CHAPTER XVIII

SUMMARY

The close of the Afghan war of 1839-40 left a great deal to be desired in the matter of practical geography. It was not the men but the methods that were wanting. The commencement of the second and last Afghan war in 1878 saw the initiation of a system of field survey of a practical geographical nature, which combined the accuracy of mathematical deduction with the rapidity of plane table topography. It was the perfecting of the smaller class of triangulating instruments that made this system possible, quite as much as the unique opportunity afforded to a survey department in such a country as India for training topographers. It worked well from the very first, and wherever a force could march or a political mission be launched into such a region of open hill and valley as the Indian trans-frontier, there could the surveyors hold their own (no matter what the nature of the movement might be) and make a "square" survey in fairly accurate detail, with the certainty that it would take its final place without squeezing or distortion in the general map of Asia. This was of course very different from the plodding traverse work of former days, and it rapidly placed quite a new complexion on our trans-frontier maps. Since then regular systematic surveys in extension of those of India have been carried far afield, and it may safely be said now that no country in the world is better provided with military maps of its frontiers than India. In Baluchistan, indeed, there is little left to the imagination. A country which forty years ago was an ugly blank in our maps, with a doubtful locality indicated here and there, is now almost as well surveyed as Scotland. Afghanistan, however, is beyond our line, "out of bounds," and the result is that there are serious gaps in our map knowledge of the country of the Amir, gaps which there seems little probability of investigating under the present closure of the frontier to explorers.

By far the most important of these gaps are the uplands of Badakshan, stretching from the Oxus plains to the Hindu Kush. The plains of Balkh, as far east as Khulm and Tashkurghan, from whence the high-road leads to Haibak, Bamian, and the Hindu Kush passes, are fairly well mapped. The Oxus, to the north of Balkh, is well known, and the fords and passages of that river have been reckoned up with fair accuracy. From time immemorial every horde of Skythic origin, Nagas, Sakas, or Jatas, must have passed these fords from the hills and valleys of the Central Asian divide on their way to India. The Oxus fords have seen men in millions making south for the valleys of Badakshan and the Golden Gates of Central Asiatic ideal which lay yet farther south beyond the grim line of Hindu Kush. Balkh (the city) must have stood like a rock in the human tide which flowed from north to south. From the west, too, from Asia Minor and the Persian provinces, as well as from the Caspian steppes to the north-west, must have come many a weary band of tear-stained captives, transported across half a continent by their conquerors to colonize, build cities, and gradually amalgamate with the indigenous people, and so to disappear from history. From the west came Parthians, Medes, Assyrians, and Greeks, who did not altogether disappear. But no such human tide ever flowed into Badakshan from the east nor yet from the south. To the east are the barrier heights of the Pamirs. No crowd of fugitives or captives ever faced those bleak, inhospitable, wind-torn valleys that we know of. Nor can we find any trace of emigration from India. Yet routes were known across the Pamirs, and in due time, as we have seen, small parties of pilgrims from China made use of these routes, seeking for religious truth in Balkh when, as a Buddhist centre, Balkh was in direct connection with the Buddhist cities of Eastern Turkistan. And Buddhism itself, when it left India, went northward and flourished exceedingly in those same cities of the sandy plain, where the people talked and wrote a language of India for centuries after the birth of Christ. Balkh, however, never stayed the tide which overlapped it and, passing on, lost itself in the valleys under the Hindu Kush, or else, surmounting that range, streamed over into the Kabul basin. Whether the tide set in from north or west, the overflow was forced by purely geographical conditions into precisely the same channels, and in many cases it drifted into the hills and stayed there. What we should expect to find in Balkh, then (whenever Dr. Stein can get there), are records in brick, records in writing, and records in coin, of nearly every great Asiatic movement which has influenced the destinies of India from the days of Assyria to those of Mohamed. What a history to unfold!

Of the Badakshan uplands south and south-east of Balkh, we have but most unsatisfying geographical record. In the days preceding the first Afghan war when Burnes, Moorcroft, Lord, and Wood were in the field, we certainly acquired much useful information which is still all that we have for scientific reference. Moorcroft, as we have seen, made several hurried journeys between Balkh and Kunduz under most perilous conditions, when endeavouring to escape from the clutches of the border chief, Murad Beg. But Moorcroft's opportunities of scientific observation were small, and his means of ascertaining his geographical position were crude, and we gain little or nothing from his thrilling story of adventure, beyond a general description of a desolate region of swamp and upland which forms the main features of Northern Badakshan.

