Part 2

A second type of rock is exposed in the south bank of the exit road approximately 0.7 miles from the summit area. This is the _black_[10] to bluish-black Stony Point Shale (see Fig. 10), which underlies the Monkton quartzite. This shale, or hardened limy mud, is thinbedded and shows abundant _cleavage_[11] parallel to the layers or beds. At this outcrop the layers strike to the northeast and dip 20 to 40 degrees toward the southeast. The dip and strike of the Monkton Quartzite (see above) is not similar to the dip and strike of the underlying Stony Point Shale. It follows, that the layers of the Monkton Quartzite are not parallel to those of the Stony Point Shale.

The fact that these two units are not parallel could mean that the Stony Point Shale was deposited, hardened into rock, uplifted, folded and eroded, all prior to the deposition of the Monkton Quartzite. But, first, what is the age of the underlying Stony Point Shale? If the story is as listed above, the Stony Point Shale _must be older_[12] than the overlying Monkton Quartzite. From the fossil animal remains found in the Stony Point Shale, geologists have dated the Stony Point Shale as upper middle Ordovician (see Standard Geologic Time Scale, Fig. 4). And so, here we have older rocks (Lower Cambrian) resting on younger (upper middle Ordovician).

_Structural Geology_

How can we explain this inverted order of rock units? The geologic evidence presented in the Park does not indicate that folding of the rocks was responsible. From the surface distribution of the two rock types (see Geologic map, Fig. 9) and the nature of their contact with each other, a fault relation is envisioned, in which older rocks were thrust westward over the younger and thus to rest upon them (see Fig. 11 ).

We know the ages of both rock units involved in this thrust fault but what is the geologic age of the actual thrust movement? Both the Stony Point Shale and the Monkton Quartzite were hard rock when this thrusting took place, therefore, the thrusting would have occurred later than upper middle Ordovician time, but before late Silurian time. Two other fault systems are recognized in or near the Park (see Geologic map, Fig. 9). They are _high angle_[13] faults which formed later than the thrust fault, but still preceding late Silurian time.

The Iberville Shale (this is not described in the section on “The Rocks,” but is seen on the Geologic map, Fig. 9), which is questionably exposed on the south side of Mt. Philo, would be the youngest rock found in the Park. This shale is about 390 million years old. The most recent faulting took place no later than about 340 million years ago. There are no rocks in the Park which give us any positive geological clues to the Park’s history from the last episode of faulting to the Pleistocene glaciers less than 1 million years ago. However, the fact that rocks representing this interval of time are not present does indicate that the area was above water during most of these 339 million years (this number of years is very approximate). If any rocks were deposited during this “rock-gap” period, they have since been washed away.

_The Pleistocene Deposits_

Beginning between 60,000 and 70,000 years ago two glacial advances and retreats took place in the Champlain Valley. This was during the most recent or the Wisconsin Stage of the Pleistocene Epoch. Scratches or striations were cut into the overridden rock by rock debris carried along at the base of the ice as it advanced (note the arrow in (“br”) area at overlook in Fig. 12; this shows striation orientation, therefore, the direction in which the glacier advanced). The glacial sediments found on Mt. Philo were deposited during the final retreat of glacial ice, which took place from 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. Most of the Park is covered with these glacial deposits and by more recent soils.

Most of the glacial deposits found on Mt. Philo are classified as glacial _till_[14] (see Map of Glacial Deposits, Fig. 12), but other glacial deposits are also mapped. A _kame_[15] (designated “K” in Fig. 12) is a glacial feature found in the southern part of the Park.

