CHAPTER II.

Just for a little time I must leave my personal history to inquire how England managed to do without me so long, and what the circumstances were which at length rendered my existence imperative.

In the days following the Norman Conquest, the Jews, whose one pursuit in life was the commerce of money, were the compulsory bankers of the country.

They were subject to much cruelty and persecution, as you may see for yourselves in your histories of the Kings of England. It is not to be denied that their demands for interest on money lent by them were most extravagant. In 1264 the rate of interest exceeded 40 per cent., and I believe that 500 Jews were slain by our London citizens because one of them would have forced a Christian to pay more than twopence for the usury of 20s.[1] for one week, which sum they were allowed by the king to take from the Oxford students.

They were ill-treated and robbed from the time they came over with the Conqueror until the reign of Edward I., who distinguished himself by robbing 15,000 Jews of their wealth, and then banishing the whole of them from the kingdom; and thus, as much sinned against as sinning, the compulsory bankers of the period departed.

There was no time to feel their loss, for immediately after their expulsion the Lombards (Longobards), or merchants of Genoa, Florence, Lucca and Venice, came over to England and established themselves in the street which still bears their name.

There was no doubt as to their purpose, for it was a well-known fact that in whatever country or town they settled they engrossed its trade and became masters of its cash, and certainly they did not intend to make an exception in favour of London.

I am not going to deny that they introduced into our midst many of the arts and skill of trade with which we in England were previously unacquainted; and it is to these Lombards or goldsmiths we owe the introduction of bills of exchange, a wonderful invention, and one which has served to connect the whole world into one, as you will see when the proper place arrives for their explanation.

These Lombards, immediately after their arrival in London, may have been seen regularly twice a day parading Lombard-street with their wares, exposing for sale the most attractive articles; and in a short time became so successful that they were able to take shops in which to carry on their business as goldsmiths.

These shops were not confined to the one street which bears their name, but were continued along the south row of Cheapside, extending from the street called Old Change into Bucklersbury, where they remained until after the Great Fire, when they removed to Lombard-street. There seems to be no street in the world where a business of one special character has been carried on so continuously as in Lombard-street. In the time of Queen Elizabeth it was the handsomest street in London. In addition to the art of the goldsmith, they added the business of money-changing, the importance of which occupation you will be able to estimate when we come to the subject of the coins of the realm.

From money-changers they became money-lenders and money-borrowers—money was the commodity in which they dealt, and 20 per cent. the modest interest they asked and obtained for their money.

Of course they gave receipts for the money lodged with them, and these circulated and were known by the name of “goldsmiths’ notes,” and were, in fact, the first kind of bank-notes issued in England.

The Lombards were a most industrious class of people, and left no stone unturned by which they could obtain wealth; and in an incredibly short time we find them not only wealthy, but powerful, and occupying a very prominent position; and you may be quite sure that under these circumstances they did not escape persecution.

Under the pretext that the goldsmiths were extortioners, Edward III. seized their property and estates. Even this seemed but slightly to affect them; for in the fifteenth century we find them advancing large sums of money for the service of the State on the security of the Customs.

In the latter days, and, indeed, up to the time of my birth, the banking was entirely in the hands of the goldsmiths, but carried on in a very rapacious spirit, as is frequently the case when unrestrained by rivals.

I dare say you have all noticed the three golden balls on the outside of pawnbrokers’ shops. Originally these were three pills, the emblem of the Medici (physician) family; but in some way they became associated with St. Dunstan, the patron saint of the goldsmiths, under the name of the three golden balls—an emblem which the Lombards have retained.

Are you curious to know how the sign has so degenerated as to be the inseparable companion of the pawnbrokers of the land? Well, listen.

Pawnbrokers’ shops, or loan banks, were established from motives of charity in the fifteenth century. Their object was to lend money to the poor upon pledges and without interest. Originally they were supported by voluntary contributions, but as these proved insufficient to pay expenses, it became necessary to charge interest for the money lent. These banks were first distinguished by the name of _montes pietatis_. The word _mont_ at this period was applied to any pecuniary fund, and it is probable that _pietatis_ was added by the promoters of the scheme, to give it an air of religion, and thus procure larger subscriptions.

Well, these banks were not only called mounts of piety, but were known also as Lombards,[2] from the name of the original bankers or money-lenders. Now you see how it is pawnbrokers bear the sign of the goldsmiths.

You who know so well where to place your money, both for interest and security, when you have any to spare, can scarcely understand the trouble and annoyance which our merchants and wealthy people experienced at having no place of security wherein they could deposit their money. At one time they sent it to the Mint in the Tower of London, which became a sort of bank, where merchants left their money when they had no need of it, and drew it out only as they wanted it; but this soon ceased to be a place of security. In 1640 Charles I., without leave asked or granted, took possession of £200,000 of the money lodged there. Great was the wrath of the merchants, who were compelled, after this unkingly act, to keep their surplus money at home, guarded by their apprentices and servants. Even here the money was not safe, for on the breaking out of the war between Charles and his Parliament, it was no uncommon occurrence for the apprentices to rob their masters and run away and join the army.