Lord and Wood, who followed Moorcroft at no great interval, and who were also in direct personal touch with Murad Beg under much the same political circumstances, have furnished much more useful information of the routes and passes between Haibak and Kunduz, and given us a very fair idea of the physical configuration of that desolate district. Lord's memoir on the _Uzbek State of Kundooz_ (published at Simla in July 1838) is indeed the best, if not the only, authoritative document concerning the history and policy of Badakshan, giving us a fair idea of the conditions under which Murad Beg established and consolidated his position as the paramount chief of that country, and the guardian of the great commercial route between Kabul and Bokhara; but there is little geographical information in the memoir. The four fortified towns of the Kunduz state, Kunduz, Rustak, Talikhan, and Hazrat Imam, are described rather as depositories for plunder than as positions of any great importance, and the real strength of Murad Beg's military force lay in the quality of his hordes of irregular Uzbek horsemen and the extraordinary hardiness and endurance of the Kataghani horses. So highly esteemed is this particular breed that the late Amir of Afghanistan would permit of no export of horses from Kataghan, reserving them especially for the purpose of mounting his own cavalry.

We learn incidentally of the waste and desolation caused by the poisonous climate of the fens and marshes between Hazrat Imam and Kunduin, to which Murad Beg had transported 20,000 Badakshani families for purposes of colonization, and where Dr. Lord was told that barely 1000 individuals had survived; but Wood tells us much more than this in his charming book on the Oxus. From the point where he left the main road from Kabul to Bokhara (a little below Kuram north of the Saighan valley) till he reached Kunduz, he was passing over country and by-ways which have never been revisited by any European geographer. He tells us that "the plain between the streams that water Kunduz and Kuram has a wavy surface, and though unsuited to agriculture has an excellent pasturage. The only village on the road is Hazrat Baba Kamur. On the eastern side the plain is supported by a ridge of hills sloping down from the mountains to the south. We crossed it by the pass of Archa (so called from the fir trees which cover its crest), from the top of which we had a noble view of the snowy mountains to the east, the outliers of Hindu Kush. Next day we forded the river of Kunduz, and continuing to journey along its right bank, through the swampy district of Baghlan and Aliabad, reached the capital of Murad Beg on Monday the 4th Dec. (1837)." The story of Wood's travels in Badakshan has already been told; the moon-lit march from Kunduz through the dense jungle grass and swamp, often knee-deep in water; the gradual rise to higher ground above; the floating vapour screen that hovered over the fens; Khanabad and its quaint array of colleges and students, and the Koh Umber mountain, isolated and conspicuous, dividing the plains of Kunduz and Talikhan--all these are features which will indicate the general character of that part of Badakshan but leave us no fixed and determined position. The Koh Umber in particular must be a remarkable topographical landmark, as it towers 2500 feet above the surrounding plain with a snow-covered summit. Wood says of it that it is central to the districts of Talikhan, Kunduz, and Hazrat Imam, and its pasturage is common to the flocks of all three plains. But it is an undetermined geographical feature, and still remains in its solitary grandeur, a position to be won by future explorers.

From Khanabad to Talikhan, Faizabad, and Jirm (which, it will be recollected, was once the capital of Badakshan--probably the "Badakshan" of Arab geography), we have the description of a mountainous country supporting the conjectural topography of our maps, which indicate that this route borders and occasionally crosses a series of gigantic spurs or offshoots of a central range (which Wood calls the Khoja) which must itself be a north-easterly arm of the Hindu Kush, taking off from the latter range somewhere near the Khawak Pass. Here, then, is one of the most important blanks in the map of our frontier. Inconceivably rugged and difficult of access, it seems probable that it is more accessible from Badakshan than from the south. We know from Wood's account of the extraordinary difficulty that beset his efforts to reach the lapis-lazuli mines above Jirm in the Kokcha River something of the general nature of these northern valleys and defiles of Kafiristan reaching down to lower Badakshan. It would, indeed, be a splendid geographical feat to fix the position and illustrate the topography of this roughest section of Asia.