LEGEND bc Boulder strewn lake sediments bgm Marine beach gravel bg Beach gravel ps Pebbly sand ls Lake sand t Till k Kame br Bedrock Park roads Other roads

With the slow retreat of the glacial ice front from the Mt. Philo region, deposits were left which indicate that a series of lakes formed in front of the wasting ice mass. There is also evidence just west of Mt. Philo (see “bgm” in Fig. 12) which indicates that just prior to the formation of present-day Lake Champlain, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean reached into the Champlain Valley from the St. Lawrence River region. Lake-beach gravels (designated “bg” in Fig. 12) are found on both the east and west slopes of Mt. Philo. The interesting fact about these beach gravels is that they occur almost 500 feet above the present-day level of Lake Champlain. Lake sand (designated “ls” in Fig. 12) is found some 450 feet above Lake Champlain. This means that during a good portion of its recent geologic history, Mt. Philo was an island surrounded by lake water. From the distribution of marine beach gravel (designated “bgm” in Fig. 12), it appears that the invasion of sea water from the St. Lawrence region did not isolate Mt. Philo as an island.

The complete story of the lake series is still not known, but, for the most up-to-date treatment of this subject see D. P. Stewart’s paper entitled “The glacial geology of Vermont”: Vermont Geological Survey Bulletin 19 (1961). Suggested also is C. H. Chapman’s article entitled “Late glacial and postglacial history of the Champlain valley” in the American Journal of Science, 5th series, volume 34, pages 89-124 (1937). Looking out over the Champlain lowlands from the summit of Mt. Philo leaves little doubt in the visitor’s mind as to the prior existence of lakes which surrounded Mt. Philo in the not too distant past (see Cover picture).

_Summary of the Geologic History_

During lower Cambrian time, the Monkton Quartzite and dolostone followed by the Winooski Dolostone (not seen in the Park) were deposited east of Mt. Philo State Forest Park. During late Cambrian and early Ordovician, thick dolostones were deposited from the sea water which covered the Mt. Philo area (not seen at the surface in the Park).

During middle Ordovician time, a series of shale, calcareous shale and limestone was deposited from the sea water. Then, sometime between the beginning of late Ordovician and late Silurian time, the eastern lower Cambrian sequence was thrust westward over the middle Ordovician rocks. This low-angle thrusting was succeeded by high angle faulting.

The Park rocks were subjected to weathering and erosion for over 300 million years or until glaciers advanced over the area less than 60,000 to 70,000 years ago. Advancing glaciers scoured the rock; retreating or wasting glacial ice left deposits of clay, sand and gravel in the Park. A series of lakes formed south of the northward wasting glacial ice and deposits of beach-gravel and lake-sand formed along the slopes of Mt. Philo, which was then an island. An arm of the sea next advanced southward into the Champlain Valley leaving marine beach-gravels just west of Mt. Philo. The marine waters retreated and present-day Lake Champlain came into existence. The formation of the present soil cover and the deposition of recent alluvium from presently flowing rivers and streams concludes this brief summary of the Park’s geologic history.

SUGGESTED READING (_in addition to the general references listed for D.A.R. State Park_)

Cady, W. M., 1945, _Stratigraphy and structure of west-central Vermont_, Geological Society of America Bulletin, volume 56, pages 515-588.

Chapman, C. H., 1937, _The glacial and postglacial history of the Champlain valley_, American Journal of Science, 5th series, volume 34, pages 89-124.

Stewart, David P., 1961, _The glacial geology of Vermont_, Vermont Geological Survey Bull. 19.

Stewart, David P. and Paul MacClintock, 1969, _The Surficial Geology and Pleistocene History of Vermont_, Vermont Geological Survey Bull. 31 (in press).

Welby, C. W., 1961, _Bedrock geology of the Central Champlain Valley of Vermont_, Vermont Geological Survey Bull. 14.