When the merchants found that neither the public authorities nor their own servants were to be trusted, they employed bankers, and these bankers were goldsmiths.

Many a tale, however, has reached me of the shifts and contrivances of people to secure their savings and surplus money—people whose experience had taught them to distrust both authorities and places, and who would not, under the new state of things, have anything to do with the bankers. One I will relate to you.

A man whose life had been one of hard work and self-denial, and who had two or three times lost his all through the untrustworthiness of the people with whom he had lodged it, determined to be their dupe no more. Money began once more to accumulate, and all things prospered with him; but no one could imagine what he did with it; as far as his household could tell, he did not deposit it with anyone outside the house, neither could they discover any place within where it was possible to stow it away. No persuasion could move the man to speak one word concerning it.

At length he died, without having time or consciousness to mention the whereabouts of his money. Search was made in all directions, but without success.

While living he had been a regular attendant at one of our City churches, and, occupying always the same corner in the old-fashioned square pew, was well known to the clergy and servants.

A few weeks after his death the pew-opener told the rector, in a frightened voice, that she could no longer keep the matter from him, for as surely as she stood there, the ghost of the man who died a week or two ago haunted the church by night and by day.

Instead of ridiculing her for her foolish fancy, the rector allowed her to tell her story quietly, seeing that she was superstitious and very nervous.

She related that several times during the past weeks, when quite alone in the church for the purpose of sweeping and dusting, she had heard a peculiar noise proceeding from the pew where the old man used to sit, and it sounded to her exactly as though he were counting out money, and she would be very glad if he would look to it and verify her statement.

Accordingly the rector and his curate accompanied the woman to the pew. At first all was quiet, but as they listened, assuredly the sound came exactly as described; they felt round about the pew, and at length discovered a movable panel near the flooring. It was the work of a moment to remove it, and there, in a good sized cavity, lay heaps of money wrapped up in paper, which last had attracted the mice, and it was their little pattering feet among the coins which had caught the woman’s ear. The man had evidently dropped in his week’s savings on Sundays, believing that it would be safer in the church than elsewhere.

It seems that after the restoration of Charles II., he being greatly in want of money, the goldsmiths lent it, demanding ten per cent. for the loan. Often, however, they obtained thirty per cent. from him, and this induced the goldsmiths to lend more and more to the king, so that really the whole revenue passed through their hands.

In 1672 a sad calamity befel the bankers, and put a check on their prodigal lending. King Charles, who owed them £1,328,526, which he had borrowed at eight per cent., utterly refused to pay either principal or interest, and he remained firm to his resolution.

The way in which bankers transacted their loans with the king, was in this manner:—As soon as the Parliament had voted to the king certain sums of money out of special taxes, the goldsmith-bankers at once supplied the king with the whole sum so voted, and were repaid in weekly payments at the Exchequer[3] as the taxes were received.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Ruding, vol. I.

[2] The Lombards, or _montes pietatis_, lent on gold and silver three-quarters of their value; on other metals half of their value; and on jewels according to circumstances. The rate of interest was determined in 1786 at five per cent.

[3] Exchequer, so called because there was a building with a square hole in the floor, through which they used to drop the notes and gold on to a table beneath, covered with a chequered cloth.

DRESS: IN SEASON AND IN REASON.

BY A LADY DRESSMAKER.

