Chapter VII., together with such facts as the occurrence of a considerable

number of identical species of sea fish on the two sides of the Central American isthmus, render it almost certain that the union of North and South America is comparatively a recent occurrance, and that during the Miocene and Pliocene periods, they were separated by a wide arm of the sea. The low country of Nicaragua was probably the part submerged, leaving the highlands of Mexico and Guatemala still united with the North {58}American continent, and forming part of the Tertiary "Nearctic region." This is clearly indicated both by the many Nearctic forms which do not pass south of Nicaragua, of which the turkeys (_Meleagris_) are a striking example, and by the comparative poverty of this area in typical Neotropical groups. During the Miocene period there was not that marked diversity of climate between North and South America that now prevails; for when a luxuriant vegetation covered what are now the shores of the Arctic Ocean, the country south of the great lakes must have been almost or quite tropical. At an early Tertiary period, the zoological differences of the Nearctic and Neotropical regions were probably more radical than they are now, South America being a huge island, or group of islands--a kind of Australia of the New World, chiefly inhabited by the imperfectly organized Edentata; while North America abounded in Ungulata and Carnivora, and perhaps formed a part of the great Old World continent. There were also one or more very ancient unions (in Eocene or Miocene times) of the two continents, admitting of the entrance of the ancestral types of Quadrumana into South America, and, somewhat later, of the Camelidæ; while the isthmus south of Nicaragua was at one time united to the southern continent, at another made insular by subsidence near Panama, and thus obtained that rich variety of Neotropical types that still characterises it. When the final union of the two continents took place, the tropical climate of the lower portions of Guatemala and Mexico would invite rapid immigration from the south; while some northern forms would extend their range into and beyond the newly elevated territory. The Mexican sub-region has therefore a composite character, and we must not endeavour too rigidly to determine its northern limits, nor claim as exclusively Neotropical, forms which are perhaps comparatively recent immigrants; and it would perhaps be a more accurate representation of the facts, if we were to consider all the highlands of Mexico and Guatemala above the limits of the tropical forests, as still belonging to the Nearctic region, of which the whole country so recently formed a part.

The long-continued separation of North and South America {59}by one or more arms of the sea, as above indicated, is further rendered necessary by the character of the molluscan fauna of the Pacific shores of tropical America, which is much more closely allied to that of the Caribbean sea, and even of West Africa, than to that of the Pacific islands. The families and many of the genera are the same, and a certain proportion of very closely allied or identical species, shows that the union of the two oceans continued into late Tertiary times. When the evidence of both land and sea animals support each other as they do here, the conclusions arrived at are almost as certain as if we had (as we no doubt some day shall have) geological proof of these successive subsidences.

_Islands of the Mexican Sub-region._--The only islands of interest belonging to this sub-region, are Tres Marias and Socorro, recently investigated by Col. Grayson for some of the American Natural History societies.

Tres Marias consist of four small islands lying off the coast of north-western Mexico, about 70 miles from San Blas. The largest is about 15 miles long by 10 wide. They are of horizontally stratified deposits, of moderate height and flat-topped, and everywhere covered with luxuriant virgin forests. They appear to lie within the 100 fathom line of soundings. Fifty-two species of birds, of which 45 were land-birds, were collected on these islands. They consisted of 19 Passeres; 11 Picariæ (7 being humming-birds); 10 Accipitres; 2 parrots, and 3 pigeons. All were Mexican species except 4, which were new, and presumably peculiar to the islands, and one tolerably marked variety. The new species belong to the following genera;--_Parula_ and _Granatellus_ (Mniotiltidæ); _Icterus_ (Icteridæ); and _Amazilia_ (Trochilidæ). A small _Psittacula_ differs somewhat from the same species on the mainland.

There are a few mammalia on the islands; a rabbit (_Lepus_) supposed to be new; a very small opossum (_Didelphys_), and a racoon (_Procyon_). There are also several tree-snakes, a _Boa_, and many lizards. The occurrence of so many mammalia and snakes is a proof that these islands have been once joined to the mainland; but the fact that some of the species of both birds and {60}mammals are peculiar, indicates that the separation is not a very recent one. At the same time, as all the species are very closely allied to those of the opposite coasts when not identical, we may be sure that the subsidence which isolated them is not geologically remote.

Socorro, the largest of the Revillagigedo Islands, is altogether different from the Tres Marias. It is situated a little further south (19 S. Latitude), and about 300 miles from the coast, in deep water. It is about 2,000 feet high, very rugged and bare, and wholly volcanic. No mammalia were observed, and no reptiles but a small lizard, a new species of a genus (_Uta_) characteristic of the deserts of N.-Western Mexico. The only observed land-shell (_Orthalicus undatus_) also inhabits N.-W. Mexico. Only 14 species of birds were obtained, of which 9 were land-birds; but of these 4 were new species, one a peculiar variety, and another (_Parula insularis_) a species first found in the Tres Marias. With the exception of this bird and a _Buteo_, all the land-birds belonged to different _genera_ from any found on the Tres Marias, though all were Mexican forms. The peculiar species belonged to the genera _Harporhynchus_ (Turdidæ); _Troglodytes_ (Troglodytidæ); _Pipilo_ (Fringillidæ); _Zenaidura_ (Columbidæ); and a variety of _Conurus holochrous_ (Psittacidæ).

The absence of mammals and snakes, the large proportion of peculiar species, the wholly volcanic nature of these islands, and their situation in deep water 300 miles from land,--all indicate that they have not formed part of the continent, but have been raised in the ocean; and the close relation of their peculiar species to those living in N.-Western Mexico, renders it probable that their antiquity is not geologically great.

The Cocos Islands, about 300 miles S.-W. of the Isthmus of Panama, are known to possess one peculiar bird, a cuckoo of the _Coccyzus_ type, which is considered by some ornithologists to constitute a peculiar genus, _Nesococcyx_.

_IV. The West Indian Islands, or Antillean Sub-region._

The West Indian islands are, in many respects, one of the most interesting of zoological sub-regions. In position they {61}form an unbroken chain uniting North and South America, in a line parallel to the great Central American isthmus; yet instead of exhibiting an intermixture of the productions of Florida and Venezuela, they differ widely from both these countries, possessing in some groups a degree of speciality only to be found elsewhere in islands far removed from any continent. They consist of two very large islands, Cuba and Hayti;[3] two of moderate size, Jamaica and Portorico; and a chain of much smaller islands, St. Croix, Anguilla, Barbuda, Antigua, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Barbadoes, and Grenada, with a host of intervening islets. Tobago, Trinidad, Margarita, and Curaçao, are situated in shallow water near the coast of South America, of which they form part zoologically. To the north of Cuba and Hayti are the Bahamas, an extensive group of coral reefs and islands, 700 miles long, and although very poor in animal life, belonging zoologically to the Antilles. All the larger islands, and most of the smaller ones (except those of coral formation) are very mountainous and rocky, the chains rising to about 8,000 feet in Hayti and Jamaica, and to nearly the same height in Cuba. All, except where they have been cleared by man, are covered with a luxuriant forest vegetation; the temperature is high and uniform; the rains ample; the soil, derived from granitic and limestone rocks, exceedingly fertile; and as the four larger islands together are larger than Great Britain, we might expect an ample and luxuriant fauna. The reverse is however the case; and there are probably no land areas on the globe, so highly favoured by nature in all the essentials for supporting animal life, and at the same time so poor in all the more highly organised groups of animals. Before entering upon our sketch of the main features of this peculiar but limited fauna, it will be well to note a few peculiarities in the physical structure of the islands, which have an important bearing on their past {62}history, and will enable us to account for much that is peculiar in the general character of their natural productions.

If we draw a line immediately south of St. Croix and St. Bartholomew, we shall divide the Archipelago into two very different groups. The southern range of islands, or the Lesser Antilles, are, almost without exception, volcanic; beginning with the small detached volcanoes of Saba and St. Eustatius, and ending with the old volcano of Grenada. Barbuda and Antigua are low islands of Tertiary or recent formation, connected with the volcanic islands by a submerged bank at no great depth. The islands to the north and west are none of them volcanic; many are very large, and these have all a central nucleus of ancient or granitic rocks. We must also note, that the channels between these islands are not of excessive depth, and that their outlines, as well as the direction of their mountain ranges, point to a former union. Thus, the northern range of Hayti is continued westward in Cuba, and eastward in Portorico; while the south-western peninsula extends in a direct line towards Jamaica, the depth between them being 600 fathoms. Between Portorico and Hayti there is only 250 fathoms; while close to the south of all these islands the sea is enormously deep, from more than 1,000 fathoms south of Cuba and Jamaica, to 2,000 south of Hayti, and 2,600 fathoms near the south-east extremity of Portorico. The importance of the division here pointed out will be seen, when we state, that indigenous mammalia of peculiar genera are found on the western group of islands only; and it is on these that all the chief peculiarities of Antillian zoology are developed.

_Mammalia._--The mammals of the West Indian Islands are exceedingly few, but very interesting. Almost all the orders most characteristic of South America are absent. There are no monkeys, no carnivora, no edentata. Besides bats, which are abundant, only two orders are represented; rodents, by peculiar forms of a South American family; and insectivora (an order entirely wanting in South America) by a genus belonging to a family largely developed in Madagascar and found nowhere else. The early voyagers mention "Coatis" and "Agoutis" as being {63}found in Hayti and the other large islands, and it is not improbable that species allied to _Nasua_ and _Dasyprocta_ did exist, and have been destroyed by the dogs of the invaders; though, on the other hand, these names may have been applied to the existing species, which do bear some general resemblance to these two forms.

The Chiroptera, or bats, are represented by a large number of species and by several peculiar genera. The American family of Phyllostomidæ or vampires, has six genera in the Antilles, of which three, _Lonchorina_, _Brachyphylla_, and _Phyllonycteris_, are peculiar, the latter being found only in Cuba. The Vespertilionidæ have four genera, of which one, _Nycticellus_, is confined to Cuba. There are six genera of Noctilionidæ, of which one, _Phyllodia_, is confined to Jamaica.

The Insectivora are represented by the genus _Solenodon_, of which two species are known, one inhabiting Cuba the other Hayti. These are small animals about the size of a cat, with long shrew-like snout, bare rat-like tail, and long claws. Their peculiar dentition and other points of their anatomy shows that they belong to the family Centetidæ, of which five different genera inhabit Madagascar; while there is nothing closely allied to them in any other part of the world but in these two islands.

Seals are said to be found on the shores of some of the islands, but they are very imperfectly known.

The rodents belong to the family Octodontidæ, or, according to some authors, to the Echimyidæ, both characteristic South American groups. They consist of two genera, _Capromys_, containing three or four species inhabiting Cuba and Jamaica; while _Plagiodontia_ (very closely allied) is confined to Hayti. A peculiar mouse, a species of the American genus _Hesperomys_, is said to inhabit Hayti and Martinique, and probably other islands. A _Dasyprocta_ or agouti, closely allied to, if not identical with, a South American species, inhabits St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Grenada, and perhaps St. Thomas, and is the only mammal of any size indigenous to the Lesser Antilles. All the islands in which sugar is cultivated are, however, overrun with European rats and mice, and it is not improbable that these may have {64}starved out and exterminated some of the smaller native rodents.

_Birds._--The birds of the Antilles, although very inferior in number and variety to those of the mainland, are yet sufficiently abundant and remarkable, to offer us good materials for elucidating the past history of the country, when aided by such indications as geology and physical geography can afford.

The total number of land-birds which are permanent residents in the West India islands is, as nearly as can be ascertained from existing materials, 203. There are, in addition to this number, according to Prof. Baird, 88 migrants from North America, which either spend the winter in some of the islands or pass on to Central or South America. These migrants belong to 55 genera, and it is an interesting fact that so many as 40 of these genera have no resident representatives in the islands. This is important, as showing that this northern migration is probably a recent and superficial phenomenon, and has not produced any (or a very slight) permanent effect on the fauna. The migratory genera which have permanent residents, and almost always representative species, in the islands, are in most cases characteristic rather of the Neotropical than of the Nearctic fauna, as the following list will show; _Turdus_, _Dendroeca_, _Vireo_, _Polioptila_, _Agelæus_, _Icterus_, _Contopus_, _Myiarchus_, _Tyrannus_, _Antrostomus_, _Chordeiles_, _Coccyzus_, _Columba_. By far the larger part of these birds visit Cuba only; 81 species being recorded as occurring in that island, while only 31 have been found in Jamacia, 12 in Porto Rico and St. Croix, and 2 in Tobago and Trinidad. Setting aside these migratory birds, as having no bearing on the origin of the true Antillean fauna, we will discuss the residents somewhat in detail.

The resident land-birds (203 in number) belong to 95 genera and 26 families. Of these families 15 are cosmopolitan or nearly so--Turdidæ, Sylviidæ, Corvidæ, Hirundinidæ, Fringillidæ, Picidæ, Cuculidæ, Caprimulgidæ, Cypselidæ, Trogonidæ, Psittacidæ, Columbidæ, Tetraonidæ, Falconidæ, and Strigidæ; 5 are American only--Vireonidæ, Mniotiltidæ, Icteridæ, Tyrannidæ, Trochilidæ; 4 are Netropical only or almost {65}exclusively--Coerebidæ, Tanagridæ, Cotingidæ, Conuridæ; 1 is Antillean only--Todidæ; while 1--Ampelidæ--is confined (in the western hemisphere) to North America, and almost to the Nearctic region. Of the 95 genera, no less than 31, or almost exactly one-third, are peculiar; while of the 203 resident species, 177 are peculiar, the other 26 being all inhabitants of South or Central America. Considering how closely the islands approach the continent in several places--Florida, Yucatan, and Venezuela--this amount of speciality in such locomotive creatures as birds, is probably unexampled in any other part of the globe. The most interesting of these peculiar genera are the following: 4 of Turdidæ, or thrushes--1 confined to the large islands, 1 to the whole archipelago, while 2 are limited to the Lesser Antilles; 2 genera of Tanagridæ, confined to the larger islands; 2 of Trogonidæ, also confined to the larger islands; 5 of hummingbirds, 3 confined to the Greater, 1 to the Lesser Antilles; 2 of cuckoos, one represented in all the large islands, the other in Jamaica only; 2 of owls, one peculiar to Jamaica, the other represented in St. Croix, St. Thomas, Portorico, and Cuba; and lastly, _Todus_, constituting a peculiar family, and having representative species in each of the larger islands, is especially interesting because it belongs to a group of families which are wholly Neotropical--the Momotidæ, Galbulidæ, and Todidæ. The presence of this peculiar form, with 2 trogons; 10 species of parrots, all but one peculiar; 16 peculiar humming-birds belonging to 8 genera; a genus of Cotingidæ; 10 peculiar tanagers belonging to 3 genera; 9 Coerebidæ of 3 genera; together with species of such exclusively Netropical genera as _Coereba_, _Certhiola_, _Sycalis_, _Phonipara_, _Elainea_, _Pitangus_, _Campephilus_, _Chloronerpes_, _Nyctibius_, _Stenopsis_, _Lampornis_, _Calypte_, _Ara_, _Chrysotis_, _Zenaida_, _Leptoptila_, and _Geotrygon_, sufficiently demonstrate the predominant affinities of this fauna; although there are many cases in which it is difficult to say, whether the ancestors of the peculiar genera or species may not have been derived from the Nearctic rather than from the Neotropical region.

The several islands differ considerably in their apparent {66}productiveness, but this is, no doubt, partly due to our knowledge of Cuba and Jamaica being much more complete than of Hayti. The species of resident land-birds at present known are as follows:--

Cuba 68 species of which 40 are peculiar to it. Hayti 40 " " 17 " " Jamaica 67 " " 41 " " Portorico 40 " " 15 " " Lesser Antilles 45 " " 24 " "

If we count the peculiar genera of each island, and reckon as (½) when a genus is common to two islands only, the numbers are as follows:--Cuba 7½, Hayti 3½, Jamaica 8½, Portorico 1, Lesser Antilles 3½. These figures show us, that although Jamaica is one of the smaller and the most isolated of the four chief islands, it yet stands in the first rank, both for the number of its species and of its peculiar forms of birds,--and although this superiority may be in part due to its having been more investigated, it is probably not wholly so, since Cuba has also been well explored. This fact indicates, that the West Indian islands have undergone great changes, and that they were not peopled by immigration from surrounding countries while in the condition we now see them; for in that case the smaller and more remote islands would be very much poorer, while Cuba, which is not only the largest, but nearest to the mainland in two directions, would be immensely richer, just as it really is in migratory birds.

The number of birds common to the four larger islands is very small--probably not more than half a dozen; between 20 and 30 are common to some two of the islands (counting the Lesser Antilles as one island) and a few to three; but the great mass of the species (at least 140) are confined each to some one of the five islands or groups we have indicated. This is an amount of isolation and speciality, probably not to be equalled elsewhere, and which must have required a remarkable series of physical changes to bring about. What those changes probably were, we shall be in a better position to consider when we have completed our survey of the various classes of land animals.

Plate XVII.

A SCENE IN CUBA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{67}In the preceding enumeration the Bahamas have been included with Cuba, as regards the birds they have in common; but they possess some half dozen species not found elsewhere, and even one central American genus of humming-birds (_Doricha_) not found in any other part of the Antilles. We have thus given Cuba rather more peculiar species than it really possesses, so that the proportionate richness of Jamaica is rather greater than shown by our figures.

The destruction of the forests and the increase of population, with, perhaps, the use of firearms, seem to have led to the extermination of some species of birds in the smaller islands. Professor Newton has called attention to the work of M. Ledru, who, in 1796, described the birds of St. Thomas. He mentions a parrot and a parroquet in the island, the latter only being now known, and very scarce; also a green pigeon and a tody, both now unknown. No less than six species of parrots are said to have been formerly found in Guadeloupe and Martinique, which are now extinct.

_Plate XVII. Illustrating the peculiar Mammalia and Birds of the Antilles._--The scene of this illustration is Cuba, the largest of the West Indian islands, and one in which all its peculiar zoological features are well developed. In the foreground is the agouta (_Solenodon cubanus_), a remarkable insectivorous animal which, with another species inhabiting Hayti, has no allies on the American continent; nor anywhere in the world but in Madagascar, where a group of animals are found constituting the family Centetidæ, to which _Solenodon_ is said undoubtedly to belong. Above it are a pair of hutias (_Capromys fournieri_), rat-like animals belonging to the South American family Octodontidæ. They live in the forests, and climb trees readily, eating all kinds of vegetable food. Three species of the genus are known, which are found only in Cuba and Jamaica. Just above these animals is a white-breasted trogon (_Prionoteles temnurus_), confined to Cuba, and the only species of the genus. Near the top of the picture are a pair of todies (_Todus multicolor_), singular little insectivorous birds allied to the motmots, but forming a very distinct family which is confined to the islands of the {68}Greater Antilles. They are beautifully-coloured birds,--green above, red and white beneath, and are exceedingly active in their movements. To the right are a pair of small humming-birds (_Sporadinus ricordi_), not very remarkable in this beautiful family, but introduced here because they belong to a genus which is confined to the Greater Antilles.

_Table of distribution of West-Indian Birds._--As the birds of the West Indian islands are particularly interesting and their peculiarities comparatively little known, we give here a table of the genera of land-birds, compiled from all available sources of information. Owing to the numerous independent observations on which it is founded, the discrepancies of nomenclature, and uncertainty in some cases as to the locality of species, it can only be looked upon as an approximative summary of the existing materials on Antillean ornithology.

_TABLE OF THE RESIDENT LAND-BIRDS OF THE ANTILLES._

NOTE.--Genera confined to the West Indies are in Italics. An (_a_) after (1) indicates a species common to two islands: but where there are two or more species in an island, or the localities are doubtful, this indication cannot be given. All species not otherwise noted are peculiar to the Antilles.

Key to columns: Column 1 Cuba. " 2 Bahamas. " 3 Hayti. " 4 Jamaica. " 5 Portorico & St. Croix. " 6 Lesser Antilles. " 7 Total resident species.

----------------+-----------------------------+----+--------------------- | Number of Species in | | Family and | each Island. | | Genus. +----+----+----+----+----+----+ | Remarks. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | ----------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------------------- TURDIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Turdus | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Five species migrate | | | | | | | | to Cuba _Mimocichla_ | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | -- | -- | 5 | _Margarops_ | -- | -- | 1a | -- | 1a | 3 | 4 | Martinique, St. | | | | | | | | Lucia, Guada. _Rhamphocinclus_ -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | Martinique and St. | | | | | | | | Lucia _Cinclocerthia_| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 3 | 3 | Nevis to St. Lucia Mimus | 1 | 1 | -- | 1 | (?)| -- | 3 | Another species | | | | | | | | migrates to the | | | | | | | | Antilles | | | | | | | | SYLVIIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Myiadestes | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | 3 | St. Lucia Polioptila | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | | | | | | | | | VIREONIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Vireosylvia | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | One S. American | | | | | | | | species Vireo | 1 | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | 4 | Five species migrate | | | | | | | | to Cuba _Laletes_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | _Phoenicomanes_| -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | | | | | | | | | CORVIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Corvus | 1 | -- | 1a | 1 | 1a | -- | 3 | Cyanocorax | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species | | | | | | | | MNIOTILTIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Perissoglossa | 1 | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | N. American species Dendroeca | 2 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 7 | Twelve sp. migrate | | | | | | | | to W. I. _Teretristis_ | 2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2 | | | | | | | | | COEREBIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Certhiola | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 7 | Dominica and | | | | | | | | Martinique _Glossiptila_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Coereba | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species | | | | | | | | AMPELIDÆ. | | | | | | | | _Dulus_ | (?)| -- | 1 | (?)| (?)| (?)| 2 | One species locality | | | | | | | | unknown | | | | | | | | HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Progne | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | -- | 1 | Pterochelidon | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | 1 | Hirundo | 1 | -- | 1a | 1a | -- | -- | 2 | One S. American | | | | | | | | species | | | | | | | | TANAGRIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Euphonia | 1a | -- | 1a | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | St. Bartholom. & | | | | | | | | Martinique _Spindalis_ | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | -- | 5 | _Phænicophilus_| -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | Saltator | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | Guadeloupe and St. | | | | | | | | Lucia | | | | | | | | FRINGILLIDÆ. | | | | | | | | _Loxigilla_ | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | 1 | 3 | Martinique and | | | | | | | | Dominica _Melopyrrha_ | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | Sycalis | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species Phonipara | 3 | -- | 3 | 3 | 2 | -- | 4 | One S. American | | | | | | | | species Chrysomitris | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | | | | | | | | | ICTERIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Icterus | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 6 | Agelæus | 2 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 3 | Sturnella | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | Mexican species _Nesopsar_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Scolecophagus | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | Quiscalus | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | St. Lucia, | | | | | | | | Martinique and | | | | | | | | Barbadoes | | | | | | | | TYRANNIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Elainea | -- | -- | -- | 2 | -- | 1 | 3 | Pitangus | 1a | -- | -- | 1a | 1 | -- | 2 | Contopus | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | 2 | St. Lucia Myiarchus | 2 | -- | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1b | 7 | One S. American | | | | | | | | species (b) _Blacicus_ | 1a | -- | 1a | 1 | -- | -- | 2 | Tyrannus | 2 | -- | -- | 1b | 1b | 2b | 3 | One sp. in Cen. | | | | | | | | America (b) | | | | | | | | COTINGIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Hadrostomus | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | | | | | | | | | PICIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Campephilus | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | _Xiphidiopicus_| 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | Melanerpes | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | Chloronerpes | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | Centurus | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | -- | 3 | Colaptes | 2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2 | _Nesoceleus_ | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | _Picumnus_ | -- | -- | ?1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | | | | | | | | | CUCULIDÆ. | | | | | | | | _Saurothera_ | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | -- | 4 | _Hyetornis_ | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | -- | 2 | Coccygus | 1 | -- | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | Dominica, St. Lucia, | | | | | | | | all Neotropical | | | | | | | | species Crotophaga | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | N. & Cen. American | | | | | | | | species | | | | | | | | TODIDÆ. | | | | | | | | _Todus_ | 1 | -- | 1 | 2 | 1 | -- | 5 | | | | | | | | | TROGONIDÆ. | | | | | | | | _Prionoteles_ | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | _Temnotrogon_ | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | | | | | | | | | CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Nyctibius | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Neotropical species Chordeiles | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Antrostomus | 2 | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | 2 | One Neotropical | | | | | | | | species _Siphonorhis_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Stenopsis | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | Martinique | | | | | | | | (S. America sp.) | | | | | | | | CYPSELIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Cypselus | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Panyptila | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species Hemiprocne | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Mexican species Cypseloides | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | | | | | | | | | TROCHILIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Lampornis | -- | -- | 1a | 1 | 2a | 1a | 3 | Doricha | -- | 2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2 | _Eulampis_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 2 | 2 | St. Croix, Dominica, | | | | | | | | St. Lucia, | | | | | | | | Martinique _Aithurus_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | _Mellisuga_ | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Calypte | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | _Orthorhynchus_| -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 2 | 3 | Domin., Martini., | | | | | | | | St. Lucia _Sporadinus_ | 1 | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | -- | 3 | | | | | | | | | CONURIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Ara | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species Conurus | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | St. Thomas | | | | | | | | PSITTACIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Chrysotis | 1 | -- | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 8 | | | | | | | | | COLUMBIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Columba | 1 | -- | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 3 | One in Honduras Chamæpelia | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | Zenaida | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | Leptoptila | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Geotrygon | 2 | -- | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 5 | St. Lucia, | | | | | | | | Martinique, one | | | | | | | | species Mexican _Starnoenas_ | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | | | | | | | | | TETRAONIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Ortyx | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | | | | | | | | | FALCONIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Accipiter | 2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2 | Hypotriorchis | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Mexican species Cerchneis | 2 | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | 2 | Cymindis | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | Polyborus | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | Mexican species | | | | | | | | STRIGIDÆ. | | | | | | | | Nyctalops | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species _Pseudoscops_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | _Gymnoglaux_ | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 2 | St. Croix and St. | | | | | | | | Thomas Glaucidium | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | ----------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---------------------

{Number of families of resident land-birds in the Antilles 26 TOTALS { " " genera " " " 95 { " " species " " " 203

{72}_Reptiles and Amphibia._--These classes not having been systematically collected, and the numerous described genera not having undergone careful revision, little trustworthy information can be derived from them. The following enumeration of the chief groups hitherto noticed or described, will, however, show very similar features to those presented by the birds--a general relation to Neotropical forms, a more special relation to those of Central America and Mexico, and a considerable number of peculiar types.

Snakes.--_Arrhyton_ (Calamariidæ) from Cuba, _Hypsirhynchus_ from Barbadoes, _Cryptodacus_ from Cuba, _Ialtris_ from Hayti, and _Coloragia_ from Cuba (all Colubridæ), have been described as genera peculiar to the Antilles. _Phylodryas_ and _Dromicus_ (Colubridæ) are Antillean and Neotropical; _Ahætulla_, (Dendrophidæ) has the same distribution but extends to tropical Africa; _Epicrates_ and _Corallus_ (Pythonidæ) are Neotropical and Antillean; while _Chilabothrus_ from Jamaica and _Ungalia_ from Cuba and Jamaica (both Pythonidæ) are found elsewhere only in Central America and Mexico. There appear to be no Crotalidæ except an introduced species of _Craspedocephalus_ in St. Lucia.

