _l.c._, quoting the author of the _Survey of the South of Ireland_.

701 Brand, i. 305, quoting the author of the _Comical Pilgrim’s Pilgrimage into Ireland_.

702 Brand, i. 304, quoting _The Gentleman’s Magazine_, February 1795, p. 124.

703 Quoted by Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 321 _sq._

704 Brand, i. 311, quoting _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xxi. 145.

_ 705 B. K._ p. 512.

706 Brand, i. 337.

707 J. Ramsay and A. Allardyce, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, ii. 436.

708 Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 240; Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 519.

709 Ralston. _l.c._

710 Tettau und Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_, p. 277; Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 519.

711 Töppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_,2 p. 71.

712 Grimm, _l.c._; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 307 _note_.

713 Grimm, _l.c._

714 Grimm, _l.c._

715 Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 518.

716 Above, vol. i. p. 291.

717 Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, i. 185.

718 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 317; Grimm, _l.c._

719 G. Ferraro, _Superstizioni, usi e proverbi Monferrini_, p. 34 _sq._, referring to Alvise da Cadamosto, _Relazion dei viaggi d’Africa_, in Ramusio.

720 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 100 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 513 _sq._

721 Zingerle, _Sitten_, etc., _des Tiroler Volkes_,2 p. 159, No. 1353, cp. No. 1355; _B. K._ p. 513.

722 Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 392; _B. K._ p. 513.

_ 723 B. K._ p. 513.

724 Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 240.

725 Above, vol. i. p. 272 _sq._

726 Above, vol. i. p. 22 _sqq._

727 Above, p. 262.

728 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 57, 97; _B. K._ p. 510; cp. Panzer, _Beitrag_, ii. 240.

729 Cp. Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 521; Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 389; Ad. Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_,2 pp. 41 _sq._, 47; W. Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 521.

730 See above, pp. 254, 255, 260, 265.

731 On the need-fires, see Grimm, _D. M._ i. 501 _sqq._; Wolf, _op. cit._ i. 116 _sq._, ii. 378 _sqq._; Kuhn, _op. cit._ p. 41 _sqq._; _B. K._ p. 518 _sqq._; Elton, _Origins of English History_, p. 293 _sq._; Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_, p. 26 _sqq._

732 This is the view of Grimm, Wolf, Kuhn, and Mannhardt.

_ 733 Herabkunft des Feuers_,2 p. 47.

734 Panzer, _Beitrag_, ii. 240.

735 Ch. E. Gover, “The Pongol festival in Southern India,” _Journ. Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S. v. (1870) p. 96 _sq._

736 Diego de Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), p. 233.

737 Kolben, _Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_, i. 129 _sqq._

738 P. 253. The torches of Demeter, which figure so largely in her myth and on the monuments, are perhaps to be explained by this custom. To regard, with Mannhardt (_B. K._ p. 536), the torches in the modern European customs as imitations of lightning seems unnecessary.

739 Above, vol. i. p. 70 _sqq._

740 Pp. 250, 267.

741 Pp. 247, 248, 253, 259, 266.

742 P. 250 _sq._

743 Pp. 247, 248.

744 Vol. i. p. 272.

_ 745 B. K._ p. 524.

_ 746 Bavaria_, iii. 956; _B. K._ p. 524.

747 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 121 _sq._, No. 146; _B. K._ p. 524 _sq._

748 Caesar, _Bell. Gall._ vi. 15; Strabo, iv. 4, 5, p. 198; Casaubon; Diodorus, v. 32. See Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 525 _sqq._

749 Strabo, iv. 4, 4, p. 197, τὰς δὲ φονικὰς δίκας μάλιστα τούτοις [i.e. the Druids] ἐπετέτραπτο δικάζειν, ὅταν τε φορὰ τούτων ἧ, φορὰν καὶ τῆς χώρας νομίζουσιν ὐπάρχειν. On this passage see Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 529 _sqq._

750 See vol. i. p. 88 _sqq._

_ 751 B. K._ p. 523, _note_.

_ 752 B. K._ p. 523, _note_; John Milner, _The History, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Antiquities of Winchester_, i. 8 _sq._; Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 325 _sq._; James Logan, _The Scottish Gael_, ii. 358 (new ed.); Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_, p. 123 _sqq._

753 Puttenham, _Arte of English Poesie_, 1589, p. 128, quoted by Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 323.

754 King’s _Vale Royal of England_, p. 208, quoted by Brand, _l.c._

755 Liebrecht, _Gervasius von Tilbury_, p. 212 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 514.

_ 756 B. K._ pp. 514, 523.

_ 757 Athenaeum_, 24th July 1869, p. 115; _B. K._ p. 515 _sq._

758 Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 388; _B. K._ p. 515.

_ 759 B. K._ p. 515.