THE GEOLOGY OF SAND BAR STATE PARK

INTRODUCTION

Sand Bar State Park is located in northwestern Vermont on U.S. Route 2, approximately 14 miles north of Burlington and near the east approach to Sand Bar Bridge which leads to South Hero Island in Lake Champlain (see map, Fig. 1). Tenting, picnicking and swimming are the Parks main attractions (Fig. 12a). The swimming beach is on the north side of U.S. Route 2 and fronts on Lake Champlain. Its shallowness makes the beach safe for children (Fig. 13). The tenting facilities are located on the south side of U.S. Route 2 on a south-facing shoreline.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE PARK

The geologic history of Sand Bar State Park is recent, geologically speaking, especially when compared with that of the other Parks treated in this pamphlet. The sediments of the park are blue and brown clay which were deposited throughout the Champlain Valley less than 10,000 years ago. This clay, which can be seen in many places along the bathing beach, was deposited from marine waters which flooded the Champlain Valley just prior to the formation of present-day Lake Champlain. No bedrock crops out in Sand Bar State Park.

The blue clay is covered with deposits brought downstream by the Lamoille River during very recent times and deposited as a _delta_[16] into Lake Champlain. This delta has shifted its distributary channels frequently and continues to grow southwestwardly into Lake Champlain. Much of the finer material (sand) brought into Lake Champlain by the Lamoille River has been shifted and concentrated by lake currents into ridges or bars; one sand bar stretches to South Hero Island and forms the foundation for the causeway named Sand Bar Bridge. Prior to the building of Sand Bar Bridge (causeway was started in 1849, opened to travel on December 5, 1850), this sand bar was fordable and was used as a link between South Hero Island and the mainland.

Most of the sand now found north of the Park bathing beach and which is responsible for the extensive “shallows” in the swimming area, was supplied by the now abandoned northern channel of the Lamoille River. It is interesting to note that most of the sand now seen on the bathing beach has been imported from nearby areas of Vermont. Since the northern distributary channel of the Lamoille River is no longer supplying sand, and sand from the active southern channel cannot work its way northward because of the Sand Bar Bridge causeway, there is a lack of sand for the beach.

The extensive swamp areas near the east end of Sand Bar Bridge are a wildlife sanctuary. The north-trending prominent escarpment east of the Park marks the trace of the Champlain thrust fault (Fig. 13). In a quarry at the east end of Sand Bar Bridge may be seen the fault contact between the younger, Middle Ordovician, Stony Point Formation, and the older, Lower Cambrian, Dunham Dolomite.

SUGGESTED READING

Erwin, R. B., 1957, _The Geology of the Limestone of Isle La Motte and South Hero Island, Vermont_, Vermont Geological Survey, Bull. 9.

Stone, S. W. and Dennis, J. G., 1964, _The Geology of the Milton Quadrangle, Vermont_, Vermont Geological Survey Bull. 26.

Additional reports on the geology of Vermont state parks distributed by the Vermont State Library, Montpelier, Vermont 05602.

_The Geology of Groton State Forest_, by Robert A. Christman, 1956 _The Geology of Mt. Mansfield State Forest_, by Robert A. Christman, 1956 _The Geology of the Calvin Coolidge State Forest Park_, by Harry W. Dodge, Jr., 1959 _Geology of Button Bay State Park_, by Harry W. Dodge, Jr., 1962 _The Geology of Darling State Park_, by Harry W. Dodge, Jr., 1967

FOOTNOTES

[1]A “strike” measurement is expressed as so many degrees east or west of north or south. For a diagram illustrating the dip and strike of a rock layer see Figure 3.

[2]This is one of the three major rock groups or families. The first consists of igneous rocks, including granite, syenite, and basalt, which were formed by solidification of molten rock-material. The igneous rocks are ancestors of the other two rock families; they form over 90 percent of the outer 10 miles of the Earth’s crust. The second family, consisting of sedimentary or layered rocks including shale, sandstone and limestone, is composed of pieces and grains and other materials from all the families of rocks. In addition, sedimentary rocks are formed also from lime secreted by marine plants and animals or chemically precipitated from sea water, or by the accumulations of shells. The third family, metamorphic rocks, including gneiss, schist, slate and marble, were igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to heat and pressure in the presence of mineral-forming solutions. Metamorphic rocks generally look different from the rocks from which they formed, because the original minerals of the rock have been changed and reoriented.