Lizards are more numerous. _Ameiva_ (Teidæ) is found all over America, _Gerrhonotus_ (Zonuridæ) is Neotropical and occurs in Cuba; _Gymnopthalmus_ is South American and Antillean. Of Scincidæ seven genera are noted. _Celestus_ (with 9 species) is peculiar to the Antilles; _Camilia_ (1 species) to Jamaica, _Panoplus_ (1 species) and _Embryopus_ (1 species) to Hayti; _Diplogossus_ is Antillean and South American; while _Plestiodon_ and _Mabouya_ are cosmopolite. Of Geckotidæ there are four genera; _Phyllodactylus_ and _Hemidactylus_ which are cosmopolite; _Sphærodactylus_ which is wholly American; and _Cubina_ found only in Martinique and Brazil. Of Iguanidæ there are six genera; _Anolis_, which ranges all over America; _Polychrus_, which is Neotropical; _Iguana_ and _Liocephalus_ which are South American; _Tropedurus_ found in Cuba and Brazil; and _Cyclura_ only known from Jamaica, Cuba, and Central America.

_Amphibia._--The genus _Trachycephalus_, belonging to the {73}Hylidæ or tropical tree-frogs, is almost peculiar to the Antilles; Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica possessing seven species, while only one is recorded from South America. Other genera are, _Peltaphryne_ (Bufonidæ) from Portorico; _Phyllobates_ (Polypedatidæ) from Cuba; _Leiuperus_ (Ranidæ) from Hayti,--all Neotropical. Of the Urodela, or tailed batrachians, no representative occurs, although they are so characteristic a feature of the Nearctic region.

_Fresh-water fish._--The same general remarks apply to these as to the reptiles. Only one peculiar genus is noted--_Lebistes_, a form of Cyprinodontidæ from Barbadoes; other genera of the same family being, _Haplochilus_, _Rivulus_, and _Girardinus_, widely spread in the Neotropical region; while _Gambusia_ is confined to Central America, Mexico, and the Antilles. Four other families are represented; Siluridæ by _Chætostomus_, found in Portorico and South America; Chromidæ by the South American _Acara_; Mugillidæ by the Central American _Agonostoma_; and Percidæ by the North American _Centrarchus_, of which a species is recorded from Cuba.

_Insects._--The various West Indian islands have not been well explored entomologically; one reason no doubt being, that their comparative poverty renders them little attractive to the professional collector, while the abounding riches of Central and South America lie so near at hand. We can, therefore, hardly tell whether the comparative poverty, or even total absence of some families while others seem fairly represented, is a real phenomenon of distribution, or only dependent on imperfect knowledge. Bearing this in mind, we proceed to give a sketch of what is known of the chief groups of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.

_Lepidoptera._--The Neotropical butterfly-fauna is but poorly represented, the majority of the most remarkable types being entirely wanting; yet there are a few peculiar and very characteristic forms which show great isolation, while the majority of the species are peculiar. Four genera are exclusively or characteristically Antillean,--_Calisto_ belonging to the Satyridæ, with four species, of which one ranges to South Carolina; _Clothilda_ {74}(Nymphalidæ) a fine genus which has 4 Antillean species and 2 in Central America; _Lucinia_ (Nymphalidæ) 2 species, confined to Jamaica and Hayti; and _Kricogonia_ belonging to the Pieridæ, which has 2 West Indian species, while 1 inhabits Mexico and Florida. Genera which show a special relation to Central America are _Euptoieta_, _Eumæus_, and _Nathalis_. Almost all the other genera are South American, the total number recorded in each family as occurring in the West Indian islands, being, 3 of Danaidæ; 1 of Heliconiidæ; 2 of Satyridæ; 18 of Nymphalidæ; 1 of Erycinidæ; 4 of Lycænidæ; 6 of Pieridæ; 1 of Papilionidæ, and 10 of Hesperidæ. The genus _Papilio_ is represented by about 20 species, 2 of which are North American, 4 South American, while the rest form little characteristic groups allied to those of Central America. The most marked feature seems to be the scarcity of Satyridæ and the almost total absence of Erycinidæ, with a great deficiency in characteristic Neotropical forms of Danaidæ and Nymphalidæ.

_Coleoptera._--Cicindelidæ and Carabidæ are very poorly represented, by a few species of wide-spread groups, and hardly any peculiar genera. No Lucanidæ are recorded. Of Cetoniidæ, _Gymnetis_ only appears to be represented. Buprestidæ seem to be more numerous; 15 genera being recorded, but almost all of wide distribution. One only is peculiar--_Tetragonoschoma_, found in Hayti; _Halecia_ is the only exclusively South American genus; _Chalcophora_ is widely scattered over the tropical regions but is absent from South America, yet it occurs in the Nearctic region and extends to Jamaica and Guadeloupe. We now come to the Longicorns, the only group of Coleoptera which seems to be well represented, or which has been carefully collected. No less than 40 genera are known from the West Indian islands, and 15 of these are peculiar. Prionidæ are proportionately very numerous, there being 10 genera, 2 of which are widely distributed in both South and North America, 1 is North American, and 1 South American, while the following are peculiar,--_Stenodontes_ (Hayti and Cuba); _Dendroblaptus_ (Cuba); _Monodesmus_ (Cuba and Jamaica); _Prosternodes_ (Cuba); _Solenoptera_ and _Elateropsis_, the two largest genera found in most of the {75}islands. Of Cerambycidæ there are 16 genera, 2 of which range all over America, 4 are Neotropical, 1 South American only, while the following are confined to the islands,--_Merostenus_, _Pentomacrus_, and _Eburiola_ (Jamaica); _Bromiades_ (Cuba); _Trichrous_, _Heterops_, and _Pæciloderma_ (Antilles). One genus, _Smodicum_, is widely spread, having a species in Carolina, 1 in South America, 1 in Hayti, and 1 in West Africa. Of Lamiidæ there are 14 genera, 8 of which are Neotropical, 1 common to Central America and Mexico, 1 to the United States and Cuba, while 2, _Proecha_ and _Phidola_, are confined to Cuba. Several of the genera are curiously distributed;--_Spalacopsis_ is South American, with 4 species in Cuba and Tropical Africa; _Lagocheirus_ is Neotropical, with a species in Australia; while _Leptostilus_ is characteristic of the Antilles and North America, with a few species in South America, and one in New Zealand. These cases of erratic distribution, so opposed to the general series of phenomena among which they occur, must be held to be sufficiently explained by the great antiquity of these groups and their former wide distribution. They may be supposed to be the remnants of types, now dying out, which were once, like _Callichroma_, _Clytus_, and many others, almost universally distributed.

All the peculiar Antillean genera of Cerambycidæ and Lamiidæ are allied to Neotropical forms. The peculiar Prionidæ, however, are mostly allied to Mexican and North American groups, and one, _Monodesmus_, belongs to a group all the other genera of which inhabit the East Indies and South Africa.

_Land-shells._--This subject has already been generally treated under the Region, of which, in this class of animals, the Antilles form so important a part. We must therefore now confine ourselves mainly to the internal distribution of the genera, and to a few remarks on the general bearing of the facts.

The excessive and altogether unexampled productiveness of the West Indian islands in land-shells, may be traced to two main sets of causes. The first and least known, consist of the peculiar influences and conditions which render islands always more productive than continents. Whatever these conditions {76}are, they will be more effective where the islands have been long separated from the mainland, as is here undoubtedly the case. It seems most probable that the great development of land-shells in islands, is due to the absence or deficiency of the vertebrata, which on continents supply a variety of species adapted to prey upon these molluscs. This view is supported by the fact, that in such islands as have been united to a continent at no very distant epoch, and still maintain a continental variety of vertebrata, no such special development of land-shells has taken place. If we compare the Philippine islands with the Sunda group, we find the development of vertebrata and land-molluscs in inverse ratio to each other. The same thing occurs if we compare New Zealand and Tasmania; and we have a still more striking example in the Antillean group itself, continental Trinidad having only 20 genera and 38 species, while the highly insular Jamaica has about 30 genera and more than 500 species.

The other causes favourable to the increase and development of land-shells are of a physical nature. A great extent of limestone-rock is one; and in the larger West Indian islands we have a considerable proportion of the surface consisting of this rock. But perhaps equally or more important, is the character of the land surface, and the texture of the exposed rock itself. A much broken surface, with numerous deep ravines, cutting up the whole country into isolated valleys and ridges, seems very favourable to the specialization of forms in this very sedentary class of animals. Equally favourable is a honeycombed and highly-fissured rock-surface, affording everywhere cracks and crannies for concealment. Now, taking Jamaica as an example of the archipelago, we find all these conditions in a wonderful degree. Over a large part of this island, a yard of level ground can hardly be found; but ridges, precipices, ravines, and rock-bound valleys, succeed each other over the whole country. At least five-sixths of the entire surface is limestone, and under the influence of tropical rains this rock is worn, fissured, and honeycombed, so as to afford ample shelter and concealment for land-shells.

{77}It is probable that the three chief islands, Cuba, Jamaica and Hayti, are nearly equally rich in land-shells; but the last is very much less known, and therefore, perhaps, appears to be much poorer. Cuba has rather more species than Jamaica; but while the former has only 1 peculiar genus (_Diplopoma_), the latter has 3 (_Geomelania_, _Chittya_, and _Jamaicea_), as well as two others only represented in the other islands by single species. From Hayti, only about one-third as many species are known as from the two former islands. It has no peculiar genera, but it has some forms in common with Cuba and others with Jamaica, which show that those islands have more connection with it, than with each other; just as we found to be the case in birds. Portorico and the Virgin islands have still fewer species than Hayti; and, as many of the genera common to the other three islands are wanting, there is, no doubt, here a real deficiency. In the islands farther south (Barbuda to Martinique) more Antillean genera disappear or become very rare, while some continental forms take their place. The islands from St. Lucia to Trinidad have a still more continental character; the genus _Bulimus_, so largely developed on the continent, only reaching St. Lucia. The Bahamas contain about 80 species of land-shells, of which 25 are Antillean, the rest peculiar; all the genera being Antillean. The affinity is chiefly with Hayti and Cuba, but closest with the latter island.

In the West Indian islands as a whole, there are 11 peculiar genera; 9 operculate (_Geomelania_, _Chittya_, _Jamaicea_, _Licina_, _Choanopoma_, _Ctenopoma_, _Diplopoma_, _Stoastoma_, _Lucidella_); and 2 inoperculate (_Sagda_ and _Stenopus_), besides _Cyclostomus_, which belongs to the Old World and is not found on the American continent. Mr. Bland considers, that many of the Antillean land-shells exhibit decided African and Asiatic, rather than South American affinities. A species of the Asiatic genus _Diplommatina_ has been found in Trinidad, and an Indian species of _Ennea_ occurs in Grenada and St. Thomas; a clear indication that land-shells are liable to be accidentally imported, and to become established in the less productive islands.

Although these islands are so wonderfully rich even now, {78}there is good reason to believe that many species have become extinct since the European occupation of them. When small islands are much cultivated, many of these molluscs which can only live under the shade of forests, are soon extirpated. In St. Croix many species have become extinct at a comparatively recent period, from the burning of forests; and as we know that in all the islands many of the species are excessively local, being often confined to single valleys or ridges, we may be sure that wherever the native forests have disappeared before the hand of man, numbers of land shells have disappeared with them. As some of the smaller islands have been almost denuded of their wood, and in the larger ones extensive tracts have been cleared for sugar cultivation, a very considerable number of species have almost certainly been exterminated.

_General Conclusions as to the Past History of the West Indian Islands._--The preceding sketch of the peculiarities of the animal life of these islands, enables us to state, that it represents the remains of an ancient fauna of decided Neotropical type, having on the whole most resemblance to that which now inhabits the Mexican sub-region. The number of peculiar genera in all classes of animals is so great in proportion to those in common with the adjacent mainland, as to lead us to conclude that, subsequent to the original separation from the Mexican area, a very large tract of land existed, calculated to support a rich and varied fauna, and, by the interaction of competing types, give rise to peculiar and specially modified organisms. We have already shown that the outline of the present islands and the depths of the surrounding seas, give indications of the position and extent of this ancient land; which not improbably occupied the space enclosed by uniting Western Cuba with Yucatan, and Jamaica with the Mosquito Coast. This land must have stretched eastward to include Anguilla, and probably northward to include the whole of the Bahamas. At one time it perhaps extended southward so as to unite Hayti with northern Venezuela, while Panama and Costa Pica were sunk beneath the Pacific. At this time the Lesser Antilles had no existence.

The only large island of whose geology we have any detailed {79}account, is Jamaica; and taking this as a type of what will probably be found in Cuba and Hayti, we must place the continental period as having occurred after the close of the Miocene, or during some part of the Pliocene epoch, since a large portion of the surface of the former island consists of beds of marine limestone from 2,000 to 3,000 thick, believed to be of Pliocene age. After some time, the land between Hayti and South America subsided, and still later that between Central America and Cuba with Jamaica; but a large tract of land remained insulated, and no doubt supported a very much richer and more varied fauna than now. We have evidence of this in extinct Mammalia of large size, belonging to the peculiar South American family of the chinchillas, which have been found in caves in the small islands of Anguilla, and which, from the character of the land-shells associated with them, are believed to be of Pliocene or Post-pliocene age. This discovery is most interesting, and gives promise of very valuable results from the exploration of the numerous caverns that undoubtedly exist in the abundant limestone strata of the larger islands. This extensive Antillean land, after long continuing undivided, was at length broken up by subsidence into several islands; but as this alone would not account for the almost complete annihilation of the mammalian fauna, it seems probable that the subsidence was continued much farther, so as greatly to reduce the size and increase the number of the islands. This is indicated, by the extensive alluvial plains in Cuba and Hayti, and to a less extent in Jamaica; and by elevated beds of Post-pliocene marls in the latter island.

The series of changes now suggested, will account for all the main features of the Antillean fauna in its relations to that of the American continent. There remains the affinity with Madagascar, indicated by _Solenodon_, and a few cases of African and Asiatic affinity in insects and land-shells; but these are far too scanty to call for any attempt at special explanation. Such cases of remote affinity and discontinuous distribution, occur in all the regions, and in almost every group of animals; and we look upon them almost all, as cases of survival, under favourable {80}conditions, of once wide-spread groups. If no wild species of the genus _Equus_ were now to be found, except in South Africa (where they are still most abundant), and in South Temperate America, where their fossil remains show us they did exist not very long ago, what a strong fact it would have appeared for the advocates of continental extensions! Yet it would have been due to no former union of the great southern continents, but to the former extensive range of the family or the genus to which the two isolated remnants belonged. And if such an explanation will apply to the higher vertebrata, it is still more likely to be applicable to similar cases occurring among insects or mollusca, the genera of which we have every reason to believe to be usually much older than those of vertebrates. It is in these classes that examples of widely scattered allied species most frequently occur; and the facility with which they are diffused under favourable conditions, renders any other explanation than that here given altogether superfluous.

The _Solenodon_ is a member of an order of Mammalia of low type (Insectivora) once very extensive and wide-spread, but which has begun to die out, and which has left a number of curious and isolated forms thinly scattered over three-fourths of the globe. The occurrence, therefore, of an isolated remnant of this order in the Antilles is not in itself remarkable; and the fact that the remainder of the family to which the Antillean species belong has found a refuge in Madagascar, where it has developed into several distinct types, does not afford the least shred of argument on which to found a supposed independent land connection between these two sets of islands.

_Summary of the Past History of the Neotropical Region._

We have already discussed this subject, both in our account of extinct animals, and in various parts of the present chapter. It is therefore only necessary here, briefly to review and summarise the conclusions we have arrived at.

The whole character of Neotropical zoology, whether as regards its deficiencies or its specialities, points to a long continuance of isolation from the rest of the world, with a few very distant {81}periods of union with the northern continent. The latest important separation took place by the submergence of parts of Nicaragua and Honduras, and this separation probably continued throughout much of the Miocene and Pliocene periods; but some time previous to the coming on of the glacial epoch, the union between the two continents took place which has continued to our day. Earlier submergences of the isthmus of Panama probably occurred, isolating Costa Rica and Veragua, which then may have had a greater extension, and have thus been able to develope their rich and peculiar fauna.

The isthmus of Tehuantepec, at the south of Mexico, may, probably, also have been submerged; thus isolating Guatemala and Yucatan, and leading to the specialization of some of the peculiar forms that now characterise those countries and Mexico.

The West Indian Islands have been long isolated and have varied much in extent. Originally, they probably formed part of Central America, and may have been united with Yucatan and Honduras in one extensive tropical land. But their separation from the continent took place at a remote period, and they have since been broken up into numerous islands, which have probably undergone much submergence in recent times. This has led to that poverty of the higher forms of life, combined with the remarkable speciality, which now characterises them; while their fauna still preserves a sufficient resemblance to that of Central America to indicate its origin.

The great continent of South America, as far as we can judge from the remarkable characteristics of its fauna and the vast depths of the oceans east and west of it, has not during Tertiary, and probably not even during Secondary times, been united with any other continent, except through the intervention of North America. During some part of the Secondary epoch it probably received the ancestral forms of its Edentates and Rodents, at a time when these were among the highest types of Mammalia on the globe. It appears to have remained long isolated, and to have already greatly developed these groups of animals, before it received, in early Tertiary times, the ancestors of its marmosets and monkeys, and, perhaps also, some of its peculiar forms of {82}Carnivora. Later, it received its Camelidæ, peccaries, mastodons, and large Carnivora; and later still, just before the Glacial epoch, its deer, tapir, opossums, antelopes, and horses, the two latter having since become extinct. All this time its surface was undergoing important physical changes. What its earlier condition was we cannot conjecture, but there are clear indications that it has been broken up into at least three large masses, and probably a number of smaller ones; and these have no doubt undergone successive elevations and subsidences, so as at one time to reduce their area and separate them still more widely from each other, and at another period to unite them into continental masses. The richness and varied development of the old fauna of South America, as still existing, proves, however, that the country has always maintained an extensive area; and there is reason to believe that the last great change has been a long continued and steady increase of its surface, resulting in the formation of the vast alluvial plains of the Amazon, Orinoko, and La Plata, and thus greatly favouring the production of that wealth of specific forms, which distinguishes South America above all other parts of our globe.

The southern temperate portion of the continent, has probably had a considerable southward extension in late Tertiary times; and this, as well as the comparatively recent elevation of the Andes, has given rise to some degree of intermixture of two distinct faunas, with that proper to South Temperate America itself. The most important of these, is the considerable Australian element that appears in the insects, and even in the reptiles and fresh-water fishes, of South Temperate America. These may be traced to several causes. Icebergs and icefloes, and even solid fields of ice, may, during the Glacial epoch, have afforded many opportunities for the passage of the more cold-enduring groups; while the greater extension of southern lands and islands during the warm periods--which there is reason to believe prevailed in the southern as well as in the northern regions in Miocene times--would afford facilities for the passage of the reptiles and insects of more temperate zones. That no actual land-connection occurred, is proved by the total absence {83}of interchange of the mammals or land-birds of the two countries, no less than by the very fragmentary nature of the resemblances that do exist. The northern element consists almost wholly of insects; and is evidently due to the migration of arctic and north temperate forms along the ridges and plateaus of the Andes; and most likely occurred when these organisms were driven southward at successive cold or Glacial periods.

A curious parallel exists between the past history and actual zoological condition of South America and Africa. In both we see a very ancient land-area extending into the South Temperate zone, isolated at a very early period, and developing only a low grade of Mammalian life; chiefly Edentates and Rodents on the one, Lemurs and Insectivora in the other. Later we find an irruption into both of higher forms, including Quadrumana, which soon acquired a large and special development in the tropical portions of each country. Still later we have an irruption into both of northern forms, which spread widely over the two regions, and having become extinct in the land from whence they came, have been long held to be the original denizens of their adopted country. Such are the various forms of antelopes, the giraffe, the elephant, rhinoceros, and lion in Africa; while in America we have deer and peccaries, the tapir, opossums, and the puma.

On the whole, we cannot but consider that the broad outlines of the zoological history of the Neotropical region can be traced with some degree of certainty; but, owing to the absence of information as to the most important of the geological periods--the Miocene and Eocene--we have no clue to the character of its early fauna, or to the land connections with other countries, which may possibly have occurred in early Tertiary times.

{84}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the various classes of animals in the Neotropical region, the following sources of information have been relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in the compilation of the Fourth Part of this work.

_Mammalia._--D'Orbigny, and Burmeister, for Brazil and La Plata; Darwin, and Cunningham, for Temperate S. America; Tschudi, for Peru; Frazer, for Ecuador; Salvin, for Guatemala; Frantzius, for Costa Rica; Sclater, for Quadrumana N. of Panama; Gundlach, for Cuba; and papers by Dr. J. E. Gray, and Mr. Tomes.

_Birds._--Sclater and Salvin's Nomenclator; Notes by Darwin, and Cunningham; Gundlach, March, Bryant, Baird, Elliot, Newton, Semper, and Sundevall, for various islands of the Antilles; and papers by Hudson, Lawrence, Grayson, Abbott, Sclater, and Salvin.

{85}TABLE I.

_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL REGION._

EXPLANATION.

Names in _italics_ show the families which are peculiar to the region.

Names enclosed thus (......) indicate families which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Numbers correspond with those of the series of families in Part IV.

---------------------+-------------------+------------------------------- | Sub-regions | | 1=Chili. | Order and Family | 2=Brazil. | Range beyond the Region. | 3=Mexico. | | 4=Antilles. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | | | | | MAMMALIA. | | | | | PRIMATES. | | | | | 4. _Cebidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 5. _Hapalidæ_ | | -- | (?)| | | | | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | | | 10. _Phyllostomidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | California 12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 13. Noctilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions | | | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | | | 18. Centetidæ | | | | -- | Madagascar | | | | | CARNIVORA. | | | | | 23. Felidæ | -- | -- | -- | | All regions but Australian 28. Canidæ | -- | -- | -- | | All regions but Australian 29. Mustelidæ | -- | -- | -- | | All regions but Australian 30. Procyonidæ | -- | -- | -- | | N. America 32. Ursidæ | -- | | | | All regions but Ethiopian and | | | | | Australian 33. Otariidæ | -- | | | | S. temperate zone 35. Phocidæ | -- | | | (?)| N. and S. temperate zones | | | | | CETACEA. | | | | | 36 to 41 | -- | | | | Oceanic | | | | | SIRENIA. | | | | | 42. Manatidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Tropical shores | | | | | UNGULATA. | | | | | 44. Tapiridæ | | -- | -- | | Indo-Malaya 47. Suidæ | | -- | -- | | Cosmopolite, excl. Australia 48. Camelidæ | -- | | | | Palæarctic 50. Cervidæ | -- | -- | -- | | All regions but Ethiopian and | | | | | Australian | | | | | RODENTIA. | | | | | 55. Muridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 59. Saccomyidæ | | | -- | | Nearctic 61. Sciuridæ | | -- | -- | | All regions but Australian 63. _Chinchillidæ_ | -- | | | | 64. Octodontidæ | -- | -- | | -- | Africa 65. Echimyidæ | -- | -- | | | Ethiopian 66. Cercolabidæ | | -- | -- | | Nearctic 68. _Caviidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | 70. Leporidæ | | -- | -- | | All regions but Australian | | | | | EDENTATA. | | | | | 71. _Bradypodidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 73. _Dasypodidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | | 75. _Myrmecophagidæ_| | -- | -- | | | | | | | MARSUPIALIA. | | | | | 76. Didelphyidæ | -- | -- | -- | | Temperate N. America | | | | | BIRDS. | | | | | PASSERES. | | | | | 1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 2. Sylviidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 5. Cinclidæ | | -- | -- | | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental 6. Troglodytidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental 8. Certhiidæ | | | -- | | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental 9. Sittidæ | | | -- | | All regions, excl. Africa 10. Paridæ | | | -- | | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental 20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 26. _Coerebidæ_ | | -- | -- | -- | 27. Mniotiltidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic 28. Vireonidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic 29. Ampelidæ | | | -- | -- | Nearctic, Palæarctic 30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 31. Icteridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic 32. Tanagridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic 33. Fringillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian 38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 38a. _Oxyrhamphidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 39. Tyrannidæ | -- | -- | -- |-- | Nearctic 40. _Pipridæ_ | | -- | -- | | 41. _Cotingidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | 42. _Phytotomidæ_ | -- | | | | 44._Dendrocolaptidæ_| -- | -- | -- | | 45. _Formicariidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 46. _Pteroptochidæ_ | -- | -- | | | | | | | | PICARIÆ. | | | | | 51. Picidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian 54. Megalæmidæ | | -- | -- | | Ethiopian, Oriental 55. _Rhamphastidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 60. _Bucconidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 61. _Galbulidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 64. _Todidæ_ | | | | -- | 65. _Momotidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 66. Trogonidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian, Oriental 67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 72. _Steatornithidæ_| | -- | | | 73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 75. Trochilidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic | | | | | PSITTACI. | | | | | 80. Conuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | S. United States 81. Psittacidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian | | | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | | | 84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite | | | | | GALLINÆ. | | | | | 87. Tetraonidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 88. Phasianidæ | | | -- | | All regions but Australian 91. _Cracidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 92. _Tinamidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | | | | | | | OPISTHOCOMI. | | | | | 93. _Opisthocomidæ_ | | -- | | | | | | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | | | 94. Vulturidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian 96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 97. Pandionidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite | | | | | GRALLÆ. | | | | | 99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 101. _Chionididæ_ | -- | | | | 102. _Thinocoridæ_ | -- | | | | 103. Parridæ | | -- | -- | | Tropical regions 105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 108. _Cariamidæ_ | -- | -- | | | 109. _Aramidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 110. _Psophiidæ_ | | -- | | | 111. _Eurypygidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | -- | | Nearly cosmopolite 116. _Palamedeidæ_ | -- | -- | | | 117. Phoenicopteridæ | -- | -- | -- | | Ethiopian, Indian | | | | | ANSERES. | | | | | 118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 122. Spheniscidæ | -- | | | | S. temperate zone 124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite | | | | | STRUTHIONES. | | | | | 126. Struthionidæ | -- | | | | Ethiopian | | | | | REPTILIA. | | | | | OPHIDIA. | | | | | 1. Typhlopidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Tropical regions and | | | | | S. Palæarctic 2. Tortricidæ | | -- | | | Oriental, N.-W. America 5. Calamariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm countries 6. Oligodontidæ | | -- | | | Oriental, Japan 7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 8. Homalopsidæ | -- | | | -- | All the regions 11. Dendrophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions 12. Dryiophidæ | | -- | -- | | Oriental, Ethiopian 13. Dipsadidæ | | -- | -- | | All tropical regions 14. Scytalidæ | | -- | -- | | Philippine Islands 16. Amblycephalidæ | | -- | -- | | Oriental 17. Pythonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions, | | | | | California 20. Elapidæ | -- | -- | -- | | Tropical regions, Japan, | | | | | S. Carolina 23. Hydrophidæ | | | -- | | Oriental, Australian, | | | | | Madagascar 24. Crotalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental | | | | | LACERTILIA. | | | | | 27. Chirotidæ | | | -- | | Missouri 28. Amphisbænidæ | -- | -- | | -- | Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic 29. Lepidosternidæ | -- | -- | | | Ethiopian 31. _Helodermidæ_ | | | -- | | 32. Teidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic 34. Zonuridæ | | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic, Ethiopian, | | | | | S. Europe, and N. India 35. _Chalcidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | | Nearctic 36. _Anadiadæ_ | | -- | | | 37. _Chirocolidæ_ | | -- | | | 38. _Iphisadæ_ | | -- | | | 39. _Cercosauridæ_ | | -- | | | 41. Gymnopthalmidæ | | -- | | -- | Australian, Ethiopian, | | | | | Palæarctic 45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 49. Geckotidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 50. Iguanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic | | | | | CROCODILIA. | | | | | 55. Crocodilidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian, Oriental, | | | | | N. Australian 56. Alligatoridæ | | -- | -- | | Nearctic | | | | | CHELONIA. | | | | | 57. Testudinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australian 58. Chelydidæ | | -- | | | Ethiopian, Australian 60. Cheloniidæ | | | | | Marine | | | | | AMPHIBIA. | | | | | PSEUDOPHIDIA. | | | | | 1. Ceciliadæ | | -- | -- | | Oriental, Ethiopian | | | | | URODELA. | | | | | 6. (Salamandridæ) | | -- | -- | | Nearctic, Palæarctic | | | | | ANOURA. | | | | | 7. _Rhinophrynidæ_ | | | -- | | 8. Phryniscidæ | -- | -- | -- | | Ethiopian, Australian, Java 9. _Hylaplesidæ_ | -- | -- | | -- | 10. Bufonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australia 12. Engystomidæ | -- | -- | -- | | All regions but Palæarctic 13. Bombinatoridæ | -- | -- | | | Palæarctic, New Zealand 14. _Plectromantidæ_| -- | | | | 15. Alytidæ | | -- | | | All regions but Oriental 16. Pelodryadæ | -- | -- | | | Australia 17. Hylidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Ethiopian 18. Polypedatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All the regions 19. Ranidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 20. Discoglossidæ | -- | -- | | | All regions but Nearctic 21. _Pipidæ_ | | -- | | | | | | | | FISHES. | | | | | (FRESHWATER). | | | | | ACANTHOPTERYGII. | | | | | 3. Percidæ | -- | -- | | -- | All regions but Australian 11. (Trachinidæ) | -- | | | | Australia 12. Scienidæ | (?)| -- | -- | (?)| All regions but Australian 33. Nandidæ | | -- | | | Oriental 34. _Polycentridæ_ | | -- | -- | | 38. Mugillidæ | | (?)| -- | -- | Australian, Ethiopian 52. Chromidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian, Oriental | | | | | PHYSOSTOMI. | | | | | 59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions 60. Characinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian 61. Haplochitonidæ | -- | | | | S. Australia 67. Galaxidæ | -- | | | | Tasmania and New Zealand 73. Cyprinodontidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Absent from Australia 78. Osteoglossidæ | | -- | | | All tropical regions 84. _Gymnotidæ_ | | -- | | | 85. Symbranchidæ | | -- | | | Oriental, Australian, | | | | | (? marine) | | | | | DIPNOI. | | | | | 92. Sirenoidei | | -- | | | Ethiopian, Australian | | | | | PLAGIOSTOMATA. | | | | | 112. _Trygonidæ_ | | -- | | | | | | | | INSECTS. | | | | | LEPIDOPTERA (PART). | | | | | DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES).| | | | | 1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions, and to | | | | | Canada 2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 4. Morphidæ | | -- | -- | | Australian, Oriental 5. _Brassolidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 6. Acræidæ | | -- | -- | | All tropical regions 7. _Heliconiidæ_ | | -- | -- | -- | 8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 9. Libytheidæ | | -- | | -- | Absent from Australia 10. Nemeobiidæ | | -- | -- | | Not in Australia or Nearctic | | | | | regions 11. _Eurygonidæ_ | | -- | -- | | 12. Erycinidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic 13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite | | | | | SPHINGIDEA. | | | | | 17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 18. Castniidæ | | -- | -- | -- | Australian 20. Uraniidæ | | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions 21. Stygiidæ | | -- | | | Palæarctic 22. Ægeriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Not in Australia 23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------

{91}TABLE II.

_GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL REGION._

EXPLANATION.

Names in _italics_ show the genera peculiar to the region.

Names enclosed thus (......) indicate genera which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera undoubtedly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.

_MAMMALIA._

-------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region. -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- | | | PRIMATES. | | | CEBIDÆ. | | | 1. _Cebus_ | 18 | Costa Rica to | | | Paraguay | 2. _Lagothrix_ | 5 | Upper Amazon and | | | E. Andes | 3. _Eriodes_ | 3 | East Brazil, S. of | | | Equator | 4. _Ateles_ | 14 | Almost all tropical | | | America | 5. _Mycetes_ | 10 | E. Guatemala to | | | Paraguay | 6. _Pithecia_ | 7 | Equatorial Forests | 7. _Brachiurus_ | 5 | Equatorial Forests | 8. _Nyctipithecus_ | 5 | Nicaragua to Amazonia| 9. _Saimiris_ | 3 | Costa Rica to Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 10. _Callithrix_ | 11 | Panama to Paraguay | | | | HAPALIDÆ. | | | 11. _Hapale_ | 9 | Brazil and Upper | | | Amazon | 12. _Midas_ | 24 | Equatorial America | | | to Panama | | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ. | | | 13. _Lonchorina_ | 1 | West Indian Islands | 14. _Macrophyllum_ | 1 | Brazil | 15. _Vampyrus_ }| | | 16. _Lophostoma_ }| 25 | Tropical America and | }| | Chili | 17. _Phyllostoma_ }| | | 18. Macrotus | 1 | Antilles and Mexico | California 19. _Schizostoma_ | 5 | South America | 20. _Brachyphylla_ | 1 | Antilles | 21. _Glossophaga_ | 8 | Tropical America | 22._Phyllonycteris_| 2 | Cuba | 23. _Artibeus_ | 4 |S. America & Antilles,| | | Costa Rica | 24. _Stenoderma_ | 7 | The whole region | 25. _Sturnira_ | 3 | Chili to Guatemala | 26. _Desmodus_ | 3 | Chili to Mexico | 27. _Saccopteryx_ | 1 | Ecuador | 28. _Diphylla_ | 1 | Brazil | 29. _Centurio_ | 3 | Brazil to Mexico | | | | VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | | 30. Lasiurus | 2 | Tropical America | Nearctic 31. Scotophilus | 7 | Antilles, Mexico to | Nearc., Austral., | | S. America | Orien. 32. Vespertilio | 12 | The whole region | Cosmopolite 33. Nycticejus | 3 | S. Temperate America | Nearctic, India, | | | Tropical Africa 34. _Natalus_ | 1 | S. America and | | | Antilles | 35. _Furipterus_ | 2 | S. America | 36. _Thyroptera_ | 2 | S. America | 37. _Nycticellus_ | 1 | Cuba | 38. Taphozous | 5 | S. America | Ethiopian, Oriental, | | | Austro-Malayan 39. _Diclidurus_ | 1 | Brazil | | | | NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | | 40. _Noctilio_ | 2 | Paraguay to W. Indies| 41. _Mormops_ | 1 | Antilles and Mexico | 42. _Phyllodia_ | 1 | Jamaica | 43. _Chilonycteris_| 5 | Brazil and West | | | Indies | 44. _Pteronotus_ | 1 | Trinidad | 45. Nyctinomus | 2 | La Plata to Antilles | S. Nearc., Orien., | | & Costa Rica | Madag. 46. Molossus | 16 | Paraguay and Chili | Ethiopian, S. | | to Antilles | Palæarc., Australian | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | CENTETIDÆ. | | | 47. _Solenodon_ | 2 | Cuba and Hayti | | | | SORICIDÆ. | | | (Sorex | 1 | Guatemala and Costa | All other reg. but | | Rica) | Austrl. | | | CARNIVORA. | | | FELIDÆ. | | | 48. Felis | 13 | The whole region, | All regions but | | excl. Antilles | Austral. | | | CANIDÆ. | | | 49. _Icticyon_ | 1 | Brazil | 50. _Chrysocyon_ | 1 | S. America | (Lupus | 2 | Mexico to Costa Rica)| Northern genus 51. _Lycalopex_ | 2 | S. America | 52. _Pseudalopex_ | 5 | S. America, Falkland | | | Islands, & Tierra | | | del Fuego | 53. _Thous_ | 2 | S. America to Chili | | | | MUSTELIDÆ. | | | 54. Mustela | 2 | Andes of Peru | All other reg. but | | | Austrl. 55. _Galictis_ | 2 | S. America to Chili | | | & Patagonia | 56. _Lontra_ | 3 |Central and S. America| | | to Chonos Archipelago| 57. Nutria | 1 | W. coast of America | W. coast of N. | | to Chiloe | America 58. _Pteronura_ | 1 | Surinam and Brazil | 59. Mephitis | 3 | Mexico to Sts. of | Nearctic to Canada | | Magellan | | | | PROCYONIDÆ. | | | 60. Procyon | 1 | Tropical America | Nearctic to Canada 61. _Nasua_ | 5 | Mexico to Paraguay & | | | La Plata | 62. _Cercoleptes_ | 1 | Mexico to Peru and | | | N. Brazil | 63. Bassaris | 2 | Mexico and Guatemala | California and Texas | | | URSIDÆ. | | | 64. _Tremarctos_ | 1 | Andes of Peru and | | | Chili | | | | OTARIIDÆ. | | | 65. _Otaria_ | 1 | Chili, La Plata, and | | | Patagonia | 66. Arctocephalus | 1 | Falkland Islands & | New Zealand | | Cape Horn | | | | PHOCIDÆ. | | | 67. Stenorhynchus | 1 | Falkland Islands | New Zealand 68. Lobodon | 1 | Antarctic shores | 69. Leptonyx | 1 | Antarctic shores, | S. Australia | | E. Patagonia | 70. Ommatophoca | 1 | Antarctic shores | 71. Morunga | 1 | Falkland Islands | California, S. temp. | | | zone 72. Cystophora | 1 | Antilles | N. Atlantic | | | CETACEA. | | | DELPHINIDÆ. | | | 73. _Inia_ | 1 | Upper Amazon | | | | SIRENIA. | | | MANATIDÆ. | | | 74. Manatus | 1 | Gulf of Mexico to N. | W. Africa | | Brazil, Amazon R. | | | | UNGULATA. | | | TAPIRIDÆ. | | | 75. Tapirus | 2 | Equatorial S. America| Indo-Malaya 76. _Elasmognathus_| 1 | Panama to Guatemala | | | | SUIDÆ. | | | 77. _Dicotyles_ | 2 | Mexico to Paraguay | Texas | | | CAMELIDÆ. | | | 78. _Auchenia_ | 4 | Temp. S. America, | | | from Cape Horn to | | | Andes of Peru | | | | CERVIDÆ. | | | 79. Cervus | 12 | Mexico to Patagonia | All regions but | | and Tierra del Fuego| Ethiopian and | | | Australian | | | RODENTIA. | | | MURIDÆ. | | | 80. Reithrodon | 4 | South Temp. America | United States | | to Tierra del Fuego| 81. _Acodon_ | 1 | Peru, 14,000 ft. | | | elevation | 82. _Myxomys_ | 1 | Guatemala | 83. Hesperomys | 76 | The whole region | Nearctic 84. _Holochilus_ | 4 | S. America | 85. _Oxymycterus_ | 3 | Brazil and La Plata | 86. _Drymomys_ | 1 | Peru | 87. _Neotomys_ | 2 | S. America | (Fiber | 1 | Mexico) | Nearctic genus | | | SACCOMYIDÆ. | | | 88. _Heteromys_ | 6 | Mexico, Honduras, | | | Costa Rica & Trinidad| | | | | | | SCIURIDÆ. | | | 89. Sciurus | 30 | Mexico to Paraguay | All reg. but | | | Australian | | | CHINCHILLIDÆ. | | | 90. _Chinchilla_ | 2 | Andes of Chili and | | | Peru | 91. _Lagidium_ | 3 | Chili to Ecuador | | | (11,000 to | | | 16,000 ft.) | 92. _Lagostomus_ | 1 | Uruguay to Rio Negro | | | of Patagonia | | | | OCTODONTIDÆ. | | | 93. _Habrocomus_ | 2 | Chili | 94. _Capromys_ | 3 | Cuba and Jamaica | 95. _Plagiodontia_ | 1 | Hayti | 96. _Spalacopus_ | 2 | Chili and E. of Andes| 97. _Octodon_ | 3 | Chili, Peru, and | | | Bolivia | 98. _Ctenomys_ | 6 | S. Brazil to Tierra | | | del Fuego | | | | ECHIMYIDÆ. | | | 99. _Dactylomys_ | 2 | Guiana and Brazil | 100. _Cercomys_ | 1 | Central Brazil | 101. _Lasiuromys_ | 1 | St. Paulo, Brazil | 102. _Myopotamus_ | 1 | S. half of tropical | | | S. America | 103. _Carterodon_ | 1 | Central Brazil | 104. _Mesomys_ | 1 | Upper Amazon | 105. _Echimys_ | 11 | Equatorial America | | | to Paraguay | 106. _Loncheres_ | 10 | New Granada to Brazil| | | | CERCOLABIDÆ. | | | 107. _Cercolabes_ | 12 | Mexico to Paraguay | 108. _Chætomys_ | 1 | N. Brazil | | | | CAVIIDÆ. | | | 109. _Dasyprocta_ | 9 | Paraguay to Mexico | | | and Lesser Antilles| 110. _Coelogenys_ | 2 | Guatemala to Paraguay| 111. _Hydrochoerus_| 1 | Guiana to La Plata | 112. _Cavia_ | 9 | Brazil and Peru to | | | Magellan Sts. | 113. _Kerodon_ | 6 | Brazil and Peru to | | | Magellan Sts. | 114. _Dolichotis_ | 1 | The Pampas and | | | Patagonia | | | | LEPORIDÆ. | | | 115. Lepus | 1 | Central Brazil and | All regions but | | Andes, Costa Rica | Austral. | | to Mexico | | | | EDENTATA. | | | BRADYPODIDÆ. | | | 116. _Choloepus_ | 2 | Costa Rica to Brazil | 117. _Bradypus_ | 2 | Amazon to Rio de | | | Janeiro | 118._Arctopithecus_| 8 | Costa Rica to Brazil | | | and Bolivia | | | | DASYPODIDÆ. | | | 119. _Tatusia_ | 5 | Rio Grande, Texas, | | | to Patagonia | 120. _Prionodontes_| 1 | Surinam to Paraguay | 121. _Dasypus_ | 4 | Brazil to Chili and | | | La Plata, Costa Rica?| 122. _Xenurus_ | 3 | Guiana to Paraguay, | | | Costa Rica? | 123. _Tolypeutes_ | 2 | Bolivia and La Plata | 124._Chlamydophorus_ 2 | La Plata and Bolivia | | | | MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ. | | | 125. _Myrmecophaga_| 1 | Costa Rica?, & | | | N. Braz., to Parag.| 126. _Tamandua_ | 2 | Guatemala to Paraguay| 127. _Cyclothurus_ | 2 | Honduras and Costa | | | Rica to Paraguay | | | | MARSUPIALIA. | | | DIDELPHYIDÆ. | | | 128. Didelphys | 20 | Mexico to Uruguay | Temperate N. America | | and S. Chili | 129. _Chironectes_ | 1 | Guiana and Brazil, | | | Costa Rica | 130. _Hyracodon_ | 1 | Ecuador |