760 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 519; _B. K._ p. 515.

_ 761 B. K._ p. 515.

_ 762 Ib._

763 Above, vol. i. p. 408, vol. ii. p. 1 _sqq._

764 Some of the serpents worshipped by the old Prussians lived in hollow oaks, and as oaks were sacred among the Prussians, the serpents may have been regarded as genii of the trees. Simon Grunau, _Preussische Chronik_, ed. Perlbach, i. p. 89; Hartknoch, _Altund Neues Preussen_, pp. 143, 163. Serpents, again, played an important part in the worship of Demeter, as we have seen. But that they were regarded as embodiments of her can hardly be assumed. In Siam the spirit of the _takhien_ tree is believed to appear, sometimes in the form of a woman, sometimes in the form of a serpent. Bastian, _Die Volker des östlichen Asien_, iii. 251.

765 Pliny derives the name Druid the Greek _drūs_, “oak.” He did not know that the Celtic word for oak was the same (_daur_), and that therefore Druid, in the sense of priest of the oak, was genuine Celtic, not borrowed from the Greek. See Curtius, _Griech. Etymologie_,5 p. 238 _sq._; Vaniček, _Griechisch-lateinisches etymolog. Wörterbuch_, p. 368 _sqq._; Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 221 _sqq._ In the Highlands of Scotland the word is found in place-names like Bendarroch (the mountain of the oak), Craigandarroch, etc.

766 It is still a folk-lore rule not to cut the mistletoe with iron; some say it should be cut with gold. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4 ii. 1001. On the objection to the use of iron in such cases, see Liebrecht, _Gervasius von Tilbury_, p. 103; and above, vol. i. p. 177 _sqq._

767 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. § 249 _sqq._ On the Celtic worship of the oak, see also Maximus Tyrius, _Dissert._ viii. 8, Κελτοὶ σέβουσι μὲν Δία ἄγαλμα δὲ Διὸς Κελτικὸν ὐψηλὴ δρῦς. With this mode of gathering the mistletoe compare the following. In Cambodia when a man perceives a certain parasitic plant growing on a tamarind-tree, he dresses in white and taking a new earthen pot climbs the tree at mid-day. He puts the plant in the pot and lets the whole fall to the ground. Then in the pot he makes a decoction which renders invulnerable. Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” in _Cochinchine Française, Excursions et Reconnaissances_, No. 16, p. 136.

768 Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 § 123; Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_, §§ 673-677; Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 144 _sqq._; Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, p. 362; Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 314 _sqq._; Vonbun, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, p. 133 _sqq._; Burne and Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 242. Cp. _Archaeological Review_, i. 164 _sqq._

769 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 307, 312; Dyer, _Folk-lore of Plants_, pp. 62, 286; Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, pp. 147, 149, 150, 540; Wuttke, § 134.

770 Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 514 _sq._, ii. 1013 _sq._, iii. 356; Grohmann, _op. cit._ § 635-637; Friend, _op. cit._ p. 75; Gubernatis, _Myth. des Plantes_, i. 189 _sq._, ii. 16 _sqq._

771 Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_, p. 25 _sq._; Brand, _Pop. Ant._ i. 329 _sqq._; Friend, p. 136.

772 Brand, i. 333.

773 Grohmann, § 1426.

774 Grohmann, § 648.

775 Grohmann, § 681; Wuttke, § 134; Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_, i. 9; Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, i. 190.

776 Grimm, _D. M._4 iii. 78, 353.

777 Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 73.

778 Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, p. 378. Hunters believe that the mistletoe heals all wounds and brings luck in hunting. Kuhn, _Herabkunjt des Feuers_,2 p. 206.

779 Grimm, _D. M._4 ii. 1009.

780 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 269.

781 Lloyd, _op. cit._ p. 259; Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 517 _sq._

782 Lloyd, _l.c._

783 Grimm, _D. M._4 iii. 78, who adds, “_Mahnen die Johannisfeuer an Baldrs Leichenbrand?_” This pregnant hint, which contains in germ the solution of the whole myth, has been quite lost on the mythologists who since Grimm’s day have enveloped the subject in a cloud of learned dust.