Between the Khawak Pass of the Hindu Kush which leads to Andarab, and the Mandal, or Minjan, passes, some 70 miles to the east, we have never solved the problem of the Hindu Kush divide. What lies behind Wood's Khoja range, between it and the main divide? We have the valley called Anjuman, which is believed to lead as directly to Jirm from the Khawak Pass as Andarab does to Kunduz. It is an important feature in Hindu Kush topography, but we know nothing of it. We may, however, safely conjecture that the Minjan River, reached by Sir George Robertson in one of his gallant attempts to explore Kafiristan, is the upper Kokcha flowing past the lapis-lazuli mines to Jirm. But where does it rise? And where on the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush do the small affluents of the Alingar and Alishang have their beginning? These are the hidden secrets of Kafiristan. It is here that those turbulent people (who, by the way, seem to exhibit the same characteristics from whatever valley of Kafiristan they come, and to be much more homogeneous than is usually supposed) hide themselves in their upland villages, amidst their magnificent woods and forests, untroubled by either Afghan or European visitors. Here they live their primitive lives, enlivened with quaint ceremonies and a heathenism equally reminiscent of the mythology of Greece, the ritual of Zoroaster, and the beliefs of the Hindu. Who will unravel the secrets of this inhabited outland, which appears at present to be more impracticable to the explorer than either of the poles? Yule, in his preface to the last edition of Wood's _Oxus_, remarks that Colonel Walker, the late Surveyor-General of India (and one of the greatest of Asiatic geographers) repeatedly expressed his opinion that there is no well-defined range where the Hindu Kush is represented in our maps, and he adds that such an expression of opinion can only apply to that part of the Hindu Kush which lies east of the Khawak Pass. Sir Henry Yule refers to Wood's incidental notices of the mountains which he saw towering to the south of him, "rising to a vast height and bearing far below their summits the snow of ages," in refutation of such an opinion; and he further quotes the "havildar's" (native surveyor) report of the Nuksan and Dorah passes in confirmation of Wood.

Since Yule wrote, Woodthorpe's surveys of the Nuksan and Dorah passes during the Lockhart mission leave little doubt as to the nature of the Hindu Kush as far west as those passes, but it is precisely between those passes and the Khawak, along the backbone of Kafiristan, that we have yet to learn the actual facts of mountain conformation. And here possibly there may be something in Walker's suggestion. The mountains to which Wood looked up from Talikhan or Kishm, towering to the south of him and covered with perpetual snow, certainly formed no part of the main Hindu Kush divide. Between them and the Hindu Kush is either the deep valley of Anjuman, or more probably the upper drainage of the Minjan, which, rising not far east of Khawak, repeats the almost universal Himalayan feature of a long, lateral, ditch-like valley in continuation of the Andarab depression, marking the base of the connecting link in the primeval fold formed by the Hindu Kush east and west of it. We should expect to find the Kafiristan mountain conformation to be an integral part of the now recognised Himalayan system of parallel mountain folds, with deep lateral valleys fed by a transverse drainage. The long valley of the Alingar will prove to be another such parallel depression, and we shall find when the map is finished that the dominating structural feature of all this wild hinterland of mountains is the north-east to south-west trend of mountain and valley which marks the Kunar (or Chitral) valley on the one side and the Panjshir on the other. The reason why it is more probable that the Minjan River takes the direct drainage of the northern slopes of this Kafiristan backbone into a lateral trough than that the Anjuman spreads its head into a fan, is that Sir George Robertson found the Minjan, below the pass of Mandal, to be a far more considerable river than its assumed origin in the official maps would make it. He accordingly makes a deep indentation in the Hindu Kush divide (on the map which illustrates his captivating book, _The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush_), bringing it down southward nearly half a degree to an acute angle, so as to afford room for the Minjan to rise and follow a course in direct line with its northerly run (as the Kokcha) in Badakshan. This is a serious disturbance of the laws which govern the structure of Asiatic mountain systems, as now recognized, and it is indeed far more likely that the Minjan (Kokcha) follows those laws which have placed the Andarab and the Panjshir (or for that matter the Indus and the Brahmaputra) in their parallel mountain troughs, than that the primeval fold of the Hindu Kush has become disjointed and indented by some agency which it would be impossible to explain. Who is going to complete the map and solve the question?

We are still very far from possessing a satisfactory geographical knowledge of even the more accessible districts of Badakshan. We still depend on Wood for the best that we know of the route between Faizabad and Zebak; and of those Eastern mountains which border the Oxus as it bends northward to Kila Khum we know positively nothing at all.