_BIRDS._

PASSERES. | | | TURDIDÆ. | | | 1. Turdus | 32 | The whole reg. to | Almost cosmopolite | | Tierra del Fuego | 2._Rhodinocichla_| 1 | Mexico to Venezuela | 3. _Melanoptila_ | 1 | Honduras | 4. _Catharus_ | 10 | Mexico to Ecuador | | | and Columbia | 5. _Margarops_ | 4 | Hayti and Lesser | | | Antilles | 6. Mimus | 16 | Nearly the whole | Nearctic | | region | 7. _Melanotis_ | 2 | Mexico and Guatemala | 8. Galeoscoptes | 1 | Mexico to Panama | Nearctic 9. _Mimocichla_ | 4 | Cuba to Porto Rico | (Harporhynchus | 3 | Mexico) | Nearctic genus 10._Cinclocerthia_| 3 | Lesser Antilles | 11._Ramphocinclus_| 1 | Martinique and | | | St. Lucia | | | | SYLVIIDÆ. | | | 12. _Myiadestes_ | 8 |Mexico and Antilles | N. & W. of N. America | | to Peru and Bolivia | 13. _Cichlopsis_ | 1 | Brazil | (Sialia | 2 | Mexico and Guatemala)| United States & | | | Canada 14. Regulus | 2 | Mexico and Guatemala | Nearctic, Palæarctic 15. Polioptila | 6 | Mexico and Cuba to | Cen. and S. U. States | | Bolivia and La Plata| | | | CINCLIDÆ. | | | 16. Cinclus | 4 | Mexico to Venezuela | Nearctic, Palæarctic | | and Peru | | | | TROGLODYTIDÆ. | | | 17. Troglodytes | 5 | Mexico to Straits of | Nearctic, Palæarctic | | Magellan | 18. Thryophilus | 13 | Mexico to Central | N.-W. America | | Brazil | 19. Thryothorus | 12 | Mexico to S. Brazil | N. America 20. Cistothorus | 3 | Mexico to Chili and | N. America | | Patagonia | 21. _Donacobius_ | 2 | Columbia to Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 22._Campylorhynchus_ 18 | Mexico to Brazil and | New Mexico | | Bolivia | 23. _Cyphorhinus_ | 5 | Costa Rica to Peru | 24._Microcerculus_| 5 | Mexico to Peru | 25. _Henicorhina_ | 2 | Mexico to Peru | (Salpinctes | 1 | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus (Catherpes | 1 | Mexico) | Gila and Colorado 26. _Cinnicerthia_| 2 | Columbia and Ecuador | 27. _Uropsila_ | 1 | Mexico | | | | CERTHIIDÆ. | | | (Certhia | 1 | Mexico and Guatemala)| North temperate genus | | | SITTIDÆ. | | | (Sitta | 2 | Mexico) | North temperate genus | | | PARIDÆ. | | | (Parus | 1 | Mexico) | Nearc., Palæarc., | | | Orient. (Lophophanes | 2 | Mexico) | North temperate genus (Psaltriparus | 1 | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic | | | CORVIDÆ. | | | 28. Cyanocitta | 16 | Mexico to Peru and |Nearctic | | Bolivia | 29. _Cyanocorax_ | 12 | Mexico to Paraguay, | | | Jamaica | 30. _Calocitta_ | 2 | Mexico to Guatemala | 31. _Psilorhinus_ | 3 | Mexico to Costa Rica | 32. Corvus | 4 | Mexico to Guatemala, | Cosmop., excl. | | Cuba to Porto Rico | S. Amer. | | | COEREBIDÆ. | | | 33. _Diglossa_ | 14 | Mexico to Guiana, | | | Peru, and Bolivia | 34. _Diglossopis_ | 1 | Venezuela to Ecuador | 35. _Oreomanes_ | 1 | Ecuador | 36. _Conirostrum_ | 6 | Columbia to Bolivia | 37. _Hemidacnis_ | 1 | Columbia and Upper | | | Amazon | 38. _Dacnis_ | 13 | Costa Rica to Guiana | | | & S. Brazil | 39. _Certhidea_ | 2 | Galapagos Islands | 40. _Chlorophanes_| 2 | Brazil to Central | | | America, Cuba | 41. _Coereba_ | 4 | Mexico and Cuba to | | | Guiana and Brazil | 42. _Certhiola_ | 10 | Antilles to Ecuador | Florida | | and Brazil | 43. _Glossiptila_ | 1 | Jamaica | | | | MNIOTILTIDÆ. | | | 44. Siurus | 3 | Mexico to Columbia, | S. & E. States & | | Antilles | Canada 45. Mniotilta | 1 | Columbia to Mexico | Eastern United States | | and Antilles | 46. Parula | 5 | Brazil and Ecuador | Eastern U. S. & | | to Mexico | Canada 47. Protonotaria | 1 | Venezuela to Central | Florida to Ohio | | America and W. India| 48. Helminthophaga| 5 | Mexico to Columbia | North America 49. Helmintherus | 1 | Mexico to Veragua | U. States to Canada 50. Perissoglossa | 1 | Cuba, Hayti, and | E. United States | | Porto Rico | 51. Dendroeca | 25 | Mexico & W. Indies to| All N. America | | Ecuador and Chili | 52. _Oporornis_ | 1 | Guatemala to Panama | 53. Geothlypis | 10 | Brazil to Mexico | All N. America 54. Setophaga | 12 | Mexico to Brazil | E. U. States & Canada 55. _Cardellina_ | 1 | Guatemala and Mexico | 56. _Ergaticus_ | 2 | Guatemala and Mexico | 57. Myiodioctes | 3 | Columbia to Mexico | U. States and Canada 58. _Basileuterus_| 22 | Mexico to Brazil | 59. Icteria | 1 | Costa Rica to Mexico | E. and Central United | | | States to Canada 60. _Granatellus_ | 3 | Amazon to Mexico | 61. _Teretristis_ | 2 | Cuba | | | | VIREONIDÆ. | | | 62. Vireosylvia | 9 | Venezuela to Mexico | All N. America | | & Antilles | 63. Vireo | 10 | Mexico to Costa Rica | All United States | | & Antilles | 64. _Neochloe_ | 1 | Mexico | 65. _Hylophilus_ | 16 | Brazil to Mexico | 66. _Laletes_ | 1 | Jamaica | 67._Phoenicomanes_| 1 | Jamaica | 68. _Vireolanius_ | 4 | Mexico to Amazon | 69. _Cychloris_ | 9 | Mexico to Paraguay | | | | AMPELIDÆ. | | | 70. _Dulus_ | 2 | Hayti | (Ampelis | 1 | Mexico and Guatemala)| N. temperate genus 71. _Ptilogonys_ | 2 | Mexico to Costa Rica | (Phainopepla | 1 | Mexico) | Gila and Lower | | | Colorado | | | HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | 72. Hirundo | 9 | Mexico and Antilles | Almost cosmopolite | | to Chili and | | | La Plata | 73. Petrochelidon | 3 | Mexico and Antilles | Nearctic | | to Paraguay | 74. _Atticora_ | 6 | Guatemala to Peru | | | and Brazil | 75. Cotyle | 2 | Central America to | All regions but | | La Plata | Austral. 76. Stelgidopteryx| 4 | Mexico to Brazil | S. United States 77. Progne | 4 | The whole region | Nearctic | | | ICTERIDÆ. | | | 78. _Clypeicterus_| 1 | Upper Amazon | 79. _Ostinops_ | 8 | Mexico to Guiana, | | | Brazil, and Bolivia| 80. _Cassiculus_ | 1 | Mexico | 81. _Cassicus_ | 10 | Mexico to S. Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 82. Icterus | 33 | Mexico to Antilles | All U. States & | | and La Plata | Canada 83. Dolichonyx | 1 | Mexico to Paraguay, | E. U. States and | | Galapagos | Canada 84. Molothrus | 8 | Mexico to La Plata | All U. States & | | and Bolivia | Canada 85. Agelæus | 6 | Mexico to Paraguay, | All U. States & | | Cuba, Porto Rico | Canada (Xanthocephalus| 1 | Mexico) | Nearctic genus 86. _Xanthosomus_ | 4 | Venezuela to La Plata| 87._Amblyrhamphus_| 1 | Bolivia and La Plata | 88._Gymnomystax_ | 1 | Guiana and Amazonia | 89._Pseudoleistes_| 2 | Brazil and La Plata | 90. _Leistes_ | 3 | Venezuela to Paraguay| | | & Bolivia | 91. Sturnella | 4 | Cuba and Mexico to | All U. States & | | Chili, Falkland | Canada | | Islands & Tierra | | | del Fuego | 92. _Curoeus_ | 1 | Chili to Magellan | | | Straits | 93. _Nesopsar_ | 1 | Jamaica | (Scolecophagus| 1 | Mexico, Cuba ?) | Nearctic genus 94. _Lampropsar_ | 4 | Guatemala to Peru | | | and Guiana | 95. Quiscalus | 9 | Mexico to Antilles & | S. and E. United | | Venezuela | States to Labrador 96. _Hypopyrrhus_ | 1 | Columbia | 97. _Aphobus_ | 1 | Brazil Paraguay and | | | Bolivia | 98. _Cassidix_ | 1 | Mexico to Brazil and | | | Guiana | | | | TANAGRIDÆ. | | | 99. _Procnias_ | 2 | Brazil and Peru to | | | Columbia | 100. _Chlorophonia_| 7 | Brazil to Mexico | 101. _Euphonia_ | 32 | Mexico and W. Indies | | | to Brazil and Bolivia| | | | 102. _Tanagrella_ | 4 | Columbia to Guiana | | | and Brazil | 103. _Chlorochrysa_| 2 | Columbia to Peru | 104. _Pipridea_ | 2 | Venezuela to Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 105. _Diva_ | 1 | Columbia and Ecuador | 106. _Calliste_ | 56 | Guatemala to Bolivia | | | & Paraguay | 107. _Iridornis_ | 4 | Columbia to Peru | 108._Poecilothraupis_ 4 |Columbia to Bolivia | 109._Stephanophorus_ 1 | Brazil and La Plata | 110. _Buthraupis_ | 5 | Veragua to Bolivia | 111. _Compsocoma_ | 5 | Columbia to Bolivia | 112. _Dubusia_ | 2 | Columbia and Ecuador | 113. _Tanagra_ | 12 | Mexico to Bolivia and| | | La Plata | 114. _Spindalis_ | 5 | Porto Rico to Bahamas| 115._Rhamphocoelus_| 11 | Guatemala to Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 116._Phlogothraupis_ 1 | Mexico to Costa Rica | 117. _Euchætes_ | 1 | Eastern Ecuador | 118. _Pyranga_ | 11 | Mexico to Bolivia and| U. States and Canada | | Paraguay | 119. _Orthogonys_ | 2 | Brazil and Guiana | 120. _Lamprotes_ | 2 | Brazil and Columbia | 121._Phænicothraupis_ 7 | Mexico to Paraguay | | | and Bolivia | 122. _Lanio_ | 4 | Mexico to Bolivia | 123. _Eucometis_ | 5 | Costa Rica to Bolivia| 124._Trichothraupis_ 1 | S. Brazil and Paraguay 125. _Creurgops_ | 1 | West Ecuador | 126. _Tachyphonus_ | 11 | Nicaragua to Paraguay| 127. _Cypsnagra_ | 1 | S. Brazil and Bolivia| 128. _Nemosia_ | 11 |Venezuela, W. Ecuador,| | | to Brazil and | | | Bolivia | 129. _Pyrrhocoma_ | 1 | S. Brazil and Paraguay 130._Chlorospingus_| 18 | Mexico to Peru and | | | Bolivia | 131. _Buarremon_ | 20 | Mexico to S. Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 132._Phænicophilus_| 1 | Hayti | 133. _Arremon_ | 12 | Mexico to S. Brazil | 134. _Oreothraupis_| 1 | East Ecuador | 135. _Cissopis_ | 3 | Columbia to Peru and | | | Bolivia | 136. _Lamprospiza_ | 1 | Guiana | 137. _Psittospiza_ | 2 | Columbia to Peru | 138. _Saltator_ | 17 | Mexico to La Plata | | | and Bolivia | 139. _Diucopis_ | 2 | Upper Amazon and | | | S. Brazil | 140. _Orchesticus_ | 3 | Tropical S. America | 141. _Pitylus_ | 8 | Mexico to Brazil and | | | Ecuador | | | | FRINGILLIDÆ. | | | 142. Chrysomitris | 12 | Mexico to Brazil, | Nearctic, Palæarctic | | Chili and Patagonia| 143. _Sycalis_ | 9 | Mexico to Chili and | | | La Plata, Jamaica | 144. Coccothraustes| 2 | Mexico and Guatemala | Nearctic, Palæarctic 145. _Geospiza_ | 7 | Galapagos Islands | 146. _Camarhynchus_| 5 | Galapagos Islands | 147. _Cactornis_ | 4 | Galapagos Islands | 148. _Phrygilus_ | 10 | Columbia to Fuegia and | | Falkland Islands | 149. _Xenospingus_ | 1 | Peru | 150. _Diuca_ | 3 | Peru, Chili, and | | | Patagonia | 151. _Emberizoides_| 3 | Venezuela to Paraguay| 152. _Donacospiza_ | 1 |S. Brazil and La Plata| 153. _Chamæospiza_ | 1 | Mexico | 154. Embernagra | 9 | Mexico to La Plata | Rocky Mountains 155. _Hæmophila_ | 6 | Mexico to Costa Rica | 156. Atlapetes | 1 | Mexico | Nearctic? 157. _Pyrgisoma_ | 5 | Mexico to Costa Rica | 158. Pipilo | 4 | Mexico to Guatemala | All Nearctic region 159. Junco | 2 | Mexico and Guatemala | United States 160. Zonotrichia | 5 | Mexico to Straits of | Nearctic | | Magellan | (Melospiza | 2 | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus (Spizella | 3 | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus (Passerculus | 1 | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus (Pooecetes | 1 | Mexico) | Nearctic genus 161. Ammodramus | 1 | Guatemala | Nearctic 162. Coturniculus | 4 | Mexico to Bolivia, | E. & N. of N. America | | Jamaica | 163. Peucæa | 4 | Mexico | S. E. States & | | | California 164. _Tiaris_ | 1 | Brazil | 165. _Volatinia_ | 1 | Mexico to Brazil | (Cyanospiza | 4 | Mexico and Central | Nearctic | | America) | 166. _Paroaria_ | 6 | Trop. S. America, | | | E. of Andes | 167._Coryphospingus_ 4 | Tropical S. America | 168._Porphyrospiza_| 1 | Brazil | 169. _Haplospiza_ | 2 | Mexico and Brazil | 170. _Phonipara_ | 5 | Mexico to Columbia, | | | Greater Antilles | 171. Poospiza | 12 | Mexico to Bolivia and| W. & Central | | La Plata | U. States 172. _Spodiornis_ | 1 | Ecuador | (Carpodacus | 2 | Mexico) | Nearctic, Palæarctic 173. Cardinalis | 2 | Mexico to Venezuela | S. & S. Cent. | | | U. States 174. Guiraca | 6 | Mexico to Brazil and | Southern U. States | | La Plata | 175. _Amaurospiza_ | 2 | Costa Rica and Brazil| 176. Hedymeles | 2 | Mexico to Columbia | Nearctic 177. _Pheucticus_ | 5 | Mexico to Peru and | | | Bolivia | 178. _Oryzoborus_ | 6 | Mexico to Ecuador and| | | S. Brazil | 179. _Melopyrrha_ | 1 | Cuba | 180. _Loxigilla_ | 4 | Antilles | 181. _Spermophila_ | 44 | Mexico to Bolivia and| Texas | | Uruguay | 182. _Catamenia_ | 4 | Columbia to Bolivia | 183. _Neorhynchus_ | 1 | W. Peru | 184._Catamblyrhynchus_ 1 | Columbia | (Loxia | 1 | Mexico) | North temperate genus (Calamospiza | 1 | Mexico) | Arizona and Texas (Chondestes | 1 | Mexico) | W. and Cent. | | | U. States (Euspiza | 1 | Mexico to Columbia) | S.-E. U. States, | | | Palæarc. 185. _Gubernatrix_ | 1 | Paraguay and La Plata| (Plectrophanes| 1 | Mexico) | N. temp. & Arctic | | | genus | | | ALAUDIDÆ. | | | 186. Otocorys | 1 | Mexico, Andes of | Nearc. & Palæarc. | | Columbia | genus | | | MOTACILLIDÆ. | | | 187. Anthus | 4 | Mexico to Patagonia | Cosmopolite | | and Falkland Islands| | | | OXYRHAMPHIDÆ. | | | 187a. _Oxyrhamphus_| 2 | Brazil to Costa Rica | | | | TYRANNIDÆ. | | | 188. _Conophaga_ | 11 | Columbia to Bolivia | | | and Brazil | 189. _Corythopis_ | 2 | Brazil and Guiana | 190. _Agriornis_ | 5 | Ecuador, Peru, and | | | Chili | 191. _Myiotheretes_| 3 | Columbia to Ecuador, | | | Patagonia | 192. _Tænioptepa_ | 8 | S. Brazil and Bolivia| | | to Patago. | 193. _Ochthodioeta_| 1 | Columbian Andes | 194. _Ochthæca_ | 17 | Andes, Bolivia to | | | Columbia and | | | Venezuela | 195. Sayornis | 4 | Mexico to Ecuador | E. United Sts. to | | | Canada 196. _Fluvicola_ | 4 | Guiana & W. Ecuador | | | to Brazil, and | | | Bolivia | 197. _Arundinicola_| 1 | Tropical S. America | 198. _Alectorurus_ | 2 |S. Brazil and La Plata| 199. _Cybernetes_ | 1 | Brazil | 200. _Sysopygis_ | 1 |S. Brazil and La Plata| 201. _Cnipolegus_ | 9 | Amazonia to Patagonia| 202. _Lichenops_ | 1 | Brazil and La Plata | 203. _Muscipipra_ | 1 | S. Brazil | 204. _Copurus_ | 3 | Costa Rica to | | | S. Brazil | 205. _Machetornis_ | 1 | Venezuela to Brazil | 206._Muscisaxicola_| 11 | Andes of Ecuador to | | | Chili and Patagonia| 207. _Centrites_ | 2 | Bolivia to Patagonia | 208. _Muscigralla_ | 1 | W. Ecuador | 209._Platyrhynchus_| 7 | Mexico to Brazil | 210. _Todirostrum_ | 11 | Tropical N. and | | | S. America | 211. _Oncosotma_ | 2 | Tropical N. America | 212. _Euscarthmus_ | 12 | Costa Rica to W. | | | Ecuador, Brazil, | | | and Bolivia | 213. _Orchilus_ | 2 | Costa Rica to Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 214. _Colopterus_ | 2 | Veragua to Columbia | | | and Guiana | 215. _Hemitriccus_ | 1 | Brazil | 216._Phylloscartes_| 1 | Columbia to Brazil | 217. _Hapalocercus_| 3 | Brazil to Chili and | | | La Plata | 218. _Habrura_ | 1 | Uruguay | 219._Pogonotriccus_| 2 | Brazil and Columbia | 220. _Leptotriccus_| 2 | Brazil and Veragua | 221. _Stigmatura_ | 2 | Upper Amazon to | | | La Plata | 222. _Serphophaga_ | 7 | Columbia to Chili and| | | La Plata | 223. _Anæretes_ | 4 | Columbia to Chili and| | | La Plata, Magell. | | | Sts. & Juan Fernand.| 224. _Cyanotis_ | 1 | W. Peru to La Plata | 225. _Mionectes_ | 4 | Mexico to Brazil and | | | Bolivia | 226. _Leptopogon_ | 6 | Mexico to Peru and | | | Brazil | 227. _Capsiempis_ | 1 | Chiriqui to Brazil | 228. _Phyllomyias_ | 5 | Columbia to Brazil | 229. _Ornithion_ | 4 | Mexico to Brazil | 230. _Tyrannulus_ | 3 | Guatemala to Amazonia| 231. _Tyranniscus_ | 9 | Guatemala to E. Peru | 232. _Elainea_ | 18 | Mexico to Tierra del | | | Fuego, Antilles | 233. _Empidagra_ | 1 | Bolivia and La Plata | 234. _Legatus_ | 2 | Mexico to Brazil | 235. _Sublegatus_ | 2 | Venezuela and Lower | | | Amazon | 236. _Myiozetetes_ | 8 | Mexico to W. Peru and| | | Brazil | 237._Rhynchocyclus_| 10 | Mexico to W. Ecuador | | | & Brazil | 238. _Conopias_ | 3 | Venezuela to Peru and| | | Brazil | 239. _Pitangus_ | 7 | Mexico to La Plata, | | | Antilles | 240. _Sirystes_ | 2 | Panama to Brazil | 241. _Myiodynastes_| 6 | Mexico to Bolivia and| | | Paraguay | 242. _Megarhynchus_| 1 | Mexico to Brazil | 243. _Muscivora_ | 5 | Mexico to W. Ecuador | | | & Brazil | 244. _Hirundinea_ | 3 | Columbia & Guiana to | | | Paraguay | 245. _Cnipodectes_ | 1 | Panama to W. Ecuador | | | & Amazon | 246. _Myiobius_ | 13 | Mexico to W. Peru, | | | Bolivia, and | | | La Plata | 247. _Pyrocephalus_| 3 | Tropical N. and S. | Gila and Rio Grande | | America and | | | Galapagos Islands | 248. _Empidochanes_| 4 | Venezuela to | | | S. Brazil. | 249. _Mitrephorus_ | 2 | Mexico to Costa Rica | 250. Empidonax | 12 | Mexico to Columbia & | All N. America | | Ecuador | 251. Contopus | 10 | Mexico to Amazonia, | N. & E. of Rocky | | Antilles | Mtns. 252. _Myiochanes_ | 1 | Amazonia and Brazil | 253. Myiarchus | 12 | Mexico to W. Ecuador | East and West Coasts | | & Brazil, Galapagos| to Canada | | and Antilles | 254. _Blacicus_ | 2 | Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica | (Empidias | 1 | Mexico) | Eastern United States 255. _Empidonomus_ | 1 | Guiana and Brazil | 256. Tyrannus | 11 | All tropical | All U. States to | | sub-regions | Canada 257. _Milvulus_ | 2 | Tropical N. and S. | Texas | | America | | | | PIPRIDÆ. | | | 258. _Piprites_ | 4 | Costa Rica to Brazil | 259. _Masius_ | 2 | Columbia and Ecuador | 260. _Chloropipo_ | 1 | Columbia | 261. _Xenopipo_ | 1 | Guiana and Columbia | 262. _Pipra_ | 19 |Trop. N. and S. America 263. _Neopipo_ | 1 | Upper Amazon | 264._Machæropterus_| 4 | Columbia to Brazil | 265. _Ilicura_ | 1 | Brazil | 266. _Chiroxiphia_ | 5 | Guatemala to Brazil | 267. _Metopia_ | 1 | Brazil | 268. _Metopothrix_ | 1 | Upper Amazon | 269._Chiromachæris_| 6 | Mexico to Ecuador and| | | Brazil | 270. _Hetoropelma_ | 10 | Mexico to Guiana and | | | Brazil | 271. _Heterocercus_| 2 | Guiana and Upper | | | Amazon | 272. _Schiffornis_ | 2 |Upper Amazon and Brazil | | | COTINGIDÆ. | | | 273. _Tityra_ | 6 | Tropical N. and S. | | | America | 274. _Hadrostomus_ | 5 | Mexico to W. Ecuador | | | & Brazil, Jamaica | 275. _Pachyhamphus_| 11 | Mexico to W. Ecuador | | | & Brazil | 276. _Lathria_ | 5 | Mexico to Brazil | 277. _Aulia_ | 3 | Veragua to Brazil | 278. _Lipaugus_ | 3 | Guatemala to Brazil | | | and Guiana | 279. _Ptilochloris_| 2 | Brazil | 280. _Attila_ | 8 | Costa Rica to Brazil | | | and Guiana | 281. _Casiornis_ | 2 | S. Brazil to Paraguay| 282. _Rupicola_ | 3 | Guiana to W. Ecuador | | | & Bolivia | 283._Phoenicocercus_ 2 | Guiana and Amazonia | 284. _Tijuca_ | 1 | Brazil | 285. _Phibalura_ | 1 | Brazil | 286. _Pipreola_ | 7 | Venezuela to Ecuador | | | and Peru | 287. _Ampelio_ | 4 | Columbia to Peru and | | | Brazil | 288. _Carpodectes_ | 1 | Nicaragua and Costa | | | Rica | 289. _Heliochæra_ | 2 | Columbia to Peru and | | | Bolivia | 290. _Cotinga_ | 6 | Guatemala to Peru and| | | Brazil | 291. _Xipholena_ | 3 | Guiana to Brazil | 292. _Iodopleura_ | 3 | Guiana to Brazil | 293. _Calyptura_ | 1 | Brazil | 294. _Querula_ | 1 | Panama to Amazonia | 295. _Hæmatoderus_ | 1 |Guiana and Lower Amazon 296._Chasmorhynchus_ 4 | Costa Rica to Guiana | | | and Brazil | 297._Gymnocephalus_| 1 | Guiana and Rio Negro | 298. _Gymnoderus_ | 1 |Guiana and Upper Amazon 299. _Pyroderus_ | 3 | Venezuela to Brazil | 300._Cephalopterus_| 3 | Costa Rica to W. | | | Ecuador & Upr. Amazon| | | | PHYTOTOMIDÆ. | | | 301. _Phytotoma_ | 3 | Bolivia, Chili, and | | | La Plata | | | | DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ. | | | 302. _Geobates_ | 1 | South Brazil | 303. _Geositta_ | 6 | Peru to Chili and | | | Patagonia | 304. _Furnarius_ | 9 | Guiana & W. Ecuador | | | to La Plata | 305. _Clibanornis_ | 1 | S. Brazil | 306. _Upucerthia_ | 4 | Andes of Ecuador to | | | Chili and Patagonia| 307. _Cinclodes_ | 5 | Ecuador to Chili, | | | Patagonia and | | | Tierra del Fuego | 308. _Henicornis_ | 2 | Patagonia | 309. _Lochmias_ | 2 | Venezuela and Brazil | 310. _Sclerurus_ | 6 | Mexico to Brazil | 311. _Oxyurus_ | 2 | Chili to Tierra del | | | Fuego, and | | | Masafuera Islands | 312. _Sylviortho- | 1 | Chili | rhynchus_ | 1 | Chili | 313. _Phlæocryptes_| 1 | W. Peru to La Plata | 314._Leptasthenura_| 5 | Andes of Ecuador to | | | Brazil and Patagonia| 315. _Synallaxis_ | 55 | The whole region | | | (excl. Antilles) | 316. _Coryphistera_| 1 | La Plata | 317. _Anumbius_ | 1 | Paraguay and La Plata| 318. _Limnornis_ | 1 | Uruguay and La Plata | 319._Placellodomus_| 4 | Venezuela to Peru and| | | La Plata | 320. _Thripophaga_ | 3 | Brazil and Columbia | 321._Pseudocolaptes_ 1 | Columbia to Peru | 322. _Homorus_ | 3 | Brazil, Bolivia, and | | | La Plata | 323. _Thripadectes_| 1 | Columbia | 324. _Ancistrops_ | 1 | Upper Amazon | 325. _Automolus_ | 9 | Mexico to Amazonia | 326. _Philydor_ | 14 |Tropical South America| | | | 327. _Heliobletus_ | 1 | Brazil | 328. _Anabatoides_ | 1 | Brazil | 329. _Anabazenops_ | 5 | Mexico to Brazil | 330. _Xenops_ | 3 | Trop. North and South| | | America | 331. _Sittasomus_ | 3 | Mexico to Ecuador and| | | Brazil | 332. _Margarornis_ | 4 | Costa Rica to Peru | | | and Bolivia | 333._Glyphorhynchus_ 1 | Trop. North and South| | | America | 334. _Pygarrhicus_ | 1 | Chili | 335. _Dendrocincla_| 10 | Mexico to Venezuela | | | and Brazil | 336._Dendrocolaptes_ 7 | Guatemala to Peru and| | | Brazil | 337. _Nasica_ | 1 | Guiana | 338. _Drymornis_ | 1 | La Plata | 339._Xiphocolaptes_| 5 | Mexico to Bolivia and| | | Paraguay | 340._Dendrexetastes_ 2 | Guiana | 341. _Dendrornis_ | 14 | Mexico, W. Ecuador | | | and Brazil | 342. _Dendroplex_ | 2 | Columbia & Venezuela | | | to Brazil | 343. _Picolaptes_ | 14 | Mexico to Bolivia and| | | La Plata | 344._Xiphorhynchus_| 4 | Veragua to Brazil | | | | FORMICARIIDÆ. | | | 345. _Cymbilanius_ | 1 | Amazonia and Guiana | 346. _Batara_ | 1 | S. Brazil | 347. _Thamnophilus_| 47 | Trop. North and South| | | America | 348. _Biatas_ | 1 | Brazil | 349. _Thamnistes_ | 2 | Central America and | | | Ecuador | 350. _Pygoptila_ | 2 | Amazonia | 351. _Neoctantes_ | 1 | Amazonia | 352. _Clytoctantes_| 1 | Eastern Ecuador | 353. _Dysithamnus_ | 12 | Mexico to Bolivia and| | | Brazil | 354. _Thamnomanes_ | 2 | Ecuador, Guiana, and | | | Brazil | 355._Herpsilochmus_| 4 | Venezuela to Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 356. _Myrmotherula_| 21 | Tropical S. America | 357. _Formicivora_ | 14 | Trop. North and South| | | America | 358. _Terenura_ | 3 | Veragua to W. Ecuador| | | & Brazil | 359._Psilorhamphus_| 1 | Central Brazil | 360. _Microbates_ | 1 | Cayenne | 361. _Rhamphocænus_| 4 | Guatemala to Brazil | 362. _Cercomacra_ | 9 | Cen. America to W. | | | Equador & S. Brazil| 363. _Pyriglena_ | 4 | Ecuador to Peru and | | | Brazil | 364. _Gymnocichla_ | 2 | Honduras to Panama | 365. _Percnostola_ | 3 |Guiana and Upper Amazon 366. _Heterocnemis_| 3 |Guiana and Upper Amazon 367. _Myrmeciza_ | 11 |Veragua to W. Ecuador,| | | Bolivia, and Brazil| 368. _Hypocnemis_ | 15 | Costa Rica to W. | | | Ecuador & Brazil | 369. _Pithys_ | 5 | Nicaragua to Amazonia| 370. _Rhopoterpe_ | 1 | Guiana | 371. _Phlogopsis_ | 4 | Nicaragua to Guiana | | | and Bolivia | 372. _Formicarius_ | 9 | Mexico to Brazil and | | | Bolivia | 373. _Pittasoma_ | 1 | Panama and Veragua | 374. _Chamæza_ | 4 | Columbia to Brazil | 375. _Grallaria_ | 20 | Mexico to W. Ecuador | | | & Brazil | 376. _Grallaricula_| 5 | Costa Rica to Ecuador| | | | PTEROPTOCHIDÆ. | | | 377. _Scytalopus_ | 8 | Columbia & Brazil to | | | Chili and Tierra | | | del Fuego | 378. _Merulaxis_ | 1 | Central Brazil | 379. _Rhinocrypta_ | 2 | La Plata and | | | Patagonia | 380. _Liosceles_ | 1 | Madeira Valley | 381. _Pteroptochus_| 2 | Chili and Chiloe | 382. _Hylactes_ | 3 | Chili | 383. _Acropternis_ | 1 | Columbia and Ecuador | 384. _Triptorhinus_| 1 | Chili | | | | PICARIÆ. | | | PICIDÆ. | | | 385. _Picumnus_ | 14 | Honduras to Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 386. Picus | 6 | Mexico, Chili, La | All reg. but Austral. | | Plata, and S. | & Ethiopian | | Patagonia | (Sphyrapicus | 1 | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus 387. Campephilus | 12 | Mexico to Patagonia, | Nearctic | | Cuba | 388. Dryocopus | 4 | Mexico to S. Brazil | Palæarctic 389. _Celeus_ | 15 | Mexico and S. Brazil | 390. _Nesoceleus_ | 1 | Cuba | 391. _Chrysoptilus_| 6 | Tropical S. America | 392. Centurus | 10 | Mexico to Venezuela, | Nearctic | | Antilles | 393. _Chloronerpes_| 35 | Tropical America, | | | Hayti | 394._Xiphidiopicus_| 1 | Cuba | 395. Melanerpes | 9 | Mexico to Brazil, | Nearctic | | Porto Rico | 396. _Leuconerpes_ | 1 | Brazil, Bolivia | 397. Colaptes | 7 | Open country of trop.| Nearctic | | America, Greater | | | Antilles | 398. _Hypoxanthus_ | 1 | Venezuela and Ecuador| | | | MEGALÆMIDÆ. | | | 399. _Capito_ | 10 | Costa Rica to Peru | | | and Guiana | 400. _Tetragonops_ | 2 | Costa Rica and | | | Ecuador | | | | RHAMPHASTIDÆ. | | | 401. _Rhamphastos_ | 12 | All tropical America | 402. _Pteroglossus_| 16 | Mexico to Guiana and | | | Brazil | 403. _Selenidera_ | 7 | Veragua to Brazil | 404. _Andigena_ | 6 |Columbia to W. Ecuador, | | Bolivia and Brazil | 405._Aulacorhamphus_ 10 | Mexico to Venezuela | | | and Bolivia | | | | CUCULIDÆ. | | | 406. _Crotophaga_ | 3 | Tropical America and | Nearctic to | | Antilles | Pennsylvania 407. _Guira_ | 1 | Brazil and Paraguay | 408. _Neomorphus_ | 4 | Nicaragua to Brazil | | | and Upper Amazon | 409. _Geococcyx_ | 1 | Guatemala | Texas to Calfornia 410. _Dromococcyx_ | 2 | Mexico to Brazil | 411. _Diplopterus_ | 1 | Mexico to Ecuador and| | | Brazil | 412. _Saurothera_ | 4 | Greater Antilles | 413. _Hyetornis_ | 2 | Jamaica and Hayti | 414. _Piaya_ | 3 | Mexico to W. Ecuador | | | & Brazil | 415. _Morococcyx_ | 1 | Mexico to Costa Rica | 416. Coccygus | 10 | Tropical America and | Nearctic | | Antilles, Cocos | | | Islands | | | | BUCCONIDÆ. | | | 417. _Bucco_ | 21 | Guatemala to Guiana, | | | Paraguay and Bolivia| 418. _Malacoptila_ | 10 | Guatemala to Guiana, | | | W. Ecuador and | | | Bolivia | 419. _Nonnula_ | 5 | Columbia and Amazonia| 420. _Monasa_ | 7 | Costa Rica to Brazil | 421. _Chelidoptera_| 2 | Columbia to Guiana | | | and Brazil | GALBRILIDÆ. | | | 422. _Galbula_ | 9 | Guatemala to Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 423. _Urogalba_ | 2 |Guiana to Lower Amazon| | | | 424. _Brachygalba_ | 4 | Columbia to Brazil | | | and Bolivia | 425._Jacamaralcyon_| 1 | Brazil | 426. _Jacamerops_ | 2 | Columbia to Amazonia | 427._Galbalcyrhynchus_ 1 | Upper Amazon | | | | TODIDÆ. | | | 428. _Todus_ | 5 | Greater Antilles | | | | MOMOTIDÆ. | | | 429. _Momotus_ | 10 | Mexico to W. Ecuador,| | | Brazil and Bolivia | 430. _Urospatha_ | 1 |Costa Rica to Columbia| 431._Baryphthengus_| 1 | Brazil and Paraguay | 432. _Hylomanes_ | 2 | Mexico and Guatemala | 433._Prionirhynchus_ 2 | Guatemala to Upper | | | Amazon | 434. _Eumomota_ | 1 | Honduras to Chiriqui | | | | TROGONIDÆ. | | | 435. _Prionoteles_ | 1 | Cuba | 436. _Temnotrogon_ | 1 | Hayti | 437. _Trogon_ | 22 | Mexico to W. Ecuador | | | & Parag. | 438. _Euptilotis_ | 1 | Mexico | 439. _Pharomacrus_ | 5 | Guatemala to Upper | | | Amazon and Bolivia | | | | ALCEDINIDÆ. | | | 440. Ceryle | 8 | Mexico to Brazil, | Nearc., S. Palæarc., | | Patagonia and Chili| Orien. | | | STEATORNITHIDÆ. | | | 441. _Steatornis_ | 1 | Columb., Venezuela, &| | | Trinidad | | | | CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | 442. _Nyctibius_ | 6 | Brazil to Guatemala | | | & Jamaica | 443. _Hydropsalis_ | 8 | Columbia & Guiana to | | | La Plata | 444. Antrostomus | 10 | Mexico and Cuba to | All U. States to | | Bolivia and La Plata| Canada 445. _Stenopsis_ | 4 |Martinique to Columb.,| | | W. Peru and Chili | 446. _Siphonorhis_ | 1 | Jamaica | 447._Heleothreptus_| 1 | Central Brazil | 448. _Nyctidromus_ | 1 | Central America to | | | S. Brazil | 449. _Podager_ | 1 | Tropical S. America | 450. _Lurocalis_ | 2 | Guiana to Brazil | 451. Chordeiles | 7 | Mexico to W. Peru and| All U. States to | | Brazil Jamaica and | Canada | | Porto Rico | 452. _Nyctiprogne_ | 1 | Amazonia | | | | CYPSELIDÆ. | | | 453. Cypselus | 3 | Antilles to Guiana | The Eastern | | and Bolivia | Hemisphere 454. _Panyptila_ | 3 | Guatemala and Guiana | 455. Chætura | 9 | Mexico to Ecuador and| Almost cosmopolite | | Brazil | 456. _Hemiprocne_ | 3 | Mexico to La Plata, | | | Jamaica and Hayti | 457. _Cypseloides_ | 2 | Brazil and Peru | 458. _Nephoecetes_ | 1 | Jamaica | | | | TROCHILIDÆ. | | | 459. _Grypus_ | 1 | Brazil | 460. _Androdon_ | 1 | Ecuador | 461. _Eutoxeres_ | 2 | Costa Rica to Ecuador| 462. _Glaucis_ | 2 | Panama to Brazil | 463. _Phaethornis_ | 14 | Tropical N. and | | | S. America | 464. _Pygmornis_ | 8 | Mexico to Guiana and | | | Brazil | 465. _Threnetes_ | 4 |Costa Rica to Amazonia| | | and W. Ecuador | 466. _Dolerisca_ | 1 | Venezuela | 467. _Eupetomena_ | 1 | Guiana to Brazil | 468._Sphenoproctus_ 2 | Mexico to Guatemala | 469._Campylopterus_ 9 | Mexico to Amazonia | 470. _Phæochroa_ | 2 | Guatemala to Columbia| 471. _Aphantochroa_| 3 | Ecuador and Brazil | 472. _Urochroa_ | 1 | Ecuador | 473. _Sternoclyta_ | 1 | Venezuela | 474. _Eugenes_ | 2 | Mexico to Costa Rica | 475. _Coeligena_ | 1 | Mexico | 476. _Lamprolæma_ | 1 | Mexico and Guatemala | 477. _Delattria_ | 2 | Guatemala | 478. _Oreopyra_ | 4 |Costa Rica to Chiriqui| 479. _Heliopædica_ | 2 | Mexico and Guatemala | 480. _Topaza_ | 2 | Guiana | 481._Oreotrochilus_| 6 | Ecuador to Peru and | | | Chili | 482. _Lampornis_ | 7 | Mexico & W. India to | | | Amazonia | 483. _Eulampis_ | 2 | Lesser Antilles | 484. _Avocettula_ | 1 | Guiana | 485. _Lafresnaya_ | 2 |Venezuela and Columbia| 486. _Doryphora_ | 5 | Costa Rica to Ecuador| 487. _Chalybura_ | 5 |Costa Rica to Columbia| 488. _Heliodoxa_ | 5 |Costa Rica to Venezue.| | | & Boliv. | 489. _Iolæma_ | 2 | Ecuador to Peru | 490. _Phæolæma_ | 2 | Columbia and Ecuador | 491. _Eugenia_ | 1 | Ecuador | 492. _Aithurus_ | 1 | Jamaica | 493. _Thalurania_ | 10 | Costa Rica to Guiana,| | | Ecuador and Brazil | 494. _Panoplites_ | 3 | Columbia and Ecuador | 495. _Florisuga_ | 2 | Guatemala to Brazil | 496. _Microchera_ | 2 | Nicaragua to Veragua | 497. _Lophorius_ | 7 | Mexico to Brazil, | | | Peru, & Bolivia | 498. _Polemistria_ | 2 | Columbia to S. Brazil| 499. _Discura_ | 2 | Brazil | 500. _Gouldia_ | 4 | Costa Rica to Brazil | | | & Bolivia | 501. Trochilus | 2 | Mexico to Veragua | To Canada and Sitka 502. _Mellisuga_ | 1 | Jamaica to Hayti | 503. _Calypte_ | 3 | Mexico and Cuba | 504. Selasphorus | 7 | Mexico to Veragua | W. & Cen. United | | | States 505. Atthis | 1 | Mexico and Guatemala | California and | | | Colorado 506. _Stellula_ | 1 | Mexico | 507. _Calothorax_ | 2 | Mexico | 508. _Acestrura_ | 3 | Venezuela to Ecuador | | | & Bolivia | 509. _Chætocercus_ | 3 | Venezuela and Ecuador| 510. _Myrtis_ | 2 | Ecuador to Bolivia, | | | W. of Andes | 511. _Thaumastura_ | 1 | W. Peru | 512. _Rhodopis_ | 2 | W. Peru and Chili | 513. _Doricha_ | 5 | Mexico to Veragua, | | | Bahamas | 514. _Tilmatura_ | 1 | Guatemala | 515. _Calliphlox_ | 2 | Ecuador and Brazil | 516. _Loddigesia_ | 1 | Peruvian Andes | 517. _Steganura_ | 6 | Venezuela to Ecuador | | | & Bolivia | 518. _Lesbia_ | 6 | Columbia to Peru | 519. _Cynanthus_ | 2 | Venezuela to Ecuador | 520. _Sparganura_ | 4 | Columbia to Bolivia &| | | La Plata | 521. _Pterophanes_ | 1 | Columbia to Peru | 522. _Aglæactis_ | 4 | Columbia to Bolivia | 523. _Oxypogon_ | 2 | Venezuela and Columbia | 524. _Oreonympha_ | 1 | Peru | 525._Rhamphomicron_| 6 | Columbia to Bolivia | 526. _Urosticte_ | 2 | Ecuador | 527. _Metallura_ | 6 | Columbia to Bolivia | 528. _Adelomia_ | 4 | Venezuela to Peru & | | | Bolivia | 529. _Avocettinus_ | 1 | Columbia | 530. _Anthocephala_| 1 | Columbia | 531. _Chrysolampis_| 1 | Venezuela to Brazil | 532._Orthorhynchus_| 2 | Lesser Antilles | 533. _Cephalolepis_| 3 | Brazil | 534. _Clais_ | 1 |Venezuela and Columbia| 535. _Baucis_ | 1 | Mexico to Veragua | 536. _Heliactin_ | 1 | Brazil | 537. _Heliothrix_ | 3 | Guatemala to Ecuador | | | & Brazil | 538. _Schistes_ | 2 | Columbia and Ecuador | 539. _Phlogophilus_| 1 | Ecuador | 540. _Augastes_ | 2 | Brazil | 541. _Petasophora_ | 5 | Mexico to Peru and | | | Brazil | 542._Chrysobronchus_ 3 | Venezuela to Brazil | 543. _Patagona_ | 1 | Ecuador to Bolivia | | | and Chili | 544. _Docimastes_ | 1 | Columbia and Ecuador | 545. _Helianthea_ | 7 | Columbia to Bolivia | 546. _Heliotrypha_ | 2 | Columbia and Ecuador | 547. _Heliangelus_ | 6 | Venezuela to Peru | 548. _Diphlogæna_ | 3 | Bolivia | 549. _Clytolæma_ | 2 | E. Ecuador and Brazil| 550. _Bourcieria_ | 5 | Venezuela to Peru | 551. _Lampropygia_ | 4 | Venezuela to Bolivia | 552. _Heliomastes_ | 5 | Mexico to Ecuador & | | | Venezuela | 553. _Lepidolarynx_| 1 | Brazil | 554. _Calliperidia_| 1 | Central Brazil and | | | Paraguay | 555. _Eustephanus_ | 3 | Chili, S. Patagonia, | | | and Juan Fernandez | | | Island | 556. _Eriocnemis_ | 14 | Venezuela to Ecuador | 557. _Cyanomyia_ | 6 | Mexico to Peru | 558. _Hemistilbon_ | 1 | Mexico | 559. _Leucippus_ | 2 | Peru and Bolivia | 560. _Thaumatias_ | 15 | Mexico to Guiana, | | | Upr. Amazon, and | | | Brazil | 561. _Amazilia_ | 14 | Mexico to W. Ecuador | | | & Peru | 562. _Saucerottia_ | 7 | Costa Rica to Columb.| | | & Venezue. | 563. _Eupherusa_ | 3 | Mexico to Veragua | 564. _Chrysuronia_ | 5 | Guatemala to Ecuador | | | & La Plata | 565. _Eucephala_ | 7 | Venezuela to Guiana | | | and Brazil | 566. _Panterpe_ | 1 | Costa Rica and | | | Chiriqui | 567. _Juliamyia_ | 2 | Panama to Ecuador | 568. _Circe_ | 3 | Mexico | 569. _Phæoptila_ | 1 | Mexico | 570. _Damophila_ | 1 | Costa Rica to Ecuador| 571. _Hylocharis_ | 3 | Amazonia and Brazil | 572. _Sapphironia_ | 2 | Columbia and Veragua | 573. _Sporadinus_ | 3 | Cuba, Bahamas, Hayti,| | | Porto Rico | 574._Chlorostilbon_ 8 | Mexico to Brazil and | | | La Plata | 575. _Panychlora_ | 3 |Venezuela and Columbia| 576._Smaragdochrysis_ 1 | Brazil | | | | PSITTACI. | | | CONURIDÆ. | | | 577. _Ara_ | 15 | Trop. North and South| | | America, Cuba, | | | Jamaica (extinct) | 578. _Rhyncopsitta_| 1 | Mexico | 579._Henicognathus_| 1 | Chili | 580. Conurus | 30 | The whole region | S. & S.E. United | | | States 581. _Pyrrhura_ | 16 | Costa Rica to | | | Paraguay & Bolivia | 582._Bolborhynchus_| 7 | Mexico to Peru, | | | Central Brazil, and| | | La Plata | 583. _Brotogerys_ | 9 | Trop. North and South| | | America | | | | PSITTACIDÆ. | | | 584. _Caica_ | 9 | Mexico to Amazonia | 585. _Chrysotis_ | 32 | All the tropical | | | sub-regions | 586. _Triclaria_ | 1 | Brazil | 587. _Deroptyus_ | 1 | Guiana and Rio Negro | 588. _Pionus_ | 9 | Costa Rica to Bolivia| | | and Brazil | 589. _Urochroma_ | 7 | Venezuela to Brazil | 590. _Psittacula_ | 6 | Mexico to W. Ecuador | | | & Brazil | | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | 591. Columba | 18 |Trop. sub-regions with| All regions but | | Chili and La Plata | Austral. 592. Zenaidura | 2 | Mexico to Veragua | Nearctic 593. Chamæpelia | 6 | Mexico to Brazil and | S. Nearctic | | Bolivia | 594. _Columbula_ | 2 | Brazil and La Plata | | | to Chili | 595. _Scardafella_ | 2 | Guatemala and Brazil | 596. _Zenaida_ | 10 | Antilles and S. | | | America to Chili | | | and La Plata | 597. Melopelia | 2 | Mexico to Chili | South & West | | | Nearctic 598. _Peristera_ | 4 | Mexico to Brazil | 599. _Metriopelia_ | 2 | W. America from | | | Ecuador to Chili | 600. _Gymnopelia_ | 1 | West Peru and Bolivia| 601. _Leptoptila_ | 11 | Tropical sub-regions | 602. _Geotrygon_ | 14 | Tropical sub-regions | 603. _Starnoenas_ | 1 | Cuba | | | | GALLINÆ. | | | TETRAONIDÆ. | | | 604. _Odontophorus_| 17 | Trop. North and South| | | America | 605. _Dendrortyx_ | 3 | Mexico to Costa Rica | 606. Cyrtonyx | 3 | Mexico to Guatemala | S. Central United | | | States 607. Ortyx | 5 | Mexico to Costa Rica,| Nearctic to Canada | | Cuba | 608. _Eupsychortyx_| 5 | Mexico to Columbia | | | and Guiana | (Callipepla | 2 | Mexico) | California | | | PHASIANIDÆ. | | | 609. Meleagris | 2 | Mexico and Honduras | Nearctic | | | CRACIDÆ. | | | 610. _Crax_ | 8 | Mexico to Venezuela &| | | S. Brazil | 611. _Nothocrax_ | 1 | Guiana and Upper | | | Amazon | 612. _Pauxi_ | 1 | Guiana and Venezuela | 613. _Mitua_ | 2 | Guiana to Peru | 614. _Stegnolæma_ | 1 | Columbia and Ecuador | 615. _Penelope_ | 13 | Trop. North and South| | | America | 616. _Penelopina_ | 1 | Guatemala | 617. _Pipile_ | 3 | Venezuela to Brazil | | | and Peru | 618. Aburria | 1 | Columbia | 619. _Chamæpetes_ | 2 | Costa Rica to Peru | 620. _Ortalida_ | 18 | Trop. North and South| New Mexico | | America | 621. _Oreophasis_ | 1 | Guatemala | | | | TINAMIDÆ. | | | 622. _Tinamus_ | 7 | Trop. North and South| | | America | 623. _Nothocercus_ | 3 |Costa Rica to Venezue.| | | & Ecuador | 624. _Crypturus_ | 16 | Trop. North and South| | | America | 625. _Rhynchotus_ | 2 | Brazil to Bolivia and| | | La Plata | 626. _Nothoprocta_ | 4 | Ecuador to Bolivia | | | and Chili | 627. _Nothura_ | 4 | Brazil to Bolivia and| | | La Plata | 628. _Taoniscus_ | 1 | Brazil and Paraguay | 629. _Calodromas_ | 1 | La Plata | 630. _Tinamotis_ | 1 | Andes of Peru and | | | Bolivia | | | | OPISTHOCOMI. | | | OPISTHOCOMIDÆ | | | 631. _Opisthocomus_| 1 | Guiana and Lower | | | Amazon | | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | VULTURIDÆ. | | | (CATHARTINÆ.) | | | 632._Sarcorhamphus_| 2 | The Andes and S. of | | | 41° S. Lat. | 633. _Cathartes_ | 1 | Mexico to 20° S. Lat.| 634. Catharista | 1 | Mexico to 40° S. Lat.| S. United States 635. Pseudogryphis | 3 | Mexico to Falkland | United States | | Ids., Cuba, Jamaica| | | | FALCONIDÆ. | | | 636. Polyborus | 2 | The whole region | California and | | | Florida 637. _Ibycter_ | 8 | Guatemala to Terra | | | del Fuego | 638. Circus | 3 | Nearly the whole | Almost cosmopolite | | region | 639. _Micrastur_ | 7 | Trop. North and South| | | America | 640. _Geranospiza_ | 2 | Trop. North and South| | | America | 641. Antenor | 1 | Mexico to Chili and | California and Texas | | La Plata | 642. Astur | 2 | Trop. N. and S. | Almost cosmopolite | | America | 643. Accipiter | 9 | The whole region | Almost cosmopolite 644._Heterospizias_| 1 | Trop. S. America, | | | E. of Andes | 645. Tachytriorchis| 2 | Mexico to Paraguay | California 646. Buteo | 9 | Mexico to Patagonia | Almost cosmopolite 647. _Buteola_ | 1 | Veragua to Amazonia | 648. Asturina | 7 | Mexico to Bolivia and| S.E. United States | | La Plata | 649. _Busarellus_ | 1 | Brazil and Guiana | 650. _Buteogallus_ | 1 | Columbia and Guiana | 651. _Urubutinga_ | 12 | Mexico to Brazil and | | | Bolivia | 652._Harpyhaliæetus_ 1 | Veragua to Chili & | | | N. Patagonia | 653. _Morphnus_ | 1 | Panama to Amazonia | 654. _Thrasaëtus_ | 1 | Mexico to Bolivia and| | | Paraguay | 655. Lophotriorchis| 1 | Bogota | Indo-Malaya 656. _Spiziastur_ | 1 | Guatemala to Brazil | 657. Spizaëtus | 4 | Mexico to Paraguay | Africa, India, Malaya 658._Herpetotheres_| 1 | S. Mexico to Bolivia | | | & Paraguay | 659. Nauclerus | 1 | Mexico to Brazil | S. United States 660. _Rostrhamus_ | 3 | Antilles to Brazil | Florida | | and Peru | 661. _Leptodon_ | 4 | Central America to S.| | | Brazil and Bolivia | 662. Elanus | 1 | Mexico to Chili | Califor., Old World | | | trop. 663. _Gampsonyx_ | 1 | Trinidad to Brazil | 664. _Harpagus_ | 3 | Central America to | | | Brazil & Peru | 665. _Ictinia_ | 2 | Mexico to Brazil | South United States 666. _Spiziapteryx_| 1 | La Plata | 667. Falco | 3 | The whole region | Almost cosmopolite 668. Cerchneis | 3 | The whole region | Almost cosmopolite | | | PANDIONIDÆ. | | | 669. Pandion | 1 | The whole region | Cosmopolite | | | STRIGIDÆ. | | | 670. Glaucidium | 6 | The whole region | W. United Sts., | | | Palæarc. 671. Micrathene | 1 | Mexico | Arizona, New Mexico 672. Pholeoptynx | 1 | The whole region | N. W. America & Texas 673. Bubo | 1 | The whole region | All regions but | | | Austral. 674. Scops | 6 | Mexico to Brazil and | Almost cosmopolite | | La Plata | 675. _Gymnoglaux_ | 2 | West India Islands | 676. _Lophostrix_ | 2 | Guatemala to Lower | | | Amazon | 677. Syrnium | 3 | Mexico to Patagonia | All regions but | | | Austral. 678. _Ciccaba_ | 10 | Mexico to Peru and | | | Paraguay | 679. _Nyctalatinus_| 1 | Columbia | 680. _Pulsatrix_ | 2 | Guatemala to Brazil | | | and Peru | 681. Asio | 2 | The whole region | All regions but | | | Austral. 682. _Nyctalops_ | 1 | Cuba and Mexico to | | | Brazil | 683. _Pseudoscops_ | 1 | Jamaica | (Nyctale | 1 | Mexico) | N. Temperate genus 684. Strix | 2 | The whole region | Almost cosmopolite

_Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds._

| | | GRALLÆ. | | | RALLIDÆ. | | | Aramides | 23 | The whole region | Nearctic _Heliornis_ | 1 | Tropical America | | | | SCOLOPACIDÆ. | | | Eureunetes | 3 | The whole region | Nearctic | | | CHIONIDIDÆ. | | | Chionis | 2 | Sts. of Magellan, | Kerguelen's Island | | Falkland Ids. | | | | THINOCORIDÆ. | | | _Attagis_ | 4 | Andes to Fuegia and | | | Falkland Islands | _Thinocoris_ | 2 | Peru, Chili, and | | | La Plata | | | | CHARADRIIDÆ. | | | _Phægornis_ | 1 | Temperate S. America | _Oreophilus_ | 1 | Temperate S. America | _Pluvianellus_ | 1 | Temperate S. America | _Aphriza_ | 1 |W. coast of S. America| W. coast of | | | N. America | | | CARIAMIDÆ. | | | _Cariama_ | 2 |S. Brazil and La Plata| | | | ARAMIDÆ. | | | _Aramus_ | 5 | Mexico and Cuba to | | | Brazil | | | | PSOPHIIDÆ. | | | _Psophia_ | 6 | Equatorial S. America| | | | EURYPYGIDÆ. | | | _Eurypyga_ | 2 | Tropical America | | | | ARDEIDÆ. | | | _Tigrisoma_ | 3 | The whole region | _Cancroma_ | 1 | Tropical S. America | | | | PALAMEDEIDÆ. | | | _Palamedea_ | 1 | Equatorial America | _Chauna_ | 2 | Columbia, Brazil, and| | | La Plata | | | | ANSERES. | | | ANATIDÆ. | | | _Cairina_ | 1 | Tropical S. America | _Merganetta_ | 3 | Andes | _Micropterus_ | 1 | Temperate S. America | | | | SPHENISCIDÆ. | | | Eudyptes | 6 | Temperate S. America| Antarctic shores Aptenodytes | 2 | Falkland Islands | Antarctic shores | | | STRUTHIONES. | | | STRUTHIONIDÆ. | | | 685. _Rhea_ | 3 | S. Temperate America |

{114}CHAPTER XV.

THE NEARCTIC REGION.

This region consists almost wholly of Temperate North America as defined by physical geographers. In area it is about equal to the Neotropical region. It possesses a vast mountain range traversing its entire length from north to south, comparable with, and in fact a continuation of, the Andes,--and a smaller range near the east coast, equally comparable with the mountains of Brazil and Guiana. These mountains supply its great river-system of the Mississippi, second only to that of the Amazon; and in its vast group of fresh-water lakes or inland seas, it possesses a feature unmatched by any other region, except perhaps by the Ethiopian. It possesses every variety of climate between arctic and tropical; extensive forests and vast prairies; a greatly varied surface and a rich and beautiful flora. But these great advantages are somewhat neutralized by other physical features. It extends far towards the north, and there it reaches its greatest width; while in its southern and warmest portion it suddenly narrows. The northern mass of land causes its isothermal lines to bend southwards; and its winter temperature especially, is far lower than at corresponding latitudes in Europe. This diminishes the available area for supporting animal life; the amount and character of which must be, to a great extent, determined by the nature of the least favourable part of the year. Again, owing to the position of its mountain ranges and the direction of prevalent winds, a large extent of its interior, east of the Rocky Mountains, is bare and arid, and often almost desert; while the most favoured districts,--those east of the Mississippi and west of the Sierra Nevada, bear but a small proportion to its whole area. Again, we know that at a very recent period geologically, it was subjected to a very severe Glacial epoch, which wrapped a full half of it in a mantle of ice, and exterminated a large number of animals which previously inhabited it. Taking all this into account, we need not be surprised to find the Nearctic region somewhat less rich and varied in its forms of life than the Palæarctic or the Australian regions, with which alone it can fairly be compared. The wonder rather is that it should be so little inferior to them in this respect, and that it should possess such a variety of groups, and such a multitude of forms, in every class of animals.

{115}_Zoological characteristics of the Nearctic Region._--Temperate North America possesses representatives of 26 families of Mammalia, 48 of Birds, 18 of Reptiles, 11 of Amphibia, and 18 of Fresh-water Fish. The first three numbers are considerably less than the corresponding numbers for the Palæarctic region, while the last two are greater--in the case of fishes materially so, a circumstance readily explained by the wonderful group of fresh-water lakes and the noble southward-flowing river system of the Mississippi, to which the Palæarctic region has nothing comparable. But although somewhat deficient in the total number of its families, this region possesses its full proportion of peculiar and characteristic family and generic forms. No less than 13 families or sub-families of Vertebrata are confined to it, or just enter the adjacent Neotropical region. These are,--three of mammalia, Antilocaprinæ, Saccomyidæ and Haploodontidæ; one of birds, Chamæidæ; one of reptiles, Chirotidæ; two of amphibia, Sirenidæ and Amphiumidæ; and the remaining six of fresh-water fishes. The number of peculiar or characteristic genera is perhaps more important for our purpose; and these are very considerable, as the following enumeration will show.

_Mammalia._--Of the family of moles (Talpidæ) we have 3 peculiar genera: _Condylura_, _Scapanus_, and _Scalops_, as well as the remarkable _Urotrichus_, found only in California and Japan. In the weasel family (Mustelidæ) we have _Latax_, a peculiar kind of otter; _Taxidea_, allied to the badgers; and one of the {116}remarkable and characteristic skunks is separated by Dr. J. E. Gray as a genus--_Spilogale_. In the American family Procyonidæ, a peculiar genus (_Bassaris_) is found in California and Texas, extending south along the mountains of Mexico and Guatemala. _Eumetopias_, and _Halicyon_, are seals confined to the west coast of North America. The Bovidæ, or hollow-horned ruminants, contain three peculiar forms; _Antilocapra_, the remarkable prong-buck of the Rocky Mountains; _Aplocerus_, a goat-like antelope; and _Ovibos_, the musk-sheep, confined to Arctic America and Greenland. Among the Rodents are many peculiar genera: _Neotoma_, _Sigmodon_, and _Fiber_, belong to the Muridæ, or rats; _Jaculus_ to the Dipodidæ, or jerboas. The very distinct family _Saccomyidæ_, or pouched rats, which have peculiar cheek pouches, or a kind of outer hairy mouth, consists of five genera all confined to this region, with one of doubtful affinities in Trinidad and Central America. In the squirrel family (Sciuridæ), _Cynomys_, the prairie-dogs, are peculiar; and _Tamias_, the ground squirrel, is very characteristic, though found also in North Asia. _Haploodon_, or sewellels, consisting of two species, forms a distinct family; and _Erethizon_ is a peculiar form of tree porcupine (Cercolabidæ). True mice and rats of the genus _Mus_ are not indigenous to North America, their place being supplied by a distinct genus (_Hesperomys_), confined to the American continent.

_Birds._--The genera of birds absolutely peculiar to the Nearctic region are not very numerous, because, there being no boundary but one of climate between it and the Neotropical region, most of its characteristic forms enter a short distance within the limits we are obliged to concede to the latter. Owing also to the severe winter-climate of a large part of the region (which we know is a comparatively recent phenomenon), a large proportion of its birds migrate southwards, to pass the winter in the West-Indian islands or Mexico, some going as far as Guatemala, and a few even to Venezuela.

In our chapter on extinct animals, we have shown, that there is good reason for believing that the existing union of North and South America is a quite recent occurrence; and that the {117}separation was effected by an arm of the sea across what is now Nicaragua, with perhaps another at Panama. This would leave Mexico and Guatemala joined to North America, and forming part of the Nearctic region, although no doubt containing many Neotropical forms, which they had received during earlier continental periods; and these countries might at other times have been made insular by a strait at the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and have then developed some peculiar species. The latest climatal changes have tended to restrict these Neotropical forms to those parts where the climate is really tropical; and thus Mexico has attained its present strongly marked Neotropical character, although deficient in many of the most important groups of that region.

In view of these recent changes, it seems proper not to draw any decided line between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, but rather to apply, in the case of each genus, a test which will show whether it was probably derived at a comparatively recent date from one region or the other. The test referred to, is the existence of peculiar species of the genus, in what are undoubtedly portions of ancient North or South America. If, for example, all the species of a genus occur in North America, some, or even all, of them, migrating into the Neotropical region in winter, while there are _no peculiar Neotropical species_, then we must class that genus as strictly Nearctic; for if it were Neotropical it would certainly have developed _some_ peculiar resident forms. Again, even if there should be one or two resident species peculiar to that part of Central America north of the ancient dividing strait, with an equal or greater number of species ranging over a large part of Temperate North America, the genus must still be considered Nearctic. Examples of the former case, are _Helminthophaga_ and _Myiodioctes_, belonging to the Mniotiltidæ, or wood-warblers, which range over _all_ Temperate North America to Canada, where _all_ the species are found, but in each case one of the species is found in South America, probably as a winter migrant. Of the latter, are _Ammodramus_ and _Junco_ (genera of finches), which range over the whole United States, but each have one peculiar species in Guatemala. These {118}may be claimed as exclusively Nearctic genera, on the ground that Guatemala was recently Nearctic; and is now really a transition territory, of which the lowlands have been invaded and taken exclusive possession of by a Neotropical fauna, while the highlands are still (in part at least) occupied by Nearctic forms.

In his article on "Birds," in the new edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica" (now publishing), Professor Newton points out, that the number of _peculiar genera_ of Nearctic birds is much less than in each of the various sub-divisions of the Neotropical region; and that the total number of genera is also less, while the bulk of them are common either to the Neotropical or Palæarctic regions. This is undoubtedly the case if any fixed geographical boundary is taken; and it would thus seem that the "Nearctic" should, in birds, form a sub-region only. But, if we define "Nearctic genera" as above indicated, we find a considerable amount of speciality, as the following list will show. The names not italicised are those which are represented in Mexico or Guatemala by peculiar species:--

LIST OF TYPICAL NEARCTIC GENERA OF LAND BIRDS.

1. _Oreoscoptes_ 2. _Harporhynchus_ 3. _Sialia_ 4. _Chamæa_ 5. _Catherpes_ 6. _Salpinctus_ 7. _Psaltriparus_ 8. _Auriparus_ 9. _Gymnokitta_ 10. _Picicorvus_ 11. _Mniotilta_ 12. _Oporornis_ 13. _Icteria_ 14. _Helmintherus_ 15. _Helminthophaga_ 16. _Myiodioctes_ 17. _Phænopepla_ 18. _Xanthocephalus_ 19. _Scolecophagus_ 20. Pipilo 21. Junco 22. _Melospiza_ 23. Spizella 24. _Passerculus_ 25. _Pooecetes_ 26. Ammodromus 27. _Cyanospiza_ 28. _Pyrrhuloxia_ 29. _Calamospiza_ 30. Chondestes 31. _Centronyx_ 32. _Neocorys_ 33. _Empidias_ 34. _Sphyrapicus_ 35. _Hylatomus_ 36. _Trochilus_ 37. _Atthis_ 38. _Ectopistes_ 39. _Centrocercus_ 40. _Pediocætes_ 41. _Cupidonia_ ? Ortyx 42. _Oreortyx_ 43. _Lophortyx_ 44. Callipepla 45. Cyrtonyx 46. Meleagris 47. _Micrathene_

The above are all groups which are either wholly Nearctic or typically so, but entering more or less into the debatable ground of the Neotropical region; though none possess any peculiar species in the ancient Neotropical land south of Nicaragua. But we have, besides these, a number of genera which we are {119}accustomed to consider as typically European, or Palæarctic, having representatives in North America; although in many cases it would be more correct to say that they are Nearctic genera, represented in Europe, since America possesses more species than Europe or North Asia. The following is a list of genera which have as much right to be considered typically Nearctic as Palæarctic:--

1. Regulus 2. Certhia 3. Sitta 4. Parus 5. Lophophanes 6. Lanius 7. Perisoreus 8. Pica 9. Corvus 10. _Ampelis_ 11. Loxia 12. Pinicola 13. Linota 14. _Passerelia_ 15. _Leucosticte_ 16. _Euspiza_ 17. _Plectrophanes_ 18. Tetrao 19. Lagopus 20. _Nyctala_ 21. _Archibuteo_ 22. Haliæetus

The seven genera italicized have a decided preponderance of Nearctic species, and have every right to be considered typically Nearctic; while the remainder are so well represented by peculiar species, that it is quite possible many of them may have originated here, rather than in the Palæarctic region, all alike being quite foreign to the Neotropical.

On the whole, then, we have 47 in the first and 7 in the second table, making 54 genera which we may fairly class as typically Nearctic, out of a total of 168 genera of land-birds, or nearly one-third of the whole. This is an amount of peculiarity which is comparable with that of either of the less isolated regions; and, combined with the more marked and more exclusively peculiar forms in the other orders of vertebrates, fully establishes Temperate North America as a region, distinct alike from the Neotropical and the Palæarctic.

_Reptiles._--Although temperate climates are always comparatively poor in reptiles, a considerable number of genera are peculiar to the Nearctic region. Of snakes, there are, _Conophis_, _Chilomeniscus_, _Pituophis_, and _Ischnognathus_, belonging to the Colubridæ; _Farancia_, and _Dimodes_, Homalopsidæ; _Lichanotus_, one of the Pythonidæ; _Cenchris_, _Crotalophorus_, _Uropsophorus_, and _Crotalus_, belonging to the Crotalidæ or rattlesnakes.

Of Lizards, _Chirotes_, forming a peculiar family; _Ophisaurus_, {120}the curious glass-snake, belonging to the Zonuridæ; with _Phrynosoma_ (commonly called horned toads), _Callisaurus_, _Uta_, _Euphryne_, _Uma_, and _Holbrookia_, genera of Iguanidæ.

Testudinidæ, or Tortoises, show a great development of the genus _Emys_; with _Aromochelys_ and _Chelydra_ as peculiar genera.