784 Above, p. 285, and vol. i. pp. 58, 64.

785 Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 55 _sq._, 58 _sq._, ii. 542, iii. 187 _sq._

786 Preller, _Röm. Mythol._3 i. 108.

787 Livy, i. 10. Cp. C. Bötticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_, p. 133 _sq._

788 Bötticher, _op. cit._ p. 111 _sqq._; Preller, _Griech. Mythol._4 ed. C. Robert, i. 122 _sqq._

789 Without hazarding an opinion on the vexed question of the primitive home of the Aryans, I may observe that in various parts of Europe the oak seems to have been formerly more common than it is now. In Denmark the present beech woods were preceded by oak woods and these by the Scotch fir. Lyell, _Antiquity of Man_, p. 9; J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_, p. 486 _sq._ In parts of North Germany it appears from the evidence of archives that the fir has ousted the oak. O. Schrader, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_,2 (Jena, 1890), p. 394. In prehistoric times the oak appears to have been the chief tree in the forests which clothed the valley of the Po; the piles on which the pile villages rested were of oak. W. Helbig, _Die Italiker in der Poebene_, p. 25 _sq._ The classical tradition that in the olden time men subsisted largely on acorns is borne out by the evidence of the pile villages in Northern Italy, in which great quantities of acorns have been discovered. See Helbig, _op. cit._ pp. 16 _sq._, 26, 72 _sq._

790 Above, p. 265 _sq._

791 Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_, p. 19 _sq._ Mr. Ralston states (on what authority I do not know) that if the fire maintained in honour of the Lithuanian god Perkunas went out, it was rekindled by sparks struck from a stone which the image of the god held in his hand. _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 88.

792 Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 502, 503; Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_,2 p. 43; Pröhle, _Harzbilder_, p. 75; Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_, ii. 150; Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_, ii. 148. The writer who styles himself Montanus says (_Die deutschen Volksfeste_, etc., p. 127) that the need-fire was made by the friction of oak and fir. Sometimes it is said that the need-fire should be made with nine different kinds of wood (Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 503, 505; Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 380; Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche_, p. 27); but the kinds of wood are not specified.

793 John Ramsay, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, ii. 442; Grimm, _D. M._4 i. 506. See above, p. 255.

794 Above, vol. i. p. 58.

795 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste_, etc., p. 127.

796 Above, vol. i. p. 100.

797 Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, p. 12 _sqq._

798 Maive Stokes, _Indian Fairy Tales_, p. 58 _sqq._ For similar stories, see _id_. p. 187 _sq._; Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, p. 121 _sq._; F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_, p. 58 _sqq._

_ 799 Old Deccan Days_, p. 239 _sqq._

800 Lal Behari Day, _op. cit._ p. 1 _sqq._ For similar stories of necklaces, see _Old Deccan Days_, p. 233 _sq._; _Wide-awake Stories_, p. 83 _sqq._

801 J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales of Kashmir_ (London, 1888), p. 49 _sq._

802 J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales of Kashmir_ (London, 1888), p. 134.

_ 803 Id._ p. 382 _sqq._

804 Lal Behari Day, _op. cit._ p. 85 _sq._, cp. _id._ p. 253 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872) 117. For an Indian story in which a giant’s life is in five black bees, see Clouston, _Popular Tales and Fictions_, i. 350.

_ 805 Indian Antiquary_, i. 171.

806 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iv. 340 _sq._

807 Lal Behari Day, _op. cit._ p. 189.

_ 808 Wide-awake Stories_, pp. 52, 64.

809 G. W. Leitner, _The Languages and Races of Dardistan_, p. 9.

810 Apollodorus, i. 8; Diodorus, iv. 34; Pausanias, x. 31, 4; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 604 _sqq._

811 Apollodorus, iii. 15, 8; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 612 _sqq._; Pausanias, i. 19, 4. According to Tzetzes (_Schol. on Lycophron_, 650) not the life but the strength of Nisus was in his golden hair; when it was pulled out, he became weak and was slain by Minos. According to Hyginus (_Fab._ 198) Nisus was destined to reign only so long as he kept the purple lock on his head.

812 Apollodorus, ii. 4, §§ 5, 7.

813 Hahn, _Griechische und Albanesische Märchen_, i. p. 217; a similar story, _id._ ii. p. 282.

814 Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. p. 215 _sq._

_ 815 Id._ ii. p. 275 _sq._ Similar stories, _id._ ii. pp. 204, 294 _sq._ In an Albanian story a monster’s strength is in three pigeons, which are in a hare, which is in the silver tusk of a wild boar. When the boar is killed, the monster feels ill; when the hare is cut open, he can hardly stand on his feet; when the three pigeons are killed, he expires. Dozon, _Contes albanais_, p. 132 _sq._

816 Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. p. 260 _sqq._

_ 817 Id._ i. p. 187.

_ 818 Id._ ii. p. 23 _sq._

819 Legrand, _Contes populaires grecs_, p. 191 _sqq._

820 Plutarch, _Parallela_, 26. In both the Greek and Italian stories the subject of quarrel between nephew and uncles is the skin of a boar, which the nephew presented to his lady-love and which his uncles took from her.