We have had such a mild and delightful autumn, that all kinds of winter garments have been delayed in making an appearance. This is especially the case with mantles and the heavier class of jackets. However, there is enough to show us that no great novelty has been introduced. Mantles are all small and short, and the majority have ends in front more or less long. Black plush seems a very favourite material, and is much overladen with trimming. Plain plush is also used for paletôts, and for large cloaks; but there is a new-patterned plush, with ribs in layers, that is much used also. Beaded shoulder-straps and epaulettes are worn as well as ornaments at the back, and sometimes beaded braces round the join of the sleeve in the small mantles, and a strip of the same may be used to outline the seam at the back. These hints may help some of my readers to do up a last year’s mantle with some of the moderate priced bead trimmings now in vogue. Paletôts or cloaks are made both long and medium in length. They are made in plush, cloth, and rough cloths, but are not seen in the finer fancy stuffs which are made use of for mantles and jackets. These fancy cloths have an appearance as if braid were sewn on to the surface. The cloak paletôts, when long, close in front to the feet, and the fronts are trimmed with a border of fur, which is shaped on the shoulders like a pointed old-fashioned “Victorine.” No fur is placed at the lower edge of the cloak; the cuffs are deep. Fur trimmings on jackets that are tight-fitting follow the same rule, and have no trimming of fur at the edge. Fur boas are very decidedly the fashion this winter, and there seems no end to their popularity. Some of them are flat at the neck, like a collarette; and others are attached to the mantle. The newest boas are rather shorter, and some are nothing more than fur collars that clasp round the throat; and these collars, or “tippets,” will probably take the place of the fur capes that have been worn so long. Grey furs are more in fashion than brown ones—such as chinchilla, grey fox, squirrel-lock, and opossum, and I see that quantities of American raccoon are also being prepared. Of course, the best kind of furs, like sable, marten-tail, mink, or blue fox, are not within the ordinary range of purchasers, and few people care to spend so much money on dress as their acquirement entails. There is also a new feeling to be taken into account; the same feeling that makes thinking women and girls decline to wear birds, and their heads and wings, _i.e._, the feeling that the seal fishery as hitherto conducted is cruel; and that one may wear furs that are too costly in other ways. I often think if mighty hunters—instead of hunting down the buffalo, and the other animals useful to the Indian in the North West—would go to India and hunt the tigers that so cruelly prey on the natives there, we should wear those skins with much pleasure as well as advantage. But the account of the slaying of a mother-seal ought to be enough for a tender-hearted woman. I have never cordially liked sealskins since I read of the devotion of one poor mother-seal in particular to her young; and I have never had a sealskin jacket since.

There are numbers of jackets in every style, but all are made of woollen materials, not of silk nor of velvet. Most of them are tight-fitting, and are smart looking and stylish. Both single and double-breasted ones are seen. Hoods are much worn, but are by no means general. Coloured linings are used to pale-coloured or checked cloth jackets, but not to black or brown ones. Small mantles and cloaks are tied at the neck by a quantity of ribbons to match the colour of the cloth or plush. One of the new ideas for mantles is that of a semi-fitting jacket over a long close-fitting cloak.

The new bonnets and hats are much smaller and prettier now, and there are in consequence many of these quieter hats to be seen worn by well-dressed girls in the streets of London. Formerly no girl who wished to be thought somebody ever wore anything but a bonnet in London.

The velvet trimmings of bonnets are put on gathered, doubled and pleated, sometimes with as many as three frills at the edge. Many of the bonnets are without strings, and have pointed fronts, and there is much jet trimming used even on coloured velvet bonnets. I am sorry to say that our fashionable caterers continue to prey upon the feathered creation all over the world. This winter the owl has evidently fallen a victim, and there are besides the tern, kingfisher, and the heron. How I wish this wicked and cruel bird slaughter could be prevented, and that my numberless girl-readers would try to avoid giving it the least encouragement. While we have the beautiful ostrich feathers, we cannot need these other poor victims offered up on the altar of feminine vanity and unthinking cruelty.

Some of the felt hats for the season are very pretty. They have high and sloping crowns, the brims are often only bound with ribbon, but if wide and turned up at the back, they are lined with velvet, or rather only partly lined, as half of the brim at least is left unlined. Many of them have brims turned up all round, like one of the old turban hats.

The ribbons in use at present are of all kinds, satin and velvet reversible, as well as _moiré_ and velvet, or satin and _moiré_. These have an edge of lacet, or one with tufts of silk, in colour. Velvet ribbons with corded stripes have one edge purled and the other fringed; and the strings of bonnets are of narrow _picot_-edged ribbon.

The number of white gowns that have been worn during the past season and up to the present moment has been remarkable, and has quite justified the name of a “white season.” Even as the weather became colder, a charming mixture of materials was introduced, viz., white corduroy, and some soft woollen stuff, like serge or flannel. For the winter white will be the special fashion for young people for the evening, and any colour can be given by trimming. It seems likely that perfectly smooth cloths, of the nature of habit-cloths, will be used for winter day dresses, trimmed with bands of short dark-hued fur, or with velvet to match the colour of the cloth. The colours that will be worn in these will be myrtle, a new shade of blue, a tint like heliotrope, and a reddish violet.

Fancy materials in mixed colours abound, the mixtures being green and ruby, brown and red, sage and vermilion, and others of the same unæsthetic nature. The new browns are called Carmelite, chestnut, rosewood, hair, and earth; the new reds are, Bordeaux, Indian, currant, and clove. A new green is called verdigris. Grey does not seem to be popular, and brown and red violet are the special colours of the season.