But beyond all contention the hidden jewels to be acquired by scientific research in Badakshan are archæological and antiquarian rather than geographical. Now that Nineveh and Babylon have yielded up their secrets, there is no such field out of Egypt for the antiquarian and his spade as the plains of Balkh. But enough has been said of what may be hidden beneath the unsightly bazaars and crumbling ruins of modern Balkh. Whilst Badakshan literally teems with opportunities for investigation, certain features of ancient Baktria appear to be especially associated with certain sites; such, for instance, as the sites of Semenjan (Haibak), Baghlan, Andarab, and particularly the junction of the rivers at Kasan. That Andarab (Ariaspa) held the capital of the Greek colonies there can be as little doubt as that Haibak and its neighbourhood formed the great Buddhist centre between Balkh and Kabul. Again, who is going to make friends with the Amir of Afghanistan and try his luck? It must be a foreigner, for no Englishman would be permitted by his own government to pass that way at present.

The wild and savage altitudes of Badakshan and Kafiristan by no means exhaust the unexplored tracts of Afghanistan. We have the curious feature of a well-surveyed route connecting Ghazni with Kandahar, one of the straightest and best of military routes trodden by armies uncountable from the days of Alexander to those of Roberts, a narrow ribbon of well-ascertained topography, dividing the two most important of the unexplored regions of Afghanistan. North-west of this road lies the great basin of the central Helmund. South-east is a broken land of plain, ribbed and streaked with sharp ridges of frontier formation, about which we ought to know a great deal more than we do. Up the frontier staircases and on to this plain run many important routes from India. The Kuram route strikes it at its northern extremity and leaves it to the southward. The Tochi valley route, and the great mercantile Gomal highway strike into the middle of it, and yet no one of our modern frontier explorers has ever reached it from one side or the other. We still depend on Broadfoot's and Vigne's account of what they saw there, although it is only just on the far side of the rocky band of hills which face the Indus.

About midway between Ghazni and Bannu is the water-parting which separates the Indus drainage from that of the Helmund, and at this point there are some formidable peaks, well over 12,000 feet in height, to distinguish it. The Tochi passage is easy enough as far as the Sheranni group of villages near the head of its long cultivated ramp, but beyond that point the traveller becomes involved in the narrow lateral valleys which follow the trend of the ridges which traverse his path, where streams curl up from the Birmal hills to the south and from the high altitudes which shelter the Kharotis on the north. It is a perpetual wriggle through steep-sided rocky waterways, until one emerges into more open country after crossing the main divide by the Kotanni Pass. The hills here are called Jadran, and it is probable that the Jadran divide and that of the Kohnak farther south are one and the same. Beyond the Kotanni Pass to Ghazni the way is fairly open, but we know very little about it beyond the historical fact that the arch-raider, Mahmud of Ghazni, used to follow this route for his cavalry descents on the Indian frontier with most remarkable success. The remains of old encampments are to be seen in the plain at the foot of the Tochi, and disjointed indications of an ancient high-road were found on the hill slopes to the north of the stream by our surveyors.

Of the actual physical facts of the Gomul route we have only the details gathered by Broadfoot under great difficulties, and a traveller's account by Vigne. What they found has already been described, and the frontier expedition to the Takht-i-Suliman in 1882 sufficiently well determined the position of the Kohnak water-parting to give a fixed geographical value to their narratives. But we have no topography beyond Domandi and Wana. We know that the ever-present repellent band of rocky ridge and furrow, the hill and valley distribution which is distinctive, has to be encountered and passed; but the route does not bristle with the difficulties of narrow ways and stony footpaths as does the Tochi, and there is no doubt that it could soon be reduced to a very practicable artillery road. The important point is that we do not know here (any more than as regards the upper Tochi) a great deal that it concerns us very much to know. We have no mapping of the country which lies between the Baluch frontier and Lake Abistada, the land of the stalwart Suliman Khel tribes-people, and it is a country of which the possible resources might be of great value to us if ever we are driven again to take military stock of Afghanistan.

But the importance of good mapping in this part of Afghanistan is due solely to its position in geographical relation to the Indian frontier. It is different when we turn to the stupendous altitudes of the high Hazara plateau land to the north of the Ghazni-Kandahar route. With this we are not likely to have any future concern, except that which may be called academic. In spite of the reputation for sterile wind-scoured desolation which the uplands hiding the upper Helmund valleys have always enjoyed, it is not to be forgotten that there are summer ways about them, and strong indications that some of these ways are distinctly useful. Our knowledge of the Helmund River (such knowledge, that is to say, as justifies us in mapping the course of the river with a firm line) from its sources ends almost exactly at the intersection of the parallel of 34° of North latitude with the meridian of 67° East longitude. For the next 120 miles we really know nothing about its course, except that it is said to run nearly straight through the heart of the Hazara highlands.