_Amphibia._--In this class the Nearctic region is very rich, possessing representatives of nine of the families, of which two are peculiar to the region, and there are no less than fifteen peculiar genera. _Siren_ forms the family Sirenidæ; _Menobranchus_ belongs to the Proteidæ; _Amphiuma_ is the only representative of the Amphiumidæ; there are nine peculiar genera of Salamandridæ. Among the tail-less batrachians (frogs and toads) we have _Scaphiopus_, belonging to the Alytidæ; _Pseudacris_ to the Hylidæ; and _Acris_ to the Polypedatidæ.

_Fresh-water Fishes._--The Nearctic region possesses no less than five peculiar family types, and twenty-four peculiar genera of this class. The families are Aphredoderidæ, consisting of a single species found in the Eastern States; Percopsidæ, founded on a species peculiar to Lake Superior; Heteropygii, containing two genera peculiar to the Eastern States; Hyodontidæ and Amiidæ, each consisting of a single species. The genera are as follows: _Paralabrax_, found in California; _Huro_, peculiar to Lake Huron; _Pileoma_, _Boleosoma_, _Bryttus_ and _Pomotis_ in the Eastern States--all belonging to the perch family. _Hypodelus_ and _Noturus_, belonging to the Siluridæ. _Thaleichthys_, one of the Salmonidæ peculiar to the Columbia river. _Moxostoma_, _Pimephales_, _Hyborhynchus_, _Rhinichthys_, in the Eastern States; _Ericymba_, _Exoglossum_, _Leucosomus_, and _Carpiodes_, more widely distributed; _Cochlognathus_, in Texas; _Mylaphorodon_ and _Orthodon_, in California; _Meda_, in the river Gila; and _Acrochilus_, in the Columbia river--all belonging to the Cyprinidæ. _Scaphirhynchus_, found only in the Mississippi and its tributaries, belongs to the sturgeon family (Accipenseridæ).

_Summary of Nearctic Vertebrata._--The Nearctic region possesses 24 peculiar genera of mammalia, 49 of birds, 21 of reptiles, and 29 of fresh-water fishes, making 123 in all. Of these 70 are mammals and land-birds, out of a total of 242 {121}genera of these groups, a proportion of about two-sevenths. This is the smallest proportion of peculiar genera we have found in any of the regions; but many of the genera are of such isolated and exceptional forms that they constitute separate families, so that we have no less than 12 families of vertebrata confined to the region. The Palæarctic region has only 3 peculiar families, and even the Oriental region only 12; so that, judged by this test, the Nearctic region is remarkably well characterized. We must also remember that, owing to the migration of many of its peculiar forms during the Glacial period, it has recently lost some of its speciality; and we should therefore give some weight to the many characteristic groups it possesses, which, though not quite peculiar to it, form important features in its fauna, and help to separate it from the other regions with which it has been thought to be closely allied. It is thus well distinguished from the Palæarctic region by its Procyonidæ, or racoons, _Hesperomys_, or vesper mice, and _Didelphys_, or opossums, among Mammalia; by its Vireonidæ, or greenlets, Mniotiltidæ, or wood-warblers, Icteridæ, or hang-nests, Tyrannidæ, or tyrant shrikes, and Trochilidæ, or humming-birds, among birds, families which, extending to its extreme northern limits must be held to be as truly characteristic of it as of the Neotropical region; by its Teidæ, Iguanidæ, and _Cinosternum_, among reptiles; and by its Siluridæ, and Lepidosteidæ, among fishes. From the Neotropical region it is still more clearly separated, by its numerous insectivora; by its bears; its Old World forms of ruminants; its beaver; its numerous _Arvicolæ_, or voles; its _Sciuropterus_, or flying squirrels; _Tamias_, or ground-squirrels; and _Lagomys_, or marmots, among mammals; its numerous Paridæ, or tits, and Tetraonidæ, or grouse, among birds; its Trionychidæ among reptiles; its Proteidæ, and Salamandridæ, among Amphibia; and its Gasterosteidæ, Atherinidæ, Esocidæ, Umbridæ, Accipenseridæ, and Polydontidæ, among fishes.

These characteristic features, taken in conjunction with the absolutely peculiar groups before enumerated, demonstrate that the Nearctic region cannot with propriety be combined with {122}any other. Though not very rich, and having many disadvantages of climate and of physical condition, it is yet sufficiently well characterized in its zoological features to rank as one of the well-marked primary divisions of the earth's surface.

There is one other consideration bearing on this question which should not be lost sight of. In establishing our regions we have depended wholly upon their _now_ possessing a sufficient number and variety of animal forms, and a fair proportion of peculiar types; but when the validity of our conclusion on these grounds is disputed, we may supplement the evidence by an appeal to the past history of the region in question. In this case we find a remarkable support to our views. During the whole Tertiary period, North America was, zoologically, far more strongly contrasted with South America than it is now; while, during the same long series of ages, it was always clearly separated from the Eastern hemisphere or the Palæarctic region by the exclusive possession of important families and numerous genera of Mammalia, as shown by our summary of its extinct fauna in Chapter VII. Not only may we claim North America as now forming one of the great zoological regions, but as having continued to be one ever since the Eocene period.

_Insects._

In describing the Palæarctic and Neotropical regions, many of the peculiarities of the insect-fauna of this region have been incidentally referred to; and as a tolerably full account of the distribution of the several families is given in the Fourth Part of our work (Chapter XXI.), we shall treat the subject very briefly here.

_Lepidoptera._--The butterflies of the Nearctic region have lately been studied with much assiduity, and we are now able to form some idea of their nature and extent. Nearly 500 species belonging to about 100 genera have been described; showing that the region, which a few years ago was thought to be very poor in species of butterflies, is really much richer than Europe, and probably about as rich as the more extensive Palæarctic region. There is, however, very little speciality in the {123}forms. A considerable number of Neotropical types enter the southern States; but there are hardly any peculiar genera, except one of the Lycænidæ and perhaps a few among the Hesperidæ, The most conspicuous feature of the region is its fine group of Papilios, belonging to types (_P. turnus_ and _P. troilus_) which are characteristically Nearctic. It is also as rich as the Palæarctic region in some genera which we are accustomed to consider as pre-eminently European; such as _Argynnis_, _Melitæa_, _Grapta_, _Chionabas_, and a few others. Still, we must acknowledge, that if we formed our conclusions from the butterflies alone, we could hardly separate the Nearctic from the Palæarctic region. This identity probably dates from the Miocene period; for when our existing arctic regions supported a luxuriant vegetation, butterflies would have been plentiful; and as the cold came on, these would move southwards both in America and Europe, and, owing to the long continuance of the generic types of insects, would remain little modified till now.

_Coleoptera._--Only a few indications can be given of the peculiarities of the Nearctic coleoptera. In Cicindelidæ the region possesses, besides the cosmopolite _Cicindela_, four other genera, two of which--_Amblychile_ and _Omus_--are peculiar to the West Coast and the Rocky Mountains. Of Carabidæ it possesses _Dicælus_, _Pasimachus_, _Eurytrichus_, _Sphæroderus_, _Pinacodera_, and a number of smaller genera, altogether peculiar to it; _Helluomorpha_, _Galerita_, _Callida_, and _Tetragonoderus_, in common with South America; and a large number of characteristic European forms.

The Lucanidæ are all of European types. The region is poor in Cetoniidæ, but has representatives of the South American _Euphoria_, as well as of four European genera. Of Buprestidæ it has the South American _Actenodes_; a single species of the Ethiopian and Eastern _Belionota_, in California; and about a dozen other genera of European and wide distribution.

Among Longicorns it possesses fifty-nine peculiar genera, representatives of five Neotropical, and thirteen Palæarctic genera; as well as many of wider distribution. _Prionus_ is the chief representative of the Prionidæ; _Leptura_ and _Crossidius_ of the {124}Cerambycidæ; _Leptostylus_, _Liopus_, _Graphidurus_, and _Tetraopes_, of the Lamiidæ, the latter genus being confined to the region.

_Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca._

The land-shells of temperate North America almost all belong to the Inoperculate or Pulmoniferous division; the Operculata being represented only by a few species of _Helicina_ and _Truncatella_, chiefly in the Southern States. According to Mr. Binney's recent "Catalogue of the Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks of North America," the fauna consists of the following genera:--_Glandina_ (6 sp.); _Macrocyclis_ (5 sp.); _Zonites_ (37 sp.); _Vitrina_ (4 sp.); _Limax_ (5 sp.); _Arion_ (3 sp.); _Ariolimax_ (3 sp.); _Prophysaon_ (1 sp.); _Binneia_ (1 sp.); _Hemiphillia_ (1 sp.); _Patula_ (16 sp.); _Helix_ (80); _Holospira_ (2 sp.); _Cylindrella_ (2 sp.); _Macroceramus_ (2 sp.); _Bulimulus_ (8 sp.); _Cionella_ (2 sp.); _Stenogyra_ (4 sp.); _Pupa_ (19 sp.); _Strophia_ (1 sp.); _Vertigo_ (6 sp.); _Liguus_ (1 sp.); _Orthalicus_ (2 sp.); _Punctum_ (1 sp.); _Succinea_ (26 sp.); _Tebennophorus_ (1 sp.); _Pallifera_ (1 sp.); _Veronicella_ (2 sp.).

All the larger genera range over the whole region, but the following have a more restricted distribution; _Macrocyclis_ has only one species in the East, the rest being Californian or Central; _Ariolimax_, _Prophysaon_, _Binneia_, and _Hemiphillia_, are confined to the Western sub-region. Lower California has affinities with Mexico, 18 species being peculiar to it, of which two are true _Bulimi_, a genus unknown in other parts of the region. The Central or Rocky Mountain sub-region is chiefly characterised by six peculiar species of _Patula_. The Eastern sub-region is by far the richest, nine-tenths of the whole number of species being found in it. The Alleghany Mountains form the richest portion of this sub-region, possessing nearly half the total number of species, and at least 24 species found nowhere else. The southern States have also several peculiar species, but they are not so productive as the Alleghanies. The Canadian sub-region possesses 32 species, of which nearly half are northern forms more or less common to the whole Arctic regions, and several of this character have spread southwards all {125}over the United States. Species of _Vitrina_, _Zonites_, _Pupa_, and _Succinea_, are found in Greenland; and Eastern Palæarctic species of _Vitrina_, _Patula_, and _Pupa_ occur in Alaska. More than 30 species of shells living in the Eastern States, are found fossil in the Post-Pliocene deposits of the Ohio and Mississippi.

_Fresh-water Shells._--North America surpasses every other part of the globe in the number and variety of its fresh-water mollusca, both univalve and bivalve. The numbers up to 1866 were as follows:--Melaniadæ, 380 species; Paludinidæ, 58 species; Cycladidæ, 44 species; and Unionidæ, 552 species. The last family had, however, increased to 832 species in 1874, according to Dr. Isaac Lea, who has made them his special study; but it is probable that many of these are such as would be considered varieties by most conchologists. Many of the species of _Unio_ are very large, of varied forms, and rich internal colouring, and the group forms a prominent feature of the Nearctic fauna. By far the larger proportion of the fresh-water shells inhabit the Eastern or Alleghany sub-region; and their great development is a powerful argument against any recent extensive submergence beneath the ocean of the lowlands of North America.

_The Nearctic Sub-regions._

The sub-divisions of the Nearctic region, although pretty clearly indicated by physical features and peculiarities of climate and vegetation, are by no means so strongly marked out in their zoology as we might expect. The same genera, as a rule, extend over the whole region; while the species of the several sub-regions are in most cases different. Even the vast range of the Rocky Mountains has not been an effectual barrier against this wide dispersal of the same forms of life; and although some important groups are limited by it, these are exceptions to the rule. Even now, we find fertile valleys and plateaus of moderate elevation, penetrating the range on either side; and both to the north and south there are passes which can be freely traversed by most animals during the summer. Previous to the glacial epoch there was probably a warm period, when every part of the range supported an abundant and varied {126}fauna, which, when the cold period arrived, would descend to the lowlands, and people the country to the east, west, and south, with similar forms of life.

The first, and most important sub-division we can make, consists of the Eastern United States, extending across the Mississippi and the more fertile prairies, to about the 100°th. meridian of west longitude, where the arid and almost desert country commences. Southwards, the boundary bends towards the coast, near the line of the Brazos or Colorado rivers. To the north the limits are undefined; but as a considerable number of species and genera occur in the United States but not in Canada, it will be convenient to draw the line somewhere near the boundary of the two countries, except that the district between lakes Huron and Ontario, and probably Nova Scotia, may be included in the present sub-region. As far west as the Mississippi, this was originally a vast forest country; and it is still well wooded, and clothed with a varied and luxuriant vegetation.

The next, or Central sub-region, consists of the dry, elevated, and often arid district of the Rocky Mountains, with its great plateaus, and the barren plains of its eastern slope; extending northwards to near the commencement of the great forests north of the Saskatchewan, and southward to the Rio Grande del Norte, the Gulf of California, and to Cape St. Lucas, as shown on our maps. This sub-region is of an essentially desert character, although the higher valleys of the Rocky Mountains are often well wooded, and in these are found some northern and some western types.

The third, or Californian sub-region, is small, but very luxuriant, occupying the comparatively narrow strip of country between the Sierra Nevada and the Pacific. To the north it may include Vancouver's Island and the southern part of British Columbia, while to the south it extends to the head of the Gulf of California.

The fourth division, comprises the remainder of North America; and is a country of pine forests, and of barren wastes towards the Arctic Ocean. It has fewer peculiar species to characterise it than any other, but it possesses several characteristic arctic {127}forms, while many of those peculiar to the south are absent; so that it is a very convenient, if it should not be considered an altogether natural, sub-region.

We will now give an outline of the most important zoological features of each of these divisions, taking them in the order in which they are arranged in the Fourth Part of this work. California comes first, as it has some tropical forms not found elsewhere, and thus forms a transition from the Neotropical region.

_I. The Western or Californian Sub-region._

This small district possesses a fruitful soil and a highly favourable climate, and is, in proportion to its extent, perhaps the richest portion of the continent, both zoologically and botanically. Its winters are far milder than those of the Eastern States in corresponding latitudes; and this, perhaps, has enabled it to support several tropical forms which give a special character to its fauna. It is here only, in the whole region, that bats of the families Phyllostomidæ and Noctilionidæ, and a serpent of the tropical family, Pythonidæ, are found, as well as several Neotropical forms of birds and reptiles.

_Mammalia._--The following genera are not found in any other part of the Nearctic region. _Macrotus_ (Phyllostomidæ), one species in California; _Antrozous_ (Vespertilionidæ), one species on the West Coast; _Urotrichus_ (Talpidæ) one species in British Columbia; sub-genus _Nesorex_ (Soricidæ), one species in Oregon; _Bassaris_ (Procyonidæ), California; _Enhydra_ (Mustelidæ), Pacific Coast; _Morunga_ (Phocidæ), California; _Haploodon_ (Haploodontidæ) a rat-like animal, allied to the beavers and marmots, and constituting a peculiar family found only in California and British Columbia. The following characteristic Nearctic forms also extend into this sub-region:--_Taxidea_, _Procyon_, _Didelphys_, _Sciuropterus_, _Tamias_, _Spermophilus_, _Dipodomys_, _Perognathus_, _Jaculus_.

_Birds._--Few genera of birds are quite peculiar to this sub-region, since most of the Western forms extend into the central district, yet it has a few. _Glaucidium_, a genus of Owls, is confined {128}(in the Nearctic region) to California; _Chamæa_, a singular form allied to the wrens, and forming a distinct family, is quite peculiar; _Geococcyx_, a Neotropical form of cuckoo, extends to California and Southern Texas. The following genera are very characteristic of the sub-region, and some of them almost confined to it: _Myiadestes_ (Sylviidæ); _Psaltriparus_ (Paridæ); _Cyanocitta_, _Picicorvus_ (Corvidæ); _Hesperiphona_, _Peucæa_, _Chondestes_ (Fringillidæ); _Selasphorus_, _Atthis_ (Trochilidæ); _Columba_, _Melopelia_ (Columbidæ); _Oreortyx_ (Tetraonidæ).

_Reptiles._--The following genera are not found in any other part of the Nearctic region: _Charina_ (Tortricidæ); _Lichanotus_ (Pythonidæ); _Gerrhonotus_ (Zonuridæ); _Phyllodactylus_ (Geckotidæ); _Anolius_ and _Tropidolepis_ (Iguanidæ). _Sceloporus_ (Iguanidæ) is only found elsewhere in Florida. All the larger North American groups of lizards and snakes are also represented here; but in tortoises it is deficient, owing to the absence of lakes and large rivers.

_Amphibia._--California possesses two genera of Salamandridæ, _Aneides_ and _Heredia_, which do not extend to the other sub-regions.

_Fresh-water Fish._--There are two or three peculiar genera of Cyprinidæ, but the sub-region is comparatively poor in this group.

_Plate XVIII. Illustrative of the Zoology of California and the Rocky Mountains._--We have chosen for the subject of this illustration, the peculiar Birds of the Western mountains. The two birds in the foreground are a species of grouse (_Pediocætes Columbianus_), entirely confined to this sub-region; while the only other species of the genus is found in the prairies north and west of Wisconsin, so that the group is peculiar to northern and western America. The crested birds in the middle of the picture (_Oreortyx picta_), are partridges, belonging to the American sub-family Odontophorinæ. This is the only species of the genus which is confined to California and Oregon. The bird at the top is the blue crow (_Gymnokitta cyanocephala_), confined to the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada from New Mexico and Arizona northwards, and more properly belonging to the Central sub-region. It is allied to the European nutcracker; but according to the American ornithologist, Dr. Coues, has also resemblances to the jays, and certainly forms a distinct genus. The grizzly bear (_Ursus ferox_) in the background, is one of the characteristic animals of the Californian highlands.

Plate XVIII.

SCENE IN CALIFORNIA, WITH SOME CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS.

{129}_II. The Central, or Rocky Mountain Sub-region._

This extensive district is, for the greater part of its extent, from 2,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea, and is excessively arid; and, except in the immediate vicinity of streams and on some of the higher slopes of the mountains, is almost wholly treeless. Its zoology is therefore peculiar. Many of the most characteristic genera and families of the Eastern States are absent; while a number of curious desert and alpine forms give it a character of its own, and render it very interesting to the naturalist.

_Mammalia._--The remarkable prong-horned antelope (_Antilocapra_), the mountain goat (_Aplocerus_), the mountain sheep or bighorn (_Ovis montana_), and the prairie-dog (_Cynomys_), one of the Rodentia, are peculiar to this sub-region; while the family of the Saccomyidæ, or pouched rats, is represented by many forms and is very characteristic. Here is also the chief home of the bison. The glutton (_Gulo_) and marmot (_Lagomys_) enter it from the north; while it has the racoon (_Procyon_), flying squirrel (_Sciuropterus_), ground squirrel (_Tamias_), pouched marmot (_Spermophilus_) and jumping mouse (_Jaculus_) in common with the countries east or west of it.

_Plate XIX. Illustrative of the Zoology of the Central Plains or Prairies._--We here introduce four of the most characteristic mammalia of the great American plains or prairies, three of them being types confined to North America. The graceful animals on the left are the prong-horned antelopes (_Antilocapra americana_), whose small horns, though hollow like those of the antelopes, are shed annually like those of the deer. To the right we have the prairie-dogs of the trappers (_Cynomys ludovicianus_) which, as will be easily seen, are rodents, and allied to the marmots of the European Alps. Their burrows are numerous on the prairies, and the manner in which they perch {130}themselves on little mounds and gaze on intruders, is noticed by all travellers. On the left, in the foreground, is one of the extraordinary pouched rats of America (_Geomys bursarius_). These are burrowing animals, feeding on roots; and the mouth is, as it were, double, the outer portion very wide and hairy, behind which is the small inner mouth. Its use may be to keep out the earth from the mouth while the animal is gnawing roots. A mouth so constructed is found in no other animals but in these North American rats. In the distance is a herd of bisons (_Bison americanus_), the typical beast of the prairies.

_Birds._--This sub-region has many peculiar forms of birds, both residents, and migrants from the south or north. Among the peculiar resident species we may probably reckon a dipper, (_Cinclus_); _Salpinctes_, one of the wrens; _Poospiza_, _Calamospiza_, genera of finches; _Picicorvus_, _Gymnokitta_, genera of the crow family; _Centrocercus_ and _Pediocætes_, genera of grouse. As winter migrants from the north it has _Leucosticte_ and _Plectrophanes_, genera of finches; _Perisoreus_, a genus of the crow family; _Picoides_, the Arctic woodpecker; and _Lagopus_, ptarmigan. Its summer migrants, many of which may be resident in the warmer districts, are more numerous. Such are, _Oreoscoptes_, a genus of thrushes; _Campylorhynchus_ and _Catherpes_, wrens; _Paroides_, one of the tits; _Phænopepla_, allied to the waxwing; _Embernagra_ and _Spermophila_, genera of finches; _Pyrocephalus_, one of the tyrant shrikes; _Callipepla_ and _Cyrtonyx_, American partridges. Besides these, the more widely spread genera, _Harporhynchus_, _Lophophanes_, _Carpodacus_, _Spizella_, and _Cyanocitta_, are characteristic of the central district, and two genera of humming-birds--_Atthis_ and _Selasphorus_--only occur here and in California. Prof. Baird notes 40 genera of birds which are represented by distinct allied species in the western, central, and eastern divisions of the United States, corresponding to our sub-regions.

Plate XIX.

THE AMERICAN PRAIRIES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

{131}It is a curious fact that the birds of this sub-region should extend across the Gulf of California, and that Cape St. Lucas, at the southern extremity of the peninsula, should be decidedly more "Central" than "Californian" in its ornithology. Prof. Baird says, that its fauna is almost identical with that of the Gila River, and has hardly any relation to that of Upper California. It possesses a considerable number (about twenty) of peculiar species of birds, but all belong to genera characteristic of the present sub-region; and there is no resemblance to the birds of Mazatlan, just across the gulf in the Neotropical region.

_Reptiles, Amphibia, and Fishes._--A large number of snakes and lizards inhabit this sub-region, but they have not yet been classified with sufficient precision to enable us to make much use of them. Among lizards, Iguanidæ, Geckotidæ, Scincidæ, and Zonuridæ, appear to be numerous; and many new genera of doubtful value have been described. Among snakes, Calamariidæ, Colubridæ, and Crotalidæ are represented. Among Amphibia, _Siredon_, one of the Proteidæ, is peculiar. The rivers and lakes of the Great Central Basin, and the Colorado River, contain many peculiar forms of Cyprinidæ.

_III. The Eastern or Alleghany Sub-region._

This sub-region contains examples of all that is most characteristic of Nearctic zoology. It is for the most part an undulating or mountainous forest-clad country, with a warm or temperate climate, but somewhat extreme in character, and everywhere abounding in animal and vegetable life. To the west, across the Mississippi, the country becomes more open, gradually rises, becomes much drier, and at length merges into the arid plains of the central sub-region. To the south, in Georgia, Florida, and Louisiana, a sub-tropical climate prevails, and winter is almost unknown. To the north, in Michigan and New England, the winters are very severe, and streams and lakes are frozen for months together. These different climates, however, produce little effect on the forms of animal life; the species to some extent change as we go from north to south, but the same types everywhere prevail. This portion of the United States, having been longest inhabited by Europeans, has been more thoroughly explored than other parts of North America; and to this more complete knowledge its superior zoological richness {132}may be to some extent due; but there can be little doubt that it is also positively, and not merely relatively, more productive in varied forms of animal life than either of the other sub-regions.

_Mammalia._--There seems to be only one genus absolutely peculiar to this sub-region--the very remarkable _Condylura_, or star-nosed mole, only found from Pennsylvania to Nova Scotia, and as far as about 94° west longitude. It also has opossums (_Didelphys_) in common with California, and three out of four species of _Scalops_, a genus of moles; as well as the skunk (_Mephitis_), American badger (_Taxidea_), racoon (_Procyon_), pouched rat (_Geomys_), beaver rat (_Fiber_), jumping mouse (_Jaculus_), tree porcupine (_Erethizon_), and other characteristic Nearctic forms.

_Birds._--The birds of this sub-region have been carefully studied by American naturalists, and many interesting facts ascertained as to their distribution and migrations. About 120 species of birds are peculiar to the east coast of the United States, but only about 30 of these are residents all the year round in any part of it; the bird population being essentially a migratory one, coming from the north in winter and the south in summer. The largest number of species seems to be congregated in the district of the Alleghany mountains. A considerable proportion of the passerine birds winter in Central America and the West Indian Islands, and go to the Middle States or Canada to breed; so that even the luxuriant Southern States do not possess many birds which may be called permanent residents. Thus, in East Pennsylvania there are only 52, and in the district of Columbia 54 species, found all the year round, out of about 130 which breed in these localities; very much below the number which permanently reside in Great Britain.

This sub-region is well characterised by its almost exclusive possession of _Ectopistes_, the celebrated passenger pigeon, whose enormous flocks and breeding places have been so often described; and _Cupidonia_, a remarkable genus of grouse. The only Nearctic parrot, _Conurus carolinensis_, is found in the Southern States; as well as _Crotophaga_, a South American genus usually associated with the cuckoos. _Helmintherus_ and {133}_Oporornis_, genera of wood-warblers, may be considered to be peculiar to this sub-region, since in each case only one of the two species migrates as far as Central America; while two other genera of the same family, _Siurus_ and _Setophaga_, as well as the finch genus, _Euspiza_, do not extend to either of the western sub-regions. _Parus_, a genus of tits, comes into the district from the north; _Otocorys_, an alpine lark, and _Coturniculus_, an American finch, from the west; and such characteristic Nearctic genera as _Antrostomus_ (the whip-poor-will goatsuckers); _Helminthophaga_, _Dendræca_, and _Myiodioctes_ (wood-warblers); _Vireo_ (greenlets); _Dolichonyx_ (rice-bird); _Quiscalus_ (troupial); _Meleagris_ (turkey); and _Ortyx_ (American partridge), are wide-spread and abundant. In Mr. J. A. Allen's elaborate and interesting paper on the birds of eastern North America, he enumerates 32 species which breed only in the more temperate portions of this province, and may therefore be considered to be especially characteristic of it. These belong to the following genera:--_Turdus_, _Galeoscoptes_, _Harporhynchus_, _Sialia_, _Dendræca_, _Wilsonia_, _Pyranga_, _Vireo_, _Lanivireo_, _Lophophanes_, _Coturniculus_, _Ammodromus_, _Spizella_, _Euspiza_, _Hedymeles_, _Cyanospiza_, _Pipilo_, _Cardinalis_, _Icterus_, _Corvus_, _Centurus_, _Melanerpes_, _Antrostomus_, _Coccyzus_, _Ortyx_, and _Cupidonia_.

_Reptiles._--In this class the Eastern States are rich, possessing many peculiar forms not found in other parts of the region. Among snakes it has the genera _Farancia_ and _Dimodes_ belonging to the fresh-water snakes (Homalopsidæ); the South American genus _Elaps_; and 3 genera of rattlesnakes, _Cenchris_, _Crotalophorus_, and _Crotalus_. The following genera of snakes are said to occur in the State of New York:--_Coluber_, _Tropidonotus_, _Leptophis_, _Calamaria_, _Heterodon_, _Trigonocephalus_, _Crotalus_, _Psammophis_, _Helicops_, _Rhinostoma_, _Pituophis_, and _Elaps_.

Among lizards, _Chirotes_, forming a peculiar family of Amphisbenians, inhabits Missouri and Mexico; while the remarkable glass-snake, _Ophisaurus_, belonging to the family Zonuridæ, is peculiar to the Southern States; and the South American _Sphærodactylus_, one of the gecko family, reaches Florida. Other genera which extend as far north as the State of New {134}York are, _Scincus_, _Tropidolepis_, _Plestiodon_, _Lygosoma_, _Ameiva_, and _Phrynosoma_.