821 Basile, _Pentamerone_, ii. p. 60 _sq._ (Liebrecht’s German trans.)

822 R. H. Busk, _Folk-lore of Rome_, p. 164 _sqq._

823 Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, p. 103 _sq._; so Dietrich, _Russian Popular Tales_, p. 23 _sq._

824 Ralston, _op. cit._ p. 109.

_ 825 Ib._

826 Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, p. 113 _sq._

_ 827 Id._, p. 114.

_ 828 Id._, p. 110.

829 Mijatovics, _Serbian Folk-lore_, edited by the Rev. W. Denton, p. 172; F. S. Krauss, _Sagen und Märchen der Südslaven_, i. (No. 34) p. 168 _sq._

830 A. H. Wraitslaw, _Sixty Folk-Tales from exclusively Slavonic sources_ (London, 1889), p. 225.

831 Haltrich, _Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen_,4 No. 34 (No. 33 of the first ed.), p. 149 _sq._

832 J. W. Wolf, _Deutsche Marchen und Sagen_, No. 20, p. 87 _sqq._

833 Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_, ii. p. 306 _sq._

834 K. Müllenhoff, _Sagen, Märchen und Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig-Holstein und Lauenburg_, p. 404 _sqq._

835 Asbjörnsen og Moe, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_, No. 36; Dasent, _Popular Tales from the Norse_, p. 55 _sqq._

836 Asbjörnsen og Moe, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_, Ny Samling, No. 70; Dasent, _Tales from the Fjeld_, p. 229 (“Boots and the Beasts.”)

837 Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_, p. 592; Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, _s.v._ “Yule.”

838 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, i. p. 10 _sq._

839 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, i. p. 80 _sqq._

840 Sébillot, _Contes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1885), p. 63 _sqq._

841 F. M. Luzel, _Contes populaires de Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1887), i. 445-449.

842 Maspero, _Contes populaires de l’Égypte ancienne_ (Paris, 1882), p. 5 _sqq._

843 Lane’s _Arabian Nights_, iii. 316 _sq._

844 G. Spitta-Bey, _Contes arabes modernes_ (Leyden and Paris, 1883), No. 2, p. 12 _sqq._ The story in its main outlines is identical with the Cashmeer story of “The Ogress Queen” (J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales of Kashmir_, p. 42 _sqq._) and the Bengalee story of “The Boy whom Seven Mothers Suckled” (Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, p. 117 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. 170 _sqq._) In another Arabian story the life of a witch is bound up with a phial: when it is broken, she dies. W. A. Clouston, _A Group of Eastern Romances and Stories_, p. 30. A similar incident occurs in a Cashmeer story. Knowles, _op. cit._ p. 73. In the Arabian story mentioned in the text, the hero, by a genuine touch of local colour, is made to drink the milk of an ogress’s breasts and hence is regarded by her as her son. Cp. W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, p. 149; and for the same mode of creating kinship among other races, see D’Abbadie, _Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie_, p. 272 _sq._; Tausch, “Notices of the Circassians,” _Journ. Royal Asiatic Soc._ i. (1834) p. 104; Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, pp. 77, 83 (cp. Leitner, _Languages and Races of Dardistan_, p. 34); Denzil Ibbetson, _Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal Parganah of the Karnal District_, p. 101; Moura, _Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 427; F. S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven_, p. 14.

845 Rivière, _Contes populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura_, p. 191.

846 W. H. Jones and L. L. Kropf, _The Folk-tales of the Magyar_ (London, 1889), p. 205 _sq._

847 R. H. Busk, _The Folk-lore of Rome_, p. 168.

848 Castren, _Ethnologische Vorlesungen über die Altaischen Völker_, p. 173 _sqq._

849 Schiefner, _Heldensagen der Minussinschen Tataren_, pp. 172-176.

850 Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 108-112.

851 Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 360-364; Castren, _Vorlesungen über die finnische Mythologie_, p. 186 _sq._

852 Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 189-193. In another Tartar poem (Schiefner, _op. cit._ p. 390 _sq._) a boy’s soul is shut up by his enemies in a box. While the soul is in the box, the boy is dead; when it is taken out, he is restored to life. In the same poem (p. 384) the soul of a horse is kept shut up in a box, because it is feared the owner of the horse will become the greatest hero on earth. But these cases are, to some extent, the converse of those in the text.

853 Schott, “Ueber die Sage von Geser Chan,” _Abhandlungen d. Königl. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin_, 1851, p. 269.

854 W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme Süd-Siberiens_, ii. 237 _sq._

855 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ ii. 531 _sqq._

_ 856 Id._, iv. 88 _sq._

857 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ i. 345 _sq._

858 G. A. Wilken, “De Simsonsage,” _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5, p. 6 _sqq._ (of the separate reprint). Cp. Backer, _L’Archipel Indien_, pp. 144-149.

859 Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,” _Verhandel. van het Batav. Genootsch. v. Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx. p. 111; Sundermann, “Die Insel Nias,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xi. (1884) p. 453.