Two very considerable, but nameless, rivers run more or less parallel to the Helmund to the south of it, draining the valleys of Ujaristan and Urusgan, the upper part of the latter being called Malistan. What these valleys are like, or what may be the nature of the dividing water-parting, we do not know, nor have we any authentic description of the valley of Nawar, which lies under the Gulkoh mountain at the head of the Arghandab, but apparently unconnected with it. Native information on the subject of these highly elevated valleys is excessively meagre, nor are they of any special interest from either the strategic or economic point of view. Far more interesting would it be to secure a geographical map of those northern branches of the Helmund, the Khud Rud, and the Kokhar Ab, which drain the mountain districts to the east of Taiwara above the undetermined position of Ghizao on the Helmund. These mountain streams must rush their waters through magnificent gorges, for the peaks which soar above them rise to 13,000 feet in altitude, and the country is described as inconceivably rugged and wild. This is the real centre and home of the Hazara communities, and, in spite of the fact that there are certain well-ascertained tracks traversing the country and connecting the Helmund with the valley of the Hari Rud, we know that for the greater part of the year they must be closed to all traffic. They are of no importance outside purely local interests. The comparatively small area yet unexplored which lies to the north of the Hazara mountains, shut off from them by the straight trough of the Hari Rud and embracing the head of the Murghab River of Turkistan, is almost equally unimportant, although it would be a matter of great interest to investigate a little more closely the remarkable statements of Ferrier which bear on this region.

When we have finally struck a balance between our knowledge and our ignorance of that which concerns the landward gates of India, we shall recognize the fact that we know all that it is really essential that we should know of these uplifted approaches. They are inconceivably old--as old as the very mountains which they traverse. What use may be made of them has been made long ago. We have but to turn back the pages of history and we find abundant indications which may enable us to gauge their real value as highways from Central Asia to India. History says that none of the tracks which lead from China and Tibet have ever been utilized for the passage of large bodies of people either as emigrants, troops, commercial travellers, or pilgrims into India, although there exists a direct connection between China and the Brahmaputra in Assam, and although we know that the difficulties of the road between Lhasa and India are by no means insuperable. Nor by the Kashmir passes from Turkistan or the Pamirs is it possible to find any record of a formidable passing of large bodies of people, although the Karakoram has been a trade route through all time, and although the Chinese have left their mark below Chitral. Yet we have had explorers over the passes connecting the upper Oxus affluents with Gilgit and Chitral who have not failed, some of them, to sound a solemn note of warning.

Before the settlement of the Oxus extension of the northern boundary of Afghanistan, something of a scare was started by a demonstration of the fact that it is occasionally quite easy to cross the Kilik Pass from the Taghdumbash Pamir into the Gilgit basin, or to climb over the comparatively easy slopes of the flat-backed Hindu Kush by the Baroghel Pass and slip down into the valley of the Chitral. There was, however, always a certain amount of geographical controversy as to the value of the Chitral or of the Kilik approach after the crossing of the Hindu Kush had been effected. Much of the difference of opinion expressed by exploring experts was due to the different conditions under which those undesirable, troublesome approaches to India were viewed. Where one explorer might find a protruding glacier blocking his path and terminating his excursions, another would speak of an open roadway.

From season to season in these high altitudes local conditions vary to an extent which makes it impossible to forecast the difficulties which may obtrude themselves during any one month or even for any one summer. In winter, _i.e._ for at least eight months of the year, all are equally ice-bound and impracticable, and although the general spirit of desiccation, which reigns over High Asia and is tending to reduce the glaciers and diminish the snowfall, may eventually change the conditions of mountain passages to an appreciable extent (and for a period), it would be idle to speculate on any really important modification of these difficulties from such natural climatic causes. We must take these mountain passes as we find them now, and as the Chinese pilgrim of old found them, placed by Nature in positions demanding a stout heart and an earnest purpose, determined to wrest from inhospitable Nature the merit of a victorious encounter with her worst and most detestable moods, ere we surmount them. To the pilgrim they represented the "strait gate" and "narrow way" which ever leads to salvation, and he accepted the horrors as a part of the sacrifice. To us they represent troublesome breaks in the stern continuity of our natural defences which can be made to serve no useful purpose, but which may nevertheless afford the opportunity to an aggressive and enterprising enemy to spy out the land and raise trouble on the border. We cannot altogether leave them alone. They have to be watched by the official guardians of our frontier, and all the gathered threads of them converging on Leh or Gilgit must be held by hands that are alert and strong. It is just as dangerous an error to regard such approaches to India as negligible quantities in the military and political field of Indian defence, as to take a serious view of their practicability for purposes of invasion.