Tortoises, especially the fresh-water kind, are very abundant; and the genera _Aromochelys_, _Chelydra_, _Terrapene_, and _Trionyx_, are nearly, if not quite, confined to this division of the region.

_Amphibia._--Almost all the remarkable forms of Urodela, or tailed batrachians, peculiar to the region are found here only; such as _Siren_ and _Pseudobranchus_, constituting the family Sirenidæ; _Menobranchus_, allied to the _Proteus_ of Europe; _Amphiuma_, an eel-like creature with four rudimentary feet, constituting the family Amphiumidæ; _Notopthalmus_, _Desmognathus_, and _Menopoma_, belonging to the Salamandridæ; together with several other genera of wider range. Of Anura, or tail-less batrachians, there are no peculiar genera, but the Neotropical genus of toads, _Engystoma_, extends as far as South Carolina.

_Fishes._--Owing to its possession of the Mississippi and the great lakes, almost all the peculiar forms of North American fishes are confined to this sub-region. Such are _Perca_, _Pileoma_, _Huro_, _Bryttus_, and _Pomotis_ (Percidæ); the families Aphredoderidæ and Percopsidæ; several genera of Cyprinodontidæ and Cyprinidæ; and the family Polydontidæ.

_Islands of the Alleghany Sub-region._

_The Bermudas._--These islands, situated in the Atlantic, about 700 miles from the coast of Carolina, are chiefly interesting for the proof they afford of the power of a great variety of birds to cross so wide an extent of ocean. There are only 6 or 8 species of birds which are permanent residents on the islands, all common North American species; while no less than 140 species have been recorded as visiting them. Most of these are stragglers, many only noticed once; others appear frequently and in great numbers, but very few, perhaps not a dozen, come every year, and can be considered regular migrants. The permanent residents are, a greenlet (_Vireo noveboracensis)_, the catbird (_Galeoscoptes carolinensis_), the blue bird (_Sialia sialis_), the cardinal (_Cardinalis virginianus_), the American crow (_Corvus {135}americanus_), and the ground dove (_Chamæpelia passerina_). The most regular visitants are a kingfisher (_Ceryle alcyon_), the wood-wagtail (_Siurus noveboracensis_), the rice-bird (_Dolichonyx oryzivorus_), and a moorhen (_Gallinula galeata_). Besides the American species, four European birds have been taken at the Bermudas: _Saxicola oenanthe_, _Alauda arvensis_ (perhaps introduced), _Crex pratensis_, and _Scolopax gallinago_.

A common American lizard, _Plestiodon longirostris_, is the only land reptile found on the islands.

_IV. The Sub-Arctic or Canadian Sub-region._

This sub-region serves to connect together the other three, since they all merge gradually into it; while to the north it passes into the circumpolar zone which is common to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions. The greater portion of it is an extensive forest-district, mostly of coniferæ; and where these cease towards the north, barren wastes extend to the polar ocean. It possesses several northern or arctic forms of Mammalia, such as the glutton, lemming, reindeer, and elk, which barely enter the more southern sub-regions; as well as the polar bear and arctic fox; but it also has some peculiar forms, and many of the most characteristic Nearctic types. The remarkable musk-sheep (_Ovibos_) is confined to this sub-region, ranging over a considerable extent of country north of the forests, as well as Greenland. It has been extinct in Europe and Asia since the Post-pliocene epoch. Such purely Nearctic genera as _Procyon_, _Latax_, _Erethizon_, _Jaculus_, _Fiber_, _Thomomys_, and _Hesperomys_, abound, many of them ranging to the shores of Hudson's Bay and the barren wastes of northern Labrador. Others, such as _Blarina_, _Condylura_, and _Mephitis_, are found only in Nova Scotia and various parts of Canada. About 20 species of Mammalia seem to be peculiar to this sub-region.

_Plate XX. Illustrating the Zoology of Canada._--We have here a group of Mammalia characteristic of Canada and the colder parts of the United States. Conspicuous in the foreground is the skunk (_Mephitis mephitica_), belonging to a genus of the weasel family found only in America. This animal is {136}celebrated for its power of ejecting a terribly offensive liquid, the odour of which is almost intolerable. The skunks are nocturnal animals, and are generally marked, as in the species represented, with conspicuous bands and patches of white. This enables them to be easily seen at night, and thus serves to warn larger animals not to attack them. To the left is the curious little jumping mouse (_Jaculus hudsonius_), the American representative of the Palæarctic jerboa. Climbing up a tree on the left is the tree porcupine (_Erethizon dorsatus_), belonging to the family Cercolabidæ, which represents, on the American continent, the porcupines of the Old World. In the background is the elk or moose (_Alces americanus_), perhaps identical with the European elk, and the most striking inhabitant of the northern forests of America, as the bison is of the prairies.

_Birds._--Although the Canadian sub-region possesses very few resident birds, the numbers which breed in it are perhaps greater than in the other sub-regions, because a large number of circumpolar species are found here exclusively. From a comparison of Mr. Allen's tables it appears, that more than 200 species are regular migrants to Canada in the breeding season, and nearly half of these are land-birds. Among them are to be found a considerable number of genera of the American families Tyrannidæ and Mniotiltidæ, as well as the American genera _Sialia_, _Progne_, _Vireo_, _Cistothorus_, _Junco_, _Pipilo_, _Zonotrichia_, _Spizella_, _Melospiza_, _Molothrus_, _Agelæus_, _Cyanura_, _Sphyrapicus_, and many others; so that the ornithology of these northern regions is still mainly Nearctic in character. Besides these, it has such specially northern forms as _Surnia_ (Strigidæ); _Picoides_ (Picidæ); _Pinicola_ (Fringillidæ); as well as _Leucosticte_, _Plectrophanes_, _Perisoreus_, and _Lagopus_, which extend further south, especially in the middle sub-region. No less than 212 species of birds have been collected in the new United States territory of Alaska (formerly Russian America), where a humming-bird (_Selasphorus rufus_) breeds. The great majority of these are typically American, including such forms as _Colaptes_, _Helminthophaga_, _Siurus_, _Dendræca_, _Myiodioctes_, _Passerculus_, _Zonotrichia_, _Junco_, _Spizella_, _Melospizpa_, _Passerella_, _Scoleophagas_, _Pediocetes_, and _Bonasa_; together with many northern birds common to both continents. Yet a few Palæarctic forms, not known in other parts of the sub-region, appear here. These are _Budytes flava_, _Phylloscopus kennicottii_, and _Pyrrhula coccinea_, all belonging to genera not occurring elsewhere in North America. Considering the proximity of the district to North-east Asia, and the high probability that there was an actual land connection at, and south of, Behring's Straits, in late Tertiary times, it is somewhat remarkable that the admixture of Palæarctic and Nearctic groups is not greater than it is. The Palæarctic element, however, forms so small apportion of the whole fauna, that it may be satisfactorily accounted for by the establishment of immigrants since the Glacial period. The great interest felt by ornithologists in the discovery of the three genera above-named, with a wren allied to a European species, is an indication that the faunas even of the northern parts of the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions are, as regards birds, radically distinct. It may be mentioned that the birds of the Aleutian Isles are also, so far as known, almost wholly Nearctic. The number of land-birds known from Alaska is 77; and from the Aleutian Isles 16 species, all of which, except one, are North American.

Plate XX.

A CANADIAN FOREST, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

{137}_Reptiles._--These are comparatively few and unimportant. There are however five snakes and three tortoises which are limited to Canada proper; while further north there are only Amphibia, represented by frogs and toads, and a salamander of the genus _Plethodon_.

_Fishes._--Most of the groups of fresh-water fish of the Nearctic region are represented here, especially those of the perch, salmon, and pike families; but there seem to be few or no peculiar genera.

_Insects._--These are far less numerous than in the more temperate districts, but are still tolerably abundant. In Canada there are 53 species of butterflies, viz., Papilionidæ, 4; Pieridæ, 2; Nymphalidæ, 21; Satyridæ, 3; Lycænidæ 16, and Hesperidæ 7. Most of these are, no doubt, found chiefly in the southern parts of Canada. That Coleoptera are pretty numerous is shown, by more than 800 species having been collected on the {138}shores of Lake Superior; 177 being Geodephaga and 39 Longicorns.

_Greenland._--This great arctic island must be considered as belonging to the Nearctic region, since of its six land mammals, three are exclusively American (_Myodes torquatus_, _Lepus glacialis_, and _Ovibos moschatus_), while the other three (_Vulpes lagopus_, _Ursus maritimus_, and _Rangifer tarandus_) are circumpolar. Only fourteen land-birds are either resident in, or regular migrants to the country; and of these two are European (_Haliæetus albicilla_, and _Falco peregrinus_), while three are American (_Anthus ludovicianus_, _Zonotrichia leucophrys_, and _Lagopus rupestris_), the rest being arctic species common to both continents. The waders and aquatics (49 in number) are nearly equally divided between both continents; but the land-birds which visit Greenland as stragglers are mostly American. Yet although the Nearctic element somewhat preponderates, Greenland really belongs to that circumpolar debateable land, which is common to the two North Temperate regions.

_Concluding remarks._--We have already discussed pretty fully, though somewhat incidentally, the status and relations of the Nearctic region; first in our chapter on Zoological regions, then in our review of extinct faunas, and lastly in the earlier part of this chapter. It will not therefore be necessary to go further into the question here; but we shall, in our next chapter, give a brief summary of the general conclusions we have reached as to the past history and mutual zoological relations of all the great divisions of the earth.

{139}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of various classes of animals in the Nearctic region, the following sources of information have been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in the compilation of the 4th Part of this work.

_Mammalia._--Professor Baird's Catalogue; Allen's List of the Bats; Mr. Lord's List for British Columbia; Brown, for Greenland; Packard for Labrador.

_Birds._--Baird, Cassin, and Allen's Lists for United States; Richardson's Fauna Boreali Americana; Jones, for Bermudas; and papers by Brown, Coues, Lord, Packard, Dall, and Professor Newton.

{140}TABLE I.

_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEARCTIC REGION._

EXPLANATION.

Names in _italics_ show the families which are peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (......) show families which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV.

---------------------+-------------------+------------------------------- | Sub-regions | | 1=California. | Order and Family | 2=Rocky Mntns. | Range beyond the Region. | 3=Alleghanies. | | 4=Canada. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | ---------------------+----+----+----+----+------------------------------- | | | | | MAMMALIA. | | | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | | | 10. Phyllostomidæ | -- | | | | Neotropical 12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 13. Noctilionidæ | -- | | | | Tropical regions | | | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | | | 21. Talpidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic 22. Soricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | The Eastern Hemisphere, excl. | | | | | Australia | | | | | CARNIVORA. | | | | | 23. Felidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but the Australian 28. Canidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but the Australian 29. Mustelidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but the Australian 30. Procyonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical 32. Ursidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental 33. Otariidæ | -- | | | -- | N. and S. temperate zones 34. Trichechidæ | | | | -- | Arctic regions 35. Phocidæ | -- | | | -- | N. and S. temperate zones | | | | | CETACEA. | | | | | 36 to 41. | | | | | Oceanic | | | | | UNGULATA. | | | | | 47. Suidæ | | | -- | | All other continents but | | | | | Australia 50. Cervidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Ethiopian and | | | | | Australian 52. Bovidæ | -- | -- | | -- |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, Oriental | | | | | RODENTIA. | | | | | 55. Muridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 57. Dipodidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Ethiopian 59. _Saccomyidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Mexican sub-region 60. Castoridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic 61. Sciuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian 62. _Haploodontidæ_ | -- | | | | 66. Cercolabidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical 69. Lagomyidæ | | -- | | -- | Palæarctic 70. Leporidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian | | | | | MARSUPIALIA. | | | | | 76. Didelphyidæ | -- | | -- | | Neotropical | | | | | BIRDS. | | | | | PASSERES. | | | | | 1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 2. Sylviidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 5. Cinclidæ | | -- | | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental, Andes 6. Troglodytidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian 7. _Chamæidæ_ | -- | | | | 8. Certhiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental, | | | | | Australian 9. Sittidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental, | | | | | Australian 10. Paridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | The Eastern Hemisphere 19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | The Eastern Hemisphere 20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 26. (Coerebidæ) | | | -- | | Neotropical family 27. Mniotiltidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical 28. Vireonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical 29. Ampelidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Antilles, Guatemala 30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 31. Icteridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical 32. Tanagridæ | | -- | -- | | Neotropical 33. Fringillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian 37. Alaudidæ | | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Neotropical 38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 39. Tyrannidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical | | | | | PICARIÆ. | | | | | 51. Picidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian 58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | | Almost cosmopolite 67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 75. Trochilidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical | | | | | PSITTACI. | | | | | 80. Conuridæ | | | -- | | Neotropical | | | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | | | 84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite | | | | | GALLINÆ. | | | | | 87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 88. Phasianidæ | | -- | -- | | Palæarctic, Oriental, | | | | | Ethiopian, Honduras 91. (Cracidæ) | | -- | | | Neotropical | | | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | | | 94. Vulturidæ | -- | -- | -- | | All regions but Australian 96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite | | | | | GRALLÆ. | | | | | 99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 107. Gruidæ | -- | -- | -- | | All regions but Neotropical 113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 115. Ciconiidæ | | | -- | | All the regions | | | | | ANSERES. | | | | | 118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 123. Colymbidæ | | | | -- | North temperate and arctic | | | | | zones 124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 125. Alcidæ | -- | | | -- | North temperate and arctic | | | | | zones | | | | | REPTILIA. | | | | | OPHIDIA. | | | | | 5. Calamariidæ | -- | -- | -- | | All the regions 6. Oligodontidæ | | | -- | | Neotropical, Oriental, Japan 7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite 8. Homalopsidæ | | | -- | | All the regions 17. Pythonidæ | -- | | | | All tropical regions 20. Elapidæ | | | -- | | All tropical regions, Japan 24. Crotalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical, Palæarctic, | | | | | Oriental | | | | | LACERTILIA. | | | | | 27. _Chirotidæ_ | | -- | -- | | Mexico 32. Teidæ | -- | -- | -- | | Neotropical 34. Zonuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian 35. Chalcidæ | | | -- | | Neotropical 45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | | Almost cosmopolite 49. Geckotidæ | -- | -- | -- | | Almost cosmopolite 50. Iguanidæ | -- | -- | -- | | Neotropical | | | | | CROCODILIA. | | | | | 56. Alligatoridæ | | | -- | | Neotropical | | | | | CHELONIA. | | | | | 57. Testudinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australian 59. Trionychidæ | | | -- | | Ethiopian, Oriental, Japan 60. Cheloniidæ | | | | | Marine | | | | | AMPHIBIA. | | | | | URODELA. | | | | | 2. _Sirenidæ_ | | | -- | | 3. Proteidæ | | | -- | | Palæarctic 4. _Amphiumidæ_ | | | -- | | 5. Menopomidæ | | | -- | | Palæarctic 6. Salamandridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Andes, Palæarctic | | | | | ANOURA. | | | | | 10. Bufonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australia 12. Engystomidæ | | | -- | | All regions but Nearctic 15. Alytidæ | -- | -- | -- | | All regions but Oriental 17. Hylidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Ethiopian 18. Polypedatidæ | | | -- | | All the regions 19. Ranidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite | | | | | FISHES (FRESHWATER). | | | | | ACANTHOPTERYGII. | | | | | 1. Gasterosteidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic 3. Percidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 4. _Aphredoderidæ_ | | | -- | | 12. Scienidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian 37. Atherinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic | | | | | PHYSOSTOMI. | | | | | 59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions 65. Salmonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, New Zealand 66. _Percopsidæ_ | | | | -- | 70. Esocidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic 71. Umbridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic 73. Cyprinodontidæ | -- | -- | -- | | All regions but Australian 74. _Heteropygii_ | | | -- | | 75. Cyprinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Not in S. America or Australia 77. _Hyodontidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | | | | | | GANOIDEI. | | | | | 93. _Amiidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | 95. _Lepidosteidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | 96. Accipenseridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic 97. Polydontidæ | | | -- | | Palæarctic | | | | | INSECTS. | | | | | LEPIDOPTERA (PART) | | | | | DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES).| | | | | 1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions 2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 7. (Heliconidæ) | | | -- | | Neotropical 8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 9. Libytheidæ | | -- | -- | | Not in Australia 12. Erycinidæ | -- | -- | -- | | Neotropical 13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite | | | | | SPHINGIDEA. | | | | | 17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite 18. Castniidæ | | | -- | | Neotropical, Australian 22. Ægeriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Not in Australia 23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite

{145}TABLE II.

_LIST OF GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE NEARCTIC REGION._

EXPLANATION.

Names in _italics_ show genera peculiar to the region.

Names enclosed thus (...) indicate genera which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera properly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.

_MAMMALIA._

-------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region. -------------------+-------+----------------------+---------------------- | | | CHIROPTERA. | | | PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ. | | | 1. Macrotus | 1 | California Mexico, | | | Antilles | | | | VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | | 2. Scotophilus | 5 | Universal, to Hudson's| Neotr., Orient., | | Bay | Austral. 3. Vespertilio | 6 | Universal, to Hudson's| Cosmopolite. | | Bay | 4. Nycticejus | 1 | South and East | India, Tropical | | | Africa, temperate | | | S. America 5. Lasiurus | 3 | Temp. N. Amer. to | Tropical America | | Nova Scotia | 6. _Synotus_ | 2 |S. E. and Central States 7. _Autrozous_ | 1 | W. Coast | | | | NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | | 8. Nyctinomus | 1 | Cal. and S. Central |Neotropical, Oriental, | | Sub-region | S. Palæarctic | | | INSECTIVORA. | | | TALPIDÆ. | | | 9. _Condylura_ | 1 | Eastern N. America | 10. _Scapanus_ | 2 | New York to San | | | Francisco | 11. _Scalops_ | 3 | S. of Great Lakes & | | | Brit. Columb. | 12. Urotrichus | 1 | British Columbia | Japan | | | SORICIDÆ. | | | 13. Sorex | 16 | The whole region | Palæarc., Ethiop., | | | Orien. 14. Neosorex | 1 | Vancouver's Island | | | (a sub-genus) | 15. Blarina | 7 | Canada to Mexico | | | (a sub-genus) | | | | CARNIVORA. | | | FELIDÆ. | | | 16. Felis | 5 | S. of 55° N. Latitude | All regs. but | | | Australian 17. Lynx | 3 | S. of 56° N. Latitude | Palæarctic | | | CANIDÆ. | | | 18. Lupus | 6 | All N. America | Palæarctic, Oriental 19. Vulpes | 6 | N. America to Arctic | Palæarc., Ethiop., | | Ocean and Greenland | Orient. | | | MUSTELIDÆ. | | | 20. Martes | 2 | Pennsylvania to | Palæarctic, Oriental | | Paget's Sound | 21. Mustela | 11 | All N. America | Peru, Palæarctic, | | | Ethiopian, Oriental 22. Gulo | 1 | Rocky Mountains and | N. Palæarctic | | Canada | 23. _Latax_ | 2 | United States and | | | Canada | 24. Enhydris | 1 | Pacific coast |W. coast of S. America 25. _Taxidea_ | 2 |Arkansas to 58° N. Lat.| 26. Mephitis | 6 | United States and | Neotropical | | Canada | | | | PROCYONIDÆ. | | | 27. Procyon | 2 | Texas to Canada, | Neotropical | | California | 28. Bassaris | 1 | California and Texas | Guatemala and Mexico | | | URSIDÆ. | | | 29. Ursus | 3 | N. America and | Palæarctic, Oriental | | Greenland | | | | OTARIIDÆ. | | | 30. Callorhinus | 1 | Behring's Straits | Kamschatka 31. Zalophus | 1 | S. California to | Japan | | N. Pacific | _Eumetopias_ | 1 | California to | | | Behring's Straits | | | | TRICHECHIDÆ. | | | 32. Trichechus | 1 | Arctic Ocean to 66° N.| Palæarctic | | Lat. in N. America | PHOCIDÆ. | | | 33. Callocephalus | 1 | Greenland | Palæarctic 34. Pagomys | 1 | N. Atlantic and | Japan | | N. Pacific | 35. Pagophilus | 1 | N. Atlantic and | Palæarctic | | N. Pacific | 36. _Halicyon_ | 1 | N. W. coast of America| 37. Phoca | 1 | Northern Coast | Palæarctic 38. Halichoerus | 1 | Greenland | Palæarctic 39. Morunga | 1 | California | S. temperate shores 40. Cystophora | | Greenland | N. Atlantic | | | UNGULATA. | | | SUIDÆ. | | | 41. Dicotyles | 1 | Texas to Red River, | Neotropical | | Arkansas | | | | CERVIDÆ. | | | 42. Alces | 1 | N. E. United States & | N. Palæarctic | | Canada | 43. Rangifer | 2 | Maine to Arctic Ocean | Arctic zone | | & Greenl. | 44. Cervus | 6 | N. America to 57° N. | Neotr., Palæarc., | | Lat. | Orien. | | | BOVIDÆ. | | | 45. Bison | 1 | Between Missouri & | E. Europe | | Rocky Mtns. | 46. _Antilocapra_ | 1 | Central plains from | | | Rio Grande to | | | British Columbia | 47. _Aplocerus_ | 1 | Northern Rocky | | | Mountains | 48. Capra | 1 | Upper Missouri and | Palæarctic | | Rocky Mountains | | | northwards | 49. _Ovibos_ | 1 | Arctic America and | | | Greenland | | | | RODENTIA. | | | MURIDÆ. | | | 50. Reithrodon | 5 | N. America to Lat. | Neotropical | | 39° N. | 51. Hesperomys | 16 | Temperate N. America | Neotropical 52. _Neotoma_ | 7 | Temperate N. America | 53. _Sigmodon_ | 2 | S. and S. E. States | 54. Arvicola | 27 | Texas and California | Palæarctic | | to Hudson's Bay | 55. Myodes | 3 | N. United States to | N. Palæarctic | | Arctic Reg. and | | | Greenland | 56. _Fiber_ | 1 | All N. America | Mexico | | | DIPODIDÆ. | | | 57. _Jaculus_ | 1 | Pennsylvania to Canada| | | and California | | | | SACCOMYIDÆ. | | | 58. _Dipodomys_ | 5 | New Mexico to Columbia| | | River and Carolina | 59. _Perognathus_ | 6 | New Mexico to British | | | Columbia | 60. _Thomomys_ | 2 | Upper Missouri to | | | Hudson's Bay | 61. _Geomys_ | 5 | New Mexico to Alabama | | | and Nebraska | 62. _Saccomys_ | 1 | N. America | | | | CASTORIDÆ. | | | 63. Castor | 1 | N. Mexico to Labrador | Palæarctic | | | SCIURIDÆ | | | 64. Sciurus | 18 | N. America to Labrador| All regs. but | | | Australian 65. Sciuropterus | 4 | California & E. States| Palæarctic, Oriental | | northwds. | 66. Tamias | 4 | Mexico and Virginia | Mexico, N. Asia | | to Canada | 67. Spermophilus | 15 | N., W., & Central | Palæarctic | | N. America | 68. _Cynomys_ | 2 | Rio Grande to Missouri| | | (Central) | 69. Arctomys | 4 | Virginia and Nebraska,| N. Palæarctic | | northws. | | | | HAPLOODONTIDÆ. | | | 70. _Haploodon_ | 2 | California and British| | | Columbia | | | | CERCOLABIDÆ | | | 71. _Erethizon_ | 2 |Pennsylvania to Canada,| | | & Pacific coast | LAGOMYIDÆ. | | | 72. Lagomys | 1 | Rocky Mountains, 42° | Palæarctic | | to 60° N. Lat. | | | | LEPORIDÆ. | | | 73. Lepus | 15 | All N. America to | All regs. but | | Greenland | Australian | | | MARSUPIALIA. | | | DIDELPHYIDÆ. | | | 74. Didelphys | 2 | From Hudson's River & | Neotropical | | Lower California, | | | southward |