860 Above, vol. i. p. 134.

861 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_, p. 54.

862 F. Valentyn, _Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indiën_, ii. 143 _sq._; G. A. Wilken, _De Simsonsage_, p. 15 _sq._

863 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 137.

864 B. Schmidt, _Das Volksleben der Neugriechen_, p. 206.

865 Above, pp. 305, 307, 309, 311.

_ 866 Revue d’Ethnographie_, ii. 223.

867 Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, i. 165.

868 Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_, p. 103 _sq._; _id._, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_, iii. 193.

869 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 p. 184; Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse sur la corvette Astrolabe_, ii. 444.

870 Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_, p. 59.

871 Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N. S. ix. (1880) p. 417 _sq._

872 G. A. Wilken, _De Simsonsage_, p. 26.

873 Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, i. xxviii. _sq._

874 W. Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 50; Ploss, _Das Kind_,2 i. 79.

875 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_, ii. 43, No. 63.

_ 876 Gentleman’s Magazine_, October 1804, p. 909, quoted by Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 289; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_, pp. 31 _sq._, 67.

877 Moore’s _Life of Lord Byron_, i. 101.

878 Cedrenus, _Compend. Histor._ p. 625 B, vol. ii. p. 308, ed. Bekker.

879 F. Mason, “Physical Character of the Karens,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1866, pt. ii. p. 9.

880 Matthes, _Makassarsch-Hollandsch Woordenboek_, _s.v._ _soemâñgá_, p. 569; G. A. Wilken, “Het animísme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, p. 933.

881 R. H. Codrington, “Notes on the Customs of Mota, Banks Islands” (communicated by the Rev. Lorimer Fison), _Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria_, xvi. 136.

882 F. Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika_ (Hermannsburg, 1876), p. 167.

883 Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific Coast_, i. 661. The words quoted by Bancroft (p. 662, _note_) “_Consérvase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida está unida à la de un animal, y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando éste muere_,” are not quite accurately represented by the statement of Bancroft in the text.

884 Otto Stoll, _Die Ethnologie der Indianerstämme von Guatemala_ (Leyden, 1889), p. 57 _sq._; Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 740 _sq._; Bastian, _Die Culturländer des alten Amerika_, ii. 282.

885 A. W. Howitt, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xviii. 58.

886 Gerard Krefft, “Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Lower Murray and Darling,” _Transact. Philos. Soc. New South Wales_, 1862-65, p. 359 _sq._

887 A. W. Howitt, _l.c._

888 Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 52.

_ 889 Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiv. 350, xv. 416, xviii. 57 (the “nightjar” is apparently an owl).

890 Fison and Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, pp. 194, 201 _sq._, 215; _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xv. 416, xviii. 56 _sq._

891 The chief facts of totemism have been collected by the present writer in a little work, _Totemism_ (Edinburgh, A. and C. Black, 1887).

892 (Sir) George Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western Australia_, ii. 228 _sq._

893 Fison and Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 169.

894 De la Borde, “Relation de l’Origine, etc. des Caraibes,” p. 15, in _Recueil de divers Voyages faits en Afrique et en l’Amérique_ (Paris, 1684).

895 Washington Matthews, _The Hidatsa Indians_, p. 50.

896 Bastian, _Die Volker des ostlichen Asien_, iii. 248.

897 I. B. Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijks, Genootsch._, Tweede Serie, dl. iii. Afdeeling: meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 311 _sq._; _id._, dl. iv. No. 1, p. 8 sq.; Van Hoëvell, “Iets over ’t oorlogvoeren der Batta’s,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indie_, N. S. vii. (1878) p. 434; G. A. Wilken, _Over de verwantschap en het huwelijks-en erfrecht bij de volken van het maleische ras_, pp. 20 _sq._, 36; _id._, _Iets over de Papoewas van de Geelvunksbaai_, p. 27 _sq._ (reprint from _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned.-Indië_, 5e Volgreeks ii.); _Journal Anthrop. Inst._ ix. 295; Backer, _L’Archipel Indien_, p. 470.

898 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_ xxviii. 514. J. B. Neumann (_op. cit._ dl. iii. No. 2, p. 299) is the authority for the seven souls.

899 Th. Benfey, _Pantschatantra_, i. 128 _sq._

900 A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,” _Journ. Anthrop. Instit._ xiv. 358.

901 A. W. Howitt, “On Australian Medicine Men,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xvi. 47 _sq._ On the Bullroarer (a piece of wood fastened to a cord or thong and swung round so as to produce a booming sound), see A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_, p. 29 _sqq._ The religious use of the Bullroarer is best known in Australia, but in the essay just referred to Mr. Andrew Lang has shown that the instrument has been similarly employed not only in South Africa and by the Zunis of New Mexico, but also by the ancient Greeks in their religious mysteries. As a sacred instrument it also occurs in Western Africa (R. F. Burton, _Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains_, i. 197 _sq._; Bouche, _La Côte des Esclaves_, p. 124), and in New Guinea (J. Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_, p. 85).