[3]The actual remains are usually not preserved in their original state but are represented by molds and casts. Picture an ancient sea. The sea bottom mud slowly hardens around a shell. Water then seeps through the hardened mud and dissolves the shell leaving an open space where the shell once was. This open space is a mold. If the mold is filled a copy of the original shell is formed. This is called a cast.

[4]The relative rather than the absolute age of the rocks can be determined from a study of their fossil content. These fossils are compared with collections from various places in the world where the standard geologic time scale assigns them a place (see Fig. 4). The Park rocks were deposited during the Ordovician Period. How is a standard geologic time scale put together? Several geologists first worked out the sequences of rocks according to the Law of Superposition in Great Britain and neighboring parts of Europe. When systematic collections of fossils were made from these layers and arranged according to age it was found that certain fossils occurring in rocks in distant areas were identical and occupied the same relative age position. These fossils were considered to be of the same relative age. Fossils found in the Park can be compared with these reference fossils and a relative geologic age can be assigned to them. Absolute ages can be determined in some cases by the use of rates of decay of radioactive elements and in general these ages agree with the relative ages derived through the use of fossils.

[5]The capitalized syllable is the accented syllable.

[6]An index fossil is used to date the rocks in which it occurs. A good index fossil must be abundant, widespread and easily recognized. Its vertical range is restricted to a small number of rock layers, therefore the geological span of life of a good index fossil is usually short.

[7]Chitin is a colorless horny substance similar to the material which makes up fingernails.

[8]The black color is due to an abundance of finely divided organic (plant and animal) material within the rock.

[9]A quartzite is either a metamorphic or sedimentary rock consisting of fragments of the mineral quartz (SiO₂) which are cemented together by silica (quartz). The combination of quartz fragments held together by quartz cement creates a very hard rock which oftentimes will break across the fragments rather than around them. The quartzites of the Park area are primarily of a sedimentary origin. For a description of the three major rock groups, of which the sedimentary and metamorphic groups are two, see footnote, D.A.R. State Park, page 6. A dolostone is a sedimentary rock composed of fragmental, concretionary, or precipitated dolomite (a mineral of chemical composition, CaMg(CO₃)₂) of organic or inorganic origin.

[10]The black color is due to the inclusion of finely disseminated carbonaceous material (animal and plant remains) within the rock.

[11]This splitting or cleavage was produced after the layers had hardened into rock. The cleavage planes were produced when the rocks were subjected to pressures too great to withstand. In some places these cleavage planes do not parallel the layers.

[12]According to the basic geologic law, the Law of Superposition, younger rocks (those deposited last) are always found resting on older rocks (those deposited before the younger). The only time that this is not true is when either breaks (faults) or folds in the earth’s crust place the layers in an inverted order, as in the case here cited.

[13]The fault plane of a high-angle fault forms a large angle (generally from 30 to 90 degrees) at its intersection with an imaginary horizontal plane. The plane of a thrust fault, or low-angle fault, forms a small angle (generally less than 30 degrees) at its intersection with an imaginary horizontal plane.

[14]This is the Burlington till (Stewart, 1961) and was deposited from the Burlington Ice Lobe during its period of wasting. The till is a hodge-podge mixture of clay, sand and pebbles and is usually brown in color.

[15]A kame is a mound or ridge of poorly sorted (sometimes well-sorted, that is, made up of all the same sized particles) water deposited materials. Most kames are ice-contact features; that is to say, the materials which make up the kame were deposited in contact with a glacial ice surface. The Mt. Philo kame may be the filling of an ice-free area during the final melting of the glacial ice.

[16]Delta is the name of the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, the capital form of which is an equilateral triangle. The triangular-shaped tract of land formed by the deposit of river sediment at river mouths is named for the triangular shape of the capital Greek letter delta.

Transcriber’s Notes

—Silently corrected a few typos.

—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.

—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.