_BIRDS._

PASSERES. | | | TURDIDÆ. | | | 1. Turdus | 9 | The whole region | Almost cosmopolite 2. Mimus | 2 | All U. States and to | Neotropical | | Canada | 3. Galeoscoptes | 1 | E. of N. America | To Panama 4. _Oreoscoptes_ | 1 | California and Rocky | Mexico | | Mountains | 5. _Harporhynchus_| 7 | N. America, chiefly | Mexico | | the west | | | | SYLVIIDÆ. | | | 6. Myiadestes | 1 | W. of Rocky Mountains | Neotropical | | and to Canada | 7. _Sialia_ | 3 | All United States and | Mexico and Guatemala | | to Canada | 8. Regulus | 3 | All United States & | Palæarc., Cent. | | to Labrador | America 9. Polioptila | 3 | Central and Southern | Neotropical | | U. States | | | | CINCLIDÆ. | | | 10. Cinclus | 1 | Rocky Mountains and | Andes, Palæarctic | | British America | | | | TROGLODYTIDÆ. | | | 11. Troglodytes | 3 | N. America | Neotropical, | | | Palæarctic 12. Thryophilus | 1 | N. W. America | Neotropical 13. Thryothorus | 3 | All N. America | Neotropical 14. Cistothorus | 2 | N. America | Neotropical (Campylorhynchus| 1 | Gila and Rio Grande) | Neotropical genus 15. _Salpinctes_ | 1 | Rocky Mountains to | | | Oregon | 16. _Catherpes_ | 1 | Gila and Colorado | | | | CHAMÆIDÆ. | | | 17. _Chamæa_ | 1 | California | | | | CERTHIIDÆ. | | | 18. Certhia | 2 | All United States and | Palæarctic, Guatemala | | Canada | | | | SITTIDÆ. | | | 19. Sitta | 5 | All United States and | Palæarctic, Mexico | | Canada | | | | PARIDÆ. | | | 20. Parus | 8 | All United States and | Palæarc., Orien., | | Canada | Mexico 21. Lophophanes | 4 | All United States | Palæarctic, Mexico 22. _Psaltriparus_ | 3 | Central & Western | Mexico and Guatemala | | N. America | 23. _Auriparus_ | 1 | Rio Grande Valley | | | | LANIIDÆ. | | | 24. Lanius | 4 | All N. America | Palæarc., Ethio., | | | Orient. | | | CORVIDÆ. | | | 25. Perisoreus | 1 | Canada and Rocky | Palæarctic | | Mountains | 26. Cyanocitta | 9 | All United States and | Neotropical | | to Canada | 27. _Gymnokitta_ | 1 | Central and N. W. | | | States | 28. _Picicorvus_ | 1 | Central and Western | | | States to Sitka | 29. Pica | 2 | Central and Western | Palæarctic | | States to Arctic | | | Ocean | 30. Corvus | 7 | All N. America | Cosmop., excl. | | | S. Amer. | | | COEREBIDÆ. | | | (Certhiola | 1 | Florida; summer | Neotropical genus | | migrant) | | | | MNIOTILTIDÆ. | | | 31. _Mniotilta_ | 1 | Eastern States | Antilles, Andes of | | | Columbia (migrant) 32. Parula | 1 | Eastern States and | Neotropical | | Canada | 33. Protonotaria | 1 | Ohio and southwards | Neotrop. to Venezuela 34._Helminthophaga_| 8 | All N. America | Mexico to Columbia 35. _Helmintherus_ | 2 | S. and E. States to | Mexico to Veragua | | Canada | 36. Perissoglossa | 1 | Eastern United States | Antilles 37. Dendroeca | 22 | All N. America | Mex. to Ecuador & | | | Chili 38. _Oporornis_ | 2 | Eastern States | Guatemala and Panama 39. Geothlypis | 4 | All N. America | Neotropical 40. Setophaga | 2 | E. States & Canadian | Neotropical | | sub-region | 41. _Myiodioctes_ | 5 | United States and | Mex. to Columb. | | Canada | (migr.) 42. Siurus | 3 | S. and E. States to | Mexico to Columbia | | Canada | 43. _Icteria_ | 2 | E. and Central States | Mexico to Costa Rica | | to Canada | | | | VIREONIDÆ. | | | 44. Vireosylvia | 7 | All N. America |Antilles and Venezuela 45. Vireo | 6 | All United States | Antilles and Costa | | | Rica | | | AMPELIDÆ. | | | 46. Ampelis | 2 | All N. America | Palæarctic, Guatemala 47. _Phænopepla_ | 1 |Gila and Lower Colorado| Mexico | | | HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | 48. Hirundo | 3 | All N. America | Almost cosmopolite 49. Petrochelidon | 1 | All N. America | Neotropical 50. Cotyle | 1 | All N. America | All regs. but | | | Australian 51. Stelgidopteryx | 1 | Southern States | Neotropical 52. Progne | 1 | All N. America | Neotropical | | | ICTERIDÆ. | | | 53. Icterus | 7 | All United States and | Neotropical | | Canada | 54. Dolichonyx | 1 | Eastern States and | Neotropical | | Canada | 55. Molothrus | 1 | All United States and | Neotropical | | Canada | 56. Agelæus | 3 | All United Slates and | Neotropical | | Canada | 57._Xanthocephalus_| 1 | The whole region | Mexico 58. Sturnella | 2 | All United States and | Neotropical | | Canada | 59. _Scolecophagus_| 2 | All United States and | Mexico | | Canada | 60. Quiscalus | 4 | S. and E. States to | Mexico to Venezuela | | Labrador | | | | TANAGRIDÆ. | | | 61. Pyranga | 4 | United Stales and | Neotropical | | Canada | | | | FRINGILLIDÆ. | | | 62. Chrysomitris | 7 | The whole region | Neotropical, | | | Palæarctic 63. Coccothraustes | 1 | W. and N. W. America | Palæarctic, Guatemala 64. Embernagra | 1 |Rocky Mountain district| Neotropical 65. _Pipilo_ | 9 | All N. America | Mexico and Guatemala 66. _Junco_ | 5 | All United States | Mexico and Guatemala 67. Zonotrichia | 5 | The whole region | Neotropical 68. _Melospiza_ | 7 | All United States to | Mexico and Guatemala | | Sitka | 69. _Spizella_ | 6 | N. America | Mexico and Guatemala 70. _Passerella_ | 3 | The whole region | Northern Asia 71. _Passerculus_ | 6 | The whole region | Mexico and Guatemala 72. _Pooecetes_ | 1 | All United States | Mexico 73. _Ammodromus_ | 3 | All United States | Mexico and Guatemala 74. Coturniculus | 3 |E. and N. of N. America| Neotropical 75. Peucæa | 3 | S. Atlantic States and| Mexico | | California | 76. _Cyanospiza_ | 5 | All United States to | Central American | | Canada | 77. Poospiza | 2 | California and S. | Neotropical | | Central States | 78. Carpodacus | 5 | The whole region | Mexico, Palæarctic 79. Cardinalis | 1 | S. and S. Central | Mexico to Venezuela | | States | 80. _Pyrrhuloxia_ | 1 | Texas and Rio Grande | 81. Guiraca | 1 | Southern States | Neotropical 82. Hedymeles | 2 | All United States | Mexico to Columbia (Spermophila | 1 | Texas) | Neotropical genus 83. Loxia | 2 | N. of Pennsylvania | Palæarctic 84. Pinicola | 1 | Boreal America | Palæarctic 85. Linota | 2 | E. and N. of N. | Palæarctic | | America | 86. Leucosticte | 4 | Alaska to Utah | Palæarctic 87. _Calamospiza_ | 1 | Arizona and Texas to | Mexico | | Mexico | 88. _Chondestes_ | 1 | Western, Cen., & | Mexico | | Southern States | 89. Euspiza | 2 | S. Eastern States | Palæarc., Columb. | | | (mig.) 90. Plectrophanes | 6 | Boreal America and E. | Palæarctic | | side of Rocky | | | Mountains | 91. _Centronyx_ | 1 | Mouth of Yellowstone | | | River | | | | ALAUDIDÆ. | | | 92. Otocorys | 1 | High central plains to| Palæarc., Mexico, | | E. States and Canada| Andes of Columbia | | | MOTACILLIDÆ. | | | 93. Anthus | 1 | The whole region | Cosmopolite 94. _Neocorys_ | 1 | Nebraska | | | | TYRANNIDÆ. | | | 95. Sayornis | 3 | E. States to Canada, | Mexico to Ecuador | | California | (Pyrocephalus | 1 | Gila and Rio Grande) | Neotropical 96. Empidonax | 7 | The whole region | Mexico to Ecuador 97. Contopus | 3 | N. and E. of Rocky | Mexico to Amazonia | | Mountains | 98. Myiarchus | 2 | E. and W. coasts and | Neotropical | | Canada | 99. _Empidias_ | 1 | Eastern States | Mexico 100. Tyrannus | 4 | All United States to | Neotropical | | Canada | (Milvulus | 1 | Texas) | Neotropical genus | | | PICARIÆ. | | | PICIDÆ. | | | 101. Picoides | 3 | Arctic zone and Rocky | Palæarctic | | Mounts. | 102. Picus | 6 | All United States and | All regs. but Eth. | | Canada | & Aus. 103. _Sphyrapicus_ | 6 | Brit. Columbia and | Mexico and Guatemala | | Pennsylvania | | | southwards | 104. Campephilus | 2 | United States and | Neotropical | | Canada | 105. _Hylatomus_ | 1 | E. and W. States and | | | Canada | 106. Centurus | 3 | The whole region | Mexico to Venezuela 107. Melanerpes | 3 | United States and | Neotropical | | S. Canada | 108. Colaptes | 3 | United States and | Neotropical | | Canada | | | | CUCULIDÆ. | | | 109. Crotophaga | 2 | E. States from | Neotropical | | Pennsylvania S. | 110. Coccyzus | 3 | S. E. and Cen. States | Neotropical | | to Canada | 111. Geococcyx | 1 | California to New Mex.| Guatemala | | & Texas | | | | ALCEDINIDÆ. | | | 112. Ceryle | 2 | The whole region, | Neotropical S. | | | Palæarctic, Oriental | | | CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | 113. Chordeiles | 3 | All United States to | Neotropical | | Canada | 114. Antrostomus | 3 | All United States to | Neotropical | | Canada | | | | CYPSELIDÆ. | | | 115. Nephoecetes | 1 | N. W. America Jamaica | 116. Chætura | 2 | All U. States & | Almost cosmopolite | | British Columbia | | | | TROCHILIDÆ. | | | 117. _Trochilus_ | 2 | The whole region | Mexico to Veragua | | | (? mi.) 118. Selasphorus | 2 | W. coast and Centre | Mexico to Veragua 119. _Atthis_ | 2 | California and | Mexico to Guatemala | | Colorado Valley | | | | PSITTACI. | | | CONURIDÆ. | | | 120. Conurus | 1 | S. and S. E. States | Neotropical | | | COLUMBÆ. | | | COLUMBIDÆ. | | | 121. Columba | 3 | W. and Central States | All regs. but | | to Canada | Australian 122. _Ectopistes_ | 1 | E. coast to Cen. | | | plains, Canada and | | | British Columbia | 123. Melopelia | 1 | W. and S. Central | Neotropical | | States | 124. Zenaidura | 1 | All United States to | Mexico to Veragua | | Canada | 125. Chæmepelia | 1 | California and S. E. | Neotropical | | States | | | | GALLINÆ. | | | TETRAONIDÆ. | | | 126. Cyrotonyx | 1 | S. Central States | Mexico and Guatemala 127. Ortyx | 5 | All United States and | Mexico to Honduras | | to Canada | and Costa Rica 128. Callipepla | 1 | California | Mexico 129. _Lophortyx_ | 2 | Arizona and California| 130. _Oreortyx_ | 1 | California and Oregon | 131. Tetrao | 3 | N. and N. W. America | Palæarctic 132. _Centrocercus_ | 1 | Rocky Mountains | 133. _Pediocætes_ | 2 | N. and N. W. America | 134. _Cupidonia_ | 1 | E. & N. Cen. States | | | and Canada | 135. Bonasa | 1 | N. United States and | Palæarctic | | Canada | 136. Lagopus | 4 | Arctic zone and to 39°| Palæarctic | | N. Lat. in Rocky | | | Mountains | | | | PHASIANIDÆ. | | | 137. _Meleagris_ | 2 | E. and Central States | Mexico, Honduras | | to Canada | CRACIDÆ. | | | (Ortalida | 1 | New Mexico) | Neotropical genus | | | ACCIPITRES. | | | VULTURIDÆ. | | | _Sub-Family_ | | | (CATHARTINÆ.) | | | 138. Catharista | 1 | United States to | Neotropical | | 40° N. Lat. | 139. Psuedogryphis | 2 | United States to | Neotropical | | 49° N. Lat. | | | | FALCONIDÆ. | | | 140. Polyborus | 1 | S. States to Florida | Neotropical | | & California | 141. Circus | 1 | All N. America | Nearly cosmopolite 142. Antenor | 2 | California and Texas | Neotropical 143. Astur | 1 | All N. America | Almost cosmopolite 144. Accipiter | 3 | All temperate | Almost cosmopolite | | N. America | 145. Tachytriorchis | 1 | New Mexico to | Neotropical | | California | 146. Buteo | 12 | All N. America | All regs. but | | | Australian 147. Archibuteo | 3 | All N. America N. | Palæarctic 148. Asturina | 1 | S. E. States | Neotropical 149. Aquila | 1 | The whole region | Palæarc., Ethiop., | | | Indian 150. Haliæetus | 2 | All N. America | All regs. but | | | Neotropical 151. Nauclerus | 1 | E. coast to | Neotropical | | Pennsylvania and | | | Wisconsin | (Rostrhamus | 1 | Florida) | Neotropical 152. Elanus | 1 | Southern and Western | Tropical regions | | States | 153. Ictinia | 1 | Southern States | Neotropical 154. Falco | 7 | The whole region | Almost cosmopolite 155. Hierofalco | 2 | N. of N. America | N. Palæarctic 156. Cerchneis | 1 | All N. America | Almost cosmopolite | | | PANDIONIDÆ. | | | 157. Pandion | 1 | Temperate N. | America Cosmopolite | | | STRIGIDÆ. | | | 158. Surnia | 1 | Arctic & N. Temperate | N. Palæarctic | | America | 159. Nyctea | 1 | S. Carolina to | N. Palæarctic | | Greenland | 160. Glaucidium | 1 | Oregon and California | Neotropical, | | | Palæarctic 161. _Micrathene_ | 1 | Arizona and New Mexico| Mexico 162. Pholeoptynx | 1 | N. W. America, Texas | Neotropical 163. Bubo | 1 | All N. America | All regs. but | | | Australian 164. Scops | 2 | The whole region | Almost cosmopolite 165. Syrnium | 2 | E. States, California,| All regs. but | | Canada | Australian 166. Asio | 2 | The whole region | All regs. but | | | Australian 167. Nyctale | 3 | All N. America | Palæarctic 168. Strix | 1 | Temperate N. America | Almost cosmopolite

_Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds._

GRALLÆ | | | SCOLOPACIDÆ. | | | Micropelma | 1 | N. America | Andes to Chili _Philohela_ | 1 | Eastern States to | | | Canada | | | | CHARADRIIDÆ. | | | Aphriza | 1 | W. coast of America | West of S. America | | | ANSERES. | | | ANATIDÆ. | | | Aix | 1 | N. America | China Bucephala | 4 | N. America | Europe Oedemia | 3 | N. America | Europe Harelda | 1 | Arctic | Arctic Seas Somateria | 5 | Arctic | North Palæarctic _Camptolæmus_ | 1 | N. E. America | | | (? extinct) | | | | LARIDÆ. | | | _Creagrus_ | 1 | California and | | | N. Pacific coasts |

{154}CHAPTER XVI.

SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL REGIONS.

Having now closed our survey of the animal life of the whole earth--a survey which has necessarily been encumbered with a multiplicity of detail--we proceed to summarize the general conclusions at which we have arrived, with regard to the past history and mutual relations of the great regions into which we have divided the land surface of the globe.

All the palæontological, no less than the geological and physical evidence, at present available, points to the great land masses of the Northern Hemisphere as being of immense antiquity, and as the area in which the higher forms of life were developed. In going back through the long series of the Tertiary formations, in Europe, Asia, and North America, we find a continuous succession of vertebrate forms, including all the highest types now existing or that have existed on the earth. These extinct animals comprise ancestors or forerunners of all the chief forms now living in the Northern Hemisphere; and as we go back farther and farther into the past, we meet with ancestral forms of those types also, which are now either confined to, or specially characteristic of, the land masses of the Southern Hemisphere. Not only do we find that elephants, and rhinoceroses, and hippopotami, were once far more abundant in Europe than they are now in the tropics, but we also find that the apes of West Africa and Malaya, the lemurs of Madagascar, the Edentata of Africa and South America, and the {155}Marsupials of America and Australia, were all represented in Europe (and probably also in North America) during the earlier part of the Tertiary epoch. These facts, taken in their entirety, lead us to conclude that, during the whole of the Tertiary and perhaps during much of the Secondary periods, the great land masses of the earth were, as now, situated in the Northern Hemisphere; and that here alone were developed the successive types of vertebrata from the lowest to the highest. In the Southern Hemisphere there appear to have been three considerable and very ancient land masses, varying in extent from time to time, but always keeping distinct from each other, and represented, more or less completely, by Australia, South Africa, and South America of our time. Into these flowed successive waves of life, as they each in turn became temporarily united with some part of the northern land. Australia appears to have had but one such union, perhaps during the middle or latter part of the Secondary epoch, when it received the ancestors of its Monotremata and Marsupials, which it has since developed into a great variety of forms. The South African and South American lands, on the other hand, appear each to have had several successive unions and separations, allowing first of the influx of low forms only (Edentata, Insectivora and Lemurs); subsequently of Rodents and small Carnivora, and, latest of all, of the higher types of Primates, Carnivora and Ungulata.

During the whole of the Tertiary period, at least, the Northern Hemisphere appears to have been divided, as now, into an Eastern and a Western continent; always approximating and sometimes united towards the north, and then admitting of much interchange of their respective faunas; but on the whole keeping distinct, and each developing its own special family and generic types, of equally high grade, and generally belonging to the same Orders. During the Eocene and Miocene periods, the distinction of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions was better marked than it is now; as is shown by the floras no less than by the faunas of those epochs. Dr. Newberry, in his Report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, states, that although the Miocene flora of Central North {156}America corresponds generally with that of the European Miocene, yet many of the tropical, and especially the Australian types, such as _Hakea_ and _Dryandra_, are absent. Owing to the recent discovery of a rich Cretaceous flora in North America, probably of the same age as that of Aix-la-Chapelle in Europe, we are able to continue the comparison; and it appears, that at this early period the difference was still more marked. The predominant feature of the European Cretaceous flora seems to have been the abundance of Proteaceæ, of which seven genera now living in Australia or the Cape of Good Hope have been recognised, besides others which are extinct. There are also several species of _Pandanus_, or screw-pine, now confined to the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, and along with these, oaks, pines, and other more temperate forms. The North American Cretaceous flora, although far richer than that of Europe, contains no Proteaceæ or _Pandani_, but immense numbers of forest trees of living and extinct genera. Among the former we have oaks, beeches, willows, planes, alders, dog-wood, and cypress; together with such American forms as magnolias, sassafras, and liriodendrons. There are also a few not now found in America, as _Araucaria_ and _Cinnamomum_, the latter still living in Japan. This remarkable flora has been found over a wide extent of country--New Jersey, Alabama, Kansas, and near the sources of the Missouri in the latitude of Quebec--so that we can hardly impute its peculiarly temperate character to the great elevation of so large an area. The intervening Eocene flora approximates closely, in North America, to that of the Miocene period; while in Europe it seems to have been fully as tropical in character as that of the preceding Cretaceous period; fruits of _Nipa_, _Pandanus_, _Anona_, _Acacia_, and many Proteaceæ, occurring in the London clay at the mouth of the Thames.

These facts appear, at first sight, to be inconsistent, unless we suppose the climates of Europe and North America to have been widely different in these early times; but they may perhaps be harmonised, on the supposition of a more uniform and a somewhat milder climate then prevailing over the whole Northern Hemisphere; the contrast in the vegetation of these countries {157}being due to a radical difference of type, and therefore not indicative of climate. The early European flora seems to have been a portion of that which now exists only in the tropical and sub-tropical lands of the Eastern Hemisphere; and, as much of this flora still survives in Australia, Tasmania, Japan, and the Cape of Good Hope, it does not necessarily imply more than a warm and equable temperate climate. The early North American flora, on the other hand, seems to have been essentially the same in type as that which now exists there, and which, in the Miocene period, was well represented in Europe; and it is such as now flourishes best in the warmer parts of the United States. But whatever conclusion we may arrive at on the question of climate, there can be no doubt as to the distinctness of the floras of the ancient Nearctic and Palæarctic regions; and the view derived from our study of their existing and extinct faunas--that these two regions have, in past times, been more clearly separated than they are now--receives strong support from the unexpected evidence now obtained as to the character and mutations of their vegetable forms, during so vast an epoch as is comprised in the whole duration of the Tertiary period.

The general phenomena of the distribution of living animals, combined with the evidence of extinct forms, lead us to conclude that the Palæarctic region of early Tertiary times was, for the most part, situated beyond the tropics, although it probably had a greater southward extension than at the present time. It certainly included much of North Africa, and perhaps reached far into what is now the Sahara; while a southward extension of its central mass may have included the Abyssinian highlands, where some truly Palæarctic forms are still found. This is rendered probable by the fossils of Perim Island a little further east, which show that the characteristic Miocene fauna of South Europe and North India prevailed so far within the tropics. There existed, however, at the extreme eastern and western limits of the region, two extensive equatorial land-areas, our Indo-Malayan and West African sub-regions--both of which must have been united for more or less considerable periods with the northern continent. They would then have received {158}from it such of the higher vertebrates as were best adapted for the peculiar climatal and organic conditions which everywhere prevail near the equator; and these would be preserved, under variously modified forms, when they had ceased to exist in the less favourable and constantly deteriorating climate of the north. At later epochs, both these equatorial lands became united to some part of the great South African continent (then including Madagascar), and we thus have explained many of the similarities presented by the faunas of these distant, and generally very different countries.

During the Miocene period, when a subtropical climate prevailed over much of Europe and Central Asia, there would be no such marked contrast as now prevails between temperate and tropical zones; and at this time much of our Oriental region, perhaps, formed a hardly separable portion of the great Palæarctic land. But when, from unknown causes, the climate of Europe became less genial, and when the elevation of the Himalayan chain and the Mongolian plateau caused an abrupt difference of climate on the northern and southern sides of that great mountain barrier, a tropical and a temperate region were necessarily formed; and many of the animals which once roamed over the greater part of the older and more extensive region, now became restricted to its southern or northern divisions respectively. Then came the great change we have already described (vol. i. p. 288), opening the newly-formed plains of Central Africa to the incursions of the higher forms of Europe; and following on this, a still further deterioration of climate, resulting in that marked contrast between temperate and tropical faunas, which is now one of the most prominent features in the distribution of animal as well as of vegetable forms.

It is not necessary to go into any further details here, as we have already, in our discussion of the origin of the fauna of the several regions, pointed out what changes most probably occurred in each case. These details are, however, to a great extent speculative; and they must remain so till we obtain as much knowledge of the extinct faunas and past geological history of the southern lands, as we have of those of Europe and North {159}America. But the broad conclusions at which we have now arrived seem to rest on a sufficiently extensive basis of facts; and they lead us to a clearer conception of the mutual relations and comparative importance of the several regions than could be obtained at an earlier stage of our inquiries.

If our views of the origin of the several regions are correct, it is clear that no mere binary division--into north and south, or into east and west--can be altogether satisfactory, since at the dawn of the Tertiary period we still find our six regions, or what may be termed the rudiments of them, already established. The north and south division truly represents the fact, that the great northern continents are the seat and birth-place of all the higher forms of life, while the southern continents have derived the greater part, if not the whole, of their vertebrate fauna from the north; but it implies the erroneous conclusion, that the chief southern lands--Australia and South America--are more closely related to each other than to the northern continent. The fact, however, is that the fauna of each has been derived, independently, and perhaps at very different times, from the north, with which they therefore have a true genetic relation; while any intercommunion between themselves has been comparatively recent and superficial, and has in no way modified the great features of animal life in each. The east and west division, represents--according to our views--a more fundamental diversity; since we find the northern continent itself so divided in the earliest Eocene, and even in Cretaceous times; while we have the strongest proof that South America was peopled from the Nearctic, and Australia and Africa from the Palæarctic region: hence, the Eastern and Western Hemispheres are the two great branches of the tree of life of our globe. But this division, taken by itself, would obscure the facts--firstly, of the close relation and parallelism of the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, not only now but as far back as we can clearly trace them in the past; and, secondly, of the existing radical diversity of the Australian region from the rest of the Eastern Hemisphere.

Owing to the much greater extent of the old Palæarctic region (including our Oriental), and the greater diversity of {160}Mammalia it appears to have produced, we can have little doubt that here was the earliest seat of the development of the vertebrate type; and probably of the higher forms of insects and land-molluscs. Whether the Nearctic region ever formed one mass with it, or only received successive immigrations from it by northern land-connections both in an easterly and westerly direction, we cannot decide; but the latter seems the most probable supposition. In any case, we must concede the first rank to the Palæarctic and Oriental regions, as representing the most important part of what seems always to have been the Great Continent of the earth, and the source from which all the other regions were supplied with the higher forms of life. These once formed a single great region, which has been since divided into a temperate and a tropical portion, now sufficiently distinct; while the Nearctic region has, by deterioration of climate, suffered a considerable diminution of productive area, and has in consequence lost a number of its more remarkable forms. The two temperate regions have thus come to resemble each other more than they once did, while the Oriental retains more of the zoological aspect of the great northern regions of Miocene times. The Ethiopian, from having been once an insular region, where lower types of vertebrates alone prevailed, has been so overrun with higher types from the old Palæarctic and Oriental lands that it now rivals, or even surpasses, the Oriental region in its representation of the ancient fauna of the great northern continent. Both of our tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere possess faunas which are, to some extent, composite, being made up in different proportions of the productions of the northern and southern continents,--the former prevailing largely in the Oriental, while the latter constitutes an important feature in the Ethiopian fauna. The Neotropical region has probably undergone great fluctuations in early times; but it was, undoubtedly, for long periods completely isolated, and then developed the Edentate type of Mammals and the Formicaroid type of Passerine birds into a variety of forms, comparable with the diversified Marsupials of Australia, and typical Passeres of the Eastern Hemisphere. {161}It has, however, received successive infusions of higher types from the north, which now mingle in various degrees with its lower forms. At an early period it must have received a low form of Primates, which has been developed into the two peculiar families of American monkeys; while its llamas, tapirs, deer, and peccaries, came in at a later date, and its opossums and extinct horses probably among the latest. The Australian region alone, after having been united with the great northern continent at a very early date (probably during the Secondary period) has ever since remained more or less completely isolated; and thus exhibits the development of a primeval type of mammal, almost wholly uninfluenced by any incursions of a later and higher type. In this respect it is unique among all the great regions of the earth.

We see, then, that each of our six regions has had a history of its own, the main outlines of which we have been able to trace with tolerable certainty. Each of them is now characterised--as it seems to have been in all past time of which we have any tolerably full record--by well-marked zoological features; while all are connected and related in the complex modes we have endeavoured to unravel. To combine any two or more of these regions, on account of existing similarities which are, for the most part, of recent origin, would obscure some of the most important and interesting features of their past history and present condition. And it seems no less impracticable to combine the whole into groups of higher rank; since it has been shown that there are two opposing modes of doing this, and that each of them represents but one aspect of a problem, which can only be solved by giving equal attention to all its aspects.

For reasons which have been already stated, and which are sufficiently obvious, we have relied almost exclusively on the distribution of living and extinct mammalia, in arriving at these conclusions. But we believe they will apply equally to elucidate the phenomena presented by the distribution of all terrestrial organisms, when combined with a careful consideration of the {162}various means of dispersal of the different groups, and the comparative longevity of their species and genera. Even insects, which are perhaps of all animals the farthest removed from mammalia in this respect, agree, in the great outlines of their distribution, with the vertebrate orders. The Regions are admittedly the same, or nearly the same for both; and the discrepancies that occur are of a nature which can be explained by two undoubted facts--the greater antiquity, and the greater facilities for dispersal, of insects.

But this principle, if sound, must be carried farther, and be applied to plants also. There are not wanting indications that this may be successfully done; and it seems not improbable, that the reason why botanists have hitherto failed to determine, with any unanimity, which are the most natural phytological regions, and to work out any connected theory of the migrations of plants, is, because they have not been furnished with the clue to the past changes of the great land masses, which could only be arrived at by such an examination of the past and present distribution of the higher animals as has been here attempted. The difficulties in the way of the study of the distribution of plants, from this point of view, will be undoubtedly very great; owing to the unusual facilities for distribution many of them possess, and the absence of any group which might take the place of the mammalia among animals, and serve as a guide and standard for the rest. We cannot expect the regions to be so well defined in the case of plants as in that of animals; and there are sure to be many anomalies and discrepancies, which will require long study to unravel. The Six Great Regions here adopted, are however, as a whole, very well characterised by their vegetable forms. The floras of tropical America, of Australia, of South Africa, and of Indo-Malaya, stand out with as much individuality as do the faunas; while the plants of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, exhibit resemblances and diversities, of a character not unlike those found among the animals.

This is not a mere question of applying to the vegetable kingdom a series of arbitrary divisions of the earth which have been {163}found useful to zoologists; for it really involves a fundamental problem in the theory of evolution. The question we have to answer, is, firstly--whether the distribution of plants is, like that of animals, mainly and primarily dependent on the past revolutions of the earth's surface; or, whether other, and altogether distinct causes, have had a preponderating influence in determining the range and limits of vegetable forms; and, secondly--whether those revolutions have been, in their general outlines, correctly interpreted by means of a study of the distribution and affinities of the higher animals. The first question is one for botanists alone to answer; but, on the second point, the author ventures to hope for an affirmative reply, from such of his readers as will weigh carefully the facts and arguments he has adduced.

The remaining part of this volume, will consist, of a systematic review of the distribution of each family of animals, and an application of the principles already established to elucidate the chief phenomena they present. The present chapter must, therefore, be considered as the conclusion of the argumentative and theoretical part of the present work; but it must be read in connection with the various discussions in Parts II. and III., in which the conclusions to be drawn from the several groups of facts have been successively given;--and especially in connection with the general observations at the end of each of the six chapters on the Zoological Regions.

The hypothetical view, as to the more recent of the great Geographical changes of the Earth's surface, here set forth, is not the result of any preconceived theory, but has grown out of a careful study of the facts accumulated, and has led to a considerable modification of the author's previous views. It may be described, as an application of the general theory of Evolution, to solve the problem of the distribution of animals; but it also furnishes some independent support to that theory, both by showing what a great variety of curious facts are explained by its means, and by answering some of the objections, {164}which have been founded on supposed difficulties in the distribution of animals in space and time.

It also illustrates and supports the geological doctrine, of the general permanence of our great continents and oceans, by showing how many facts in the distribution of animals can only be explained and understood on such a supposition; and it exhibits, in a striking manner, the enormous influence of the Glacial epoch, in determining the existing zoological features of the various continents.

And, lastly, it furnishes a more consistent and intelligible idea than has yet been reached by any other mode of investigation, of all the more important changes of the earth's surface that have probably occurred during the entire Tertiary period; and of the influence of these changes, in bringing about the general features, as well as many of the more interesting details and puzzling anomalies, of the Geographical Distribution of Animals.