902 A. W. Howitt, “On some Australian ceremonies of initiation,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiii. 453 _sq._ The “class-name” is the name of the totemic division to which the man belongs.

903 L. Fison, “The Nanga, or sacred stone enclosure of Wainimala, Fiji,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiv. 22.

904 W. H. Bentley, _Life on the Congo_ (London, 1887), p. 78 _sq._

905 A. Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_, pp. 82 _sq._ 86.

906 Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, ii. 183; cp. _id._, pp. 15-18, 30 _sq._ On these initiatory rites in the Congo region see also H. H. Johnston in _Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc._ N. S. v. (1883) p. 572 _sq._, and in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiii. 472; E. Delmar Morgan, in _Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc._ N. S. vi. 193.

907 Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_, p. 268 _sq._ Dapper’s account has been abbreviated in the text.

908 (Beverley’s) _History of Virginia_ (London, 1722), p. 177 _sq._

909 J. Carver, _Travels through the Interior Parts of North America_, pp. 271-275.

910 Carver, _op. cit._ p. 277 sq.; Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, iii. 287, v. 430 sqq.; Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_, i. 64-70.

_ 911 Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_ (Middletown, 1820), p. 119.

_ 912 Id._, p. 44. For the age of the prince, see _id._, p. 35.

913 Holmberg, “Ueber die Völker des russischen Amerika,” _Acta Soc. Scient. Fennicae_, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 292 _sqq._, 328; Petroff, _Report on the Population, etc. of Alaska_, p. 165 _sq._; A. Krause, Die _Tlinkit-Indianer_, p. 112; R. C. Mayne, _Four years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island_, p. 257 _sq._, 268.

914 Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, v. 683. In a letter dated 16th Dec. 1887, Mr. A. S. Gatschet, of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, writes to me: “Among the Toukawe whom in 1884 I found at Fort Griffin [?], Texas, I noticed that they never kill the big or gray wolf, _hatchukunän_, which has a mythological signification, ‘holding the earth’ (_hatch_). He forms one of their totem clans, and they have had a dance in his honor, danced by the males only, who carried sticks.”

915 Reina, “Ueber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_, N. F. iv. (1858) p. 356 _sq._

916 R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck Archipel_, pp. 129-134; Rev. G. Brown, “Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain, and New Ireland,” _Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc._ xlvii. (1878) p. 148 _sq._; H. H. Romilly, “The Islands of the New Britain Group,” _Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc._ N. S. ix. (1887) p. 11 _sq._; Rev. G. Brown, _ib._ p. 17; W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_, pp. 60-66; C. Hager, _Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land und der Bismarck Archipel_, pp. 115-128. The inhabitants of these islands are divided into two exogamous classes, which in the Duke of York Island have two insects for their totems. One of the insects is the _mantis religiosus_; the other is an insect that mimicks the leaf of the horse-chestnut tree very closely. Rev. B. Danks, “Marriage customs of the New Britain Group,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xviii. 281 _sq._

917 J. G. F. Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” _Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) p. 81 _sq._

918 The Kakian association and its initiatory ceremonies have often been described. See Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_, iii. 3 _sq._; Von Schmid, “Het Kakihansch Verbond op het eiland Ceram,” _Tijdschrift v. Neêrlands Indië_, v. dl. ii. (1843) 25-38; Van Ekris, “HetCeramsche Kakianverbond,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederland. Zendelinggenootschap_, (1865) ix. 205-226 (repeated with slight changes in _Tijdschrift v. Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xvi. 1866, pp. 290-315); F. Fournier, “De Zuidkust van Ceram,” _Tijdschrift v. Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xvi. 154 _sqq._; Van Rees, _Die Pionniers der Beschaving in Neêrlands Indië_, pp. 92-106; Van Hoëvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers_, p. 153 _sqq._; Schulze, “Ueber Ceram und seine Bewohner,” _Verhandl. d. Berliner Gesell. f. Anthropologie_, etc. (1877) p. 117; W. Joest, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Eingebornen der Insel Formosa und Ceram,” _id._ (1882), p. 64; Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_, p. 318; Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 145-148; Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, pp. 107-111. The best accounts are those of Valentyn, Von Schmid, Van Ekris, Van Rees, and Riedel, which are accordingly followed in the text.