In the making of dresses there is but little change. The skirts are still short, and the draperies still long; while there is a fancy for over-trimming bodices of all kinds. This will be a blessing for the possessors of half-worn and very ancient bodices. Bracers are one of the novelties as a form of trimming for the latter. They are also trimmed in imitation of a Zouave jacket. Polonaises seem to be returning to favour, and will be worn later on over lace skirts for evening dress. Serge seems to me to be the most favoured material this winter, and it forms the ground work of half the fancy cloths and mixtures. Stripes and crossbars are in the highest favour, and both alpaca and foulard are used, and with poplin, chuddah cloth, velvet, and silk rep, form the generality of the new dresses. There are numbers of hairy-looking woollen materials, but I should not think they would wear as well as a good serge, which is always a useful purchase.

The new petticoat materials in winceys are very gay and pretty, and the pattern is usually of stripes; but the materials are various, being sometimes all wool, or wool and silk mixed, and in the weaving there is usually a rough or knotted stripe. Some of the new petticoats have a few steels in them, and the addition makes the dress hold out from the heels a little. A small steel-wire dress-improver is, however, quite enough for most people, and very little crinolette is now worn—nothing ungraceful nor immoderate in size. Other petticoats of better quality are made of plain silk or satin, and one of the new fashions is to line them with chamois leather, so as to make them warmer.

Shoes are more worn in London than boots, and laced shoes more than buttoned ones. The same is the case with boots, which are considered to fit better, and to look more stylish when laced than buttoned. I have been very glad to see that sensibly-shaped boots and shoes are on the increase, having wider toes and lower, broader heels. At the present moment many of the best shops have them in their windows, and have found it best and wisest to keep them for their customers; in fact, the knowledge of hygienic necessities, and of all kinds of proper clothing, is being so much extended and impressed on the public mind on all sides, that I should not wonder if we all became quite reformed characters, and wore, ate, and drank only such things as were good for us.

I must not forget to mention gloves and their styles. Most people usually wear Swede or kid gloves during the winter months; but this year there are some such delightfully warm and pretty gloves in wool and silk to be seen in the shops, that many will no doubt be tempted to purchase them. If the dress be of a quiet colour, the gloves should match it; but if red, or of a decided colour of any kind, the proper gloves to wear would be tan-colour. These latter are also used in the evening, except when the dress is black, or black and white, when the gloves should be of grey Swede.

Our illustrations for the month are full of suggestions for making new gowns and for altering old ones. It will be seen that the gowns are both simple and elegant, with long flowing lines, and little or no fulness of drapery. The prevailing fancy for jackets is shown, and the newest model of a cape-like sleeve is given in our large front picture of a seashore, “Under Northern Skies.” Much braiding is used, and it is shown in two ways—laid on in flat bands, and also in a pattern on the mantle. The new shapes of hats are much more moderate, and most of the new shapes are illustrated. Our paper pattern for the month is represented as worn by a lady in the centre of the smaller picture, “At the English Lakes;” the centre figure shows its pretty and jaunty outlines. It may be worn with either a plain waistcoat or a full silk plastron, divided into puffings as shown in our sketch, which may be of a soft Indian silk. It is of the last and new design, and will be found a most useful winter bodice for usual daily wear. The pattern consists of a collar, cuff, front, half of back, side pieces, and two sleeve pieces. About four yards of 30 inch material are required, perhaps less, if very carefully cut. All patterns are of a medium size, viz., 36 inches round the chest, and only one size is prepared for sale. Each of the patterns may be had of “The Lady Dressmaker,” care of Mr. H. G. Davis, 73, Ludgate Hill, E.C., price 1s. each. It is requested that the addresses be clearly given, and that postal notes crossed only to go through a bank may be sent, as so many losses have recently occurred. The patterns already issued may always be obtained, as “The Lady Dressmaker” only issues patterns likely to be of constant use in home dressmaking and altering, and she is particularly careful to give all the new patterns of hygienic underclothing, both for children and young and old ladies, so that her readers may be aware of the best method of dressing.

The following is a list of those already issued, price 1s. each. April—Braided, loose-fronted jacket. May—Velvet bodice. June—Swiss belt and full bodice, with plain sleeves. July—Mantle. August—Norfolk or pleated jacket. September—Housemaid’s or plain skirt. October—Combination garment (underlinen). November—Double-breasted out-of-door jacket. December—Zouave jacket and bodice. January—Princess underdress (underlinen, underbodice, and underskirt combined). February—Polonaise with waterfall back. March—New spring bodice. April—Divided skirt, and Bernhardt mantle with sling sleeves. May—Early English bodice and yoke bodice for summer dress. June—Dressing jacket, princess frock, and Normandy cap for a child of four years. July—Princess of Wales’ jacket-bodice and waistcoat, for tailor-made gown. August—Bodice with guimpe. September—Mantle with stole ends and hood. October—“Pyjama,” or nightdress combination, with full back.—November—New winter bodice.

THE BUILDERS OF THE BRIDGE.

BY MRS. G. LINNÆUS BANKS, Author of “God’s Providence House,” “The Manchester Man,” “More than Coronets,” etc.