_ 919 Laws of Manu_, ii. 169, trans. by Bühler; Dubois, _Moeurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l’Inde_, i. 125; Monier Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in India_, pp. 360 _sq._ 366 _sq._

920 Lampridius, _Commodus_, 9; C. W. King, _The Gnostics and their Remains_,2 pp. 127, 129.

921 Above, p. 309.

922 Above, p. 312 _sq._

923 Above, p. 308 _sq._

924 Above, p. 324 _sq._ In the myth the throwing of the weapons and of the mistletoe at Balder and the blindness of Hödur who slew him remind us of the custom of the Irish reapers who kill the corn-spirit in the last sheaf by throwing their sickles blindfold at it. (See above, vol. i. p. 339). In Mecklenburg a cock is sometimes buried in the ground and a man who is blindfolded strikes at it with a flail. If he misses it, another tries, and so on till the cock is killed. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg_, ii. 280. In England on Shrove Tuesday a hen used to be tied upon a man’s back, and other men blindfolded struck at it with branches till they killed it. Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 68. Mannhardt (_Die Korndämonen_, p. 16 _sq._) has made it probable that such sports are directly derived from the custom of killing a cock upon the harvest-field as a representative of the corn-spirit (see above, p. 9). These customs, therefore, combined with the blindness of Hödur in the myth suggest that the man who killed the human representative of the oak-spirit was blindfolded, and threw his weapon or the mistletoe from a little distance. After the Lapps had killed a bear—which was the occasion of many superstitious ceremonies—the bear’s skin was hung on a post, and the women, blindfolded, shot arrows at it. Scheffer, _Lapponia_, p. 240.

925 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1001, 1010.

_ 926 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 61.

927 Col. E. T. Dalton, “The Kols of Chota-Nagpore,” _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._ vi. 36.

928 Jens Kamp, _Danske Folkeminder_ (Odense, 1877), pp. 172, 65 _sq._ referred to in Feilberg’s _Bidrag til en Ordbog over Jyske Almuesmål_, Fjerde hefte (Copenhagen, 1888), p. 320. For a sight of Feilberg’s work I am indebted to the kindness of the Rev. Walter Gregor, M.A., Pitsligo, who pointed out the passage to me.

929 E. T. Kristensen, _Iydske Folkeminder_, vi. 380, referred to by Feilberg, _l.c._

930 Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 § 128; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 269.

931 Extract from a newspaper, copied and sent to me by the Rev. Walter Gregor, M.A., Pitsligo. Mr. Gregor does not mention the name of the newspaper.

932 Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 661

933 Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_, i. 9.

934 Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 203 _sqq._, cp. 136 _sqq._ On the mistletoe (_viscum_) see Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 245 _sqq._

935 Virgil (Aen. vi. 201 _sqq._) places the Golden Bough in the neighbourhood of Lake Avernus. But this was probably a poetical liberty, adopted for the convenience of Aeneas’s descent to the infernal world. Italian tradition, as we learn from Servius, placed the Golden Bough in the grove at Nemi.

936 See above, vol. i. p. 4 _sq._

937 A custom of annually burning a human representative of the corn-spirit has been noted among the Egyptians, Pawnees, and Khonds. See above, vol. i. pp. 382, 387, 401 _sq._ In Semitic lands there are traces of a practice of annually burning a human god. For the image of Hercules (that is, of Baal) which was periodically burned on a pyre at Tarsus, must have been a substitute for a human representative of the god. See Dio Chrysostom, _Orat._ 33, vol. ii. p. 16, ed. Dindorf; W. R. Smith, _The Religion of the Semites_, i. 353 _sq._ The Druids seem to have eaten portions of the human victim. Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxx. § 13. Perhaps portions of the flesh of the King of the Wood were eaten by his worshippers as a sacrament. We have seen traces of the use of sacramental bread at Nemi. See above, p. 82 _sq._

938 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, ii. 1009, _pren puraur_.

939 Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 137 _sq._

940 Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren_, § 673.

941 Grohmann, _op. cit._ § 676; Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_, § 123.

_ 942 Zingerle, Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_,2 § 882.

943 Zingerle, _op. cit._ § 1573.

944 Grohmann, _op. cit._ § 675; Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 98.

945 L. Bechstein, _Deutsches Sagenbuch_ No. 500; _id._, _Thüringer Sagenbuch_ (Leipzig, 1885), ii. No. 161.

946 For gathering it at midsummer, see above, p. 289. The custom of gathering it at Christmas still survives among ourselves. At York “on the eve of Christmas Day they carry mistletoe to the high altar of the cathedral, and proclaim a public and universal liberty, pardon, and freedom to all sorts of inferior and even wicked people at the gates of the city, towards the four quarters of heaven.” Stukeley, _Medallic History of Carausius_, quoted by Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 525. This last custom is of course now obsolete.

947 Afzelius, _Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und neuerer Zeit_, i. 41 _sq._; Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 289; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 266 _sq._

948 Above, p. 293.

949 Fern-seed is supposed to bloom at Easter as well as at midsummer and Christmas (Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 98 _sq._); and Easter, as we have seen, is one of the times when sun-fires are kindled.

950 Burne and Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 242.

951 P. 288.

952 The reason why Virgil represents Aeneas as taking the mistletoe with him to Hades is perhaps that the mistletoe was supposed to repel evil spirits (see above, p. 362). Hence when Charon is disposed to bluster at Aeneas, the sight of the Golden Bough quiets him (_Aen._ vi. 406 _sq._) Perhaps also the power ascribed to the mistletoe of laying bare the secrets of the earth may have suggested its use as a kind of “open Sesame” to the lower world. Compare _Aen._ vi. 140 _sq._—

“_Sed non ante datur telluris operta subire,_ _ Auricomos quam qui decerpserit arbore fetus._”

_ 953 Die Edda_, übersetzt von K. Simrock,8 p. 264.

954 On the derivation of the names Zeus and Jove from a root meaning “shining,” “bright,” see Curtius, _Griech. Etymologie_,5 p. 236; Vanič, _Griech.-Latein. Etymolog. Wörterbuch_, p. 353 _sqq._ On the relation of Jove to the oak, compare Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xii. § 3, _arborum genera numinibus suis dicata perpetuo servantur, ut Jovi aesculus_; Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 332, _omnis quercus Jovi est consecrata_. Zeus and Jupiter have commonly been regarded as sky gods, because their names are etymologically connected with the Sanscrit word for sky. The reason seems insufficient.

955 Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 251 _sq._

_ 956 Ib._ p. 252.

957 Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 252 _sq._

958 A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_, p. 229 _sq._; T. E. Bowdich, _Mission to Ashantee_, p. 226 _sq._ (ed. 1873.)

959 J. Cameron, “On the Early Inhabitants of Madagascar,” _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine_, iii. 263.

960 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. 105.

961 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 91.

962 Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 198.

963 Thomas Shaw, “The Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,” _Asiatic Researches_, iv. 56 _sq._

_ 964 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 502.

965 This is curiously unlike the custom of ancient Italy, in most parts of which women were forbidden by law to walk on the highroads twirling a spindle, because this was supposed to injure the crops. Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. § 28.

966 D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta, 1883), p. 119.

967 Fr. Junghuhn, _Die Battaländer auf Sumatra_, ii. 312.

968 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, i. 191. On taboos observed at agricultural operations, see _id._ i. 185; R. G. Woodthorpe, “Wild Tribes Inhabiting the so-called Naga Hills,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xi. 71; _Old New Zealand_, by a Pakeha Maori (London, 1884), p. 103 _sq._; R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 p. 165 _sq._; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xix. 110.

969 B. F. Matthes, _Beknopt Verslag mijner reizen in de Binnenlanden van Celebes, in de jaren 1857 en 1861_, p. 5.

970 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_, i. 165.

971 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 107.

972 Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 281, 296 _sq._

973 Fr. Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_, iii. 10.

974 C. Semper, _Die Philippinen und ihre Bewohner_, p. 56.

975 Rev. Lorimer Fison, “The Nanga, or sacred stone enclosure, of Wainimala, Fiji,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiv. 27.

976 J. E. Erskine, _Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific_, p. 252.

977 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 318 _sq._

978 Horatio Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnology and Philology_, p. 97.

979 The _malái_ is “a piece of ground, generally before a large house, or chief’s grave, where public ceremonies are principally held.” Mariner, _Tonga Islands, Vocabulary_.

980 The _mataboole_ is “a rank next below chiefs or nobles.” _Ib._

981 W. Mariner, _Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands_ (London, 1818), ii. 196-203.

982 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_, ii. 133.

983 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 70 _sq._

984 Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, i. 350.

985 Tyerman and Bennet, _Journal of Voyages and Travels_, i. 284.

986 Geiseler, _Die Oester-Insel_ (Berlin, 1883), p. 31.

987 E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xix. 110.

988 Hartknoch, _Alt und neues Preussen_, p. 161; _id._, _Dissertationes historicae de variis rebus Prussicis_, p. 163 (appended to his edition of Dusburg’s _Chronicon Prussiae_). Cp. W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_, p. 27.

989 Festus, _s.v._ _sacrima_, p. 319, ed. Müller; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. § 8.

990 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 130-136 (Michel Lévy, Paris, 1870). Chateaubriand’s description is probably based on earlier accounts, which I have been unable to trace. Compare, however, Le Petit, “Relation des Natchez,” in _Recueil de voiages au Nord_, ix. 13 _sq._ (Amsterdam edition); De Tonti, “Relation de la Louisiane et du Mississippi,” _ib._ v. 122; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. 183; _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, vii. 18 _sq._