Beyond this scattered series of rugged and elevated by-ways of the mountains crossing the great Asiatic divide from regions of Tibet and the Pamirs, to the west of them, we find on the edge of the unsurveyed regions of Kafiristan that group of passages, the Mandal and Minjan, the Nuksan and the Dorah which converge on Chitral as they pass southward over the Hindu Kush from the rugged uplands of Badakshan. None of these appear to have been pilgrim routes, nor does history help us in estimating their value as gateways in the mountains. They are practicable at certain seasons, and one of them, the Dorah, is a much-trodden route, connecting what is probably the best road traversing upper Badakshan from Faizabad to the Hindu Kush with the Chitral valley, and it enjoys the comparatively moderate altitude of about 14,500 feet above sea-level. A pass of this altitude is a pass to be reckoned with, and nothing but its remote geographical position, and the extreme difficulty of its approaches on either side (from Badakshan or Chitral), can justify the curious absence of any historical evidence proving it to have witnessed the crossing of troops or the incursions of emigrants. For the latter purpose, indeed, it may have served, but we know too little about the ethnography or derivation of the Chitral valley tribes to be able to indulge in speculation on the subject.

What we know of the Dorah is that it is the connecting commercial link between Badakshan and the Kunar valley during the summer months (July to September), when mules and donkeys carry over wood and cloth goods to be exchanged for firearms and cutlery with other produce of a more local nature, including (so it is said) Badakshi slaves. It has been crossed in early November in face of a bitter blizzard and piercing cold, but it is not normally open then. The Nuksan Pass, which is not far removed from it, is much higher (16,100 feet) and is frequently blocked by glacial ice; but the Dorah, which steals its way through rugged defiles from the Chitral valley over the dip in the Hindu Kush down past the little blue lake of Dufferin into the depths of the gorges which enclose the upper reaches of the Zebak affluent of the great Kokcha River of Badakshan, (about which we have heard from Wood), is the one gateway which is normally open from year to year, and its existence renders necessary an advanced watch-tower at Chitral. Like the Baroghel and other passes to the east of it, it is not the Dorah itself but the extreme difficulty of the narrow ways which lead to it, the wildness and sterility of the remote regions which encompass it on either side, which lock this door to anything in the shape of serious military enterprise.

Beyond the Dorah to the westward, following the Kafiristan divide of the Hindu Kush, we may well leave unassisted Nature to maintain her own work of perfect defence, for there is not a track that we can discover to exist, nor a by-way that we can hear of which passes through that inconceivably grand and savage wilderness of untamed mountains. Undoubtedly such tracks exist, but judging from the remarkable physical constitution of the Kafir, they are such as to demand an exceptional type of mountaineer to deal with them. It is only when we work our way farther westward to those passes which lead into the valleys of the upper Kabul River affluents, from the Khawak Pass at the head of the Panjshir valley to the Unai which points the way from Kabul to Bamian, that we find material for sober reflection derived from the records of the past.

The general characteristics of these passes have been described already--and something of their history. We have seen that they have been more or less open doors to India through the ages. Men literally "in nations" have passed through them; the dynasties of India have been changed and her destinies reshaped time after time by the facilities of approach which they have afforded; and if the modern conditions of things military were now what they were in the days of Alexander or of Baber, there would be no reason why her destinies should not once again be changed through use of them. We must remember that they are not what they have been. How far they have been opened up by artificial means, or which of them, besides the Nuksan and the Chahardar, have been so improved, we have no means of knowing, but we may take it for granted that the Public Works Department of Afghanistan has not been idle; for we know that that department was very closely directed by the late Amir, and that his staff of engineers is most eminent and most practical.[13]

The base of all this group of passes lies in Badakshan, so that the chief characteristics as gates of India are common to all. It has been too often pointed out to require repetition that the plains of Balkh--all Afghan Turkistan in short--lie at the mercy of any well-organized force which crosses the Oxus southwards; but once that force enters the gorges and surmounts the passes of the Badakshan ramparts a totally new set of military problems would be presented. The narrowness and the isolation of its cultivated valleys; the vast spaces of dreary, rugged desolation which part them; the roughness and the altitude of the intervening ranges--in short, the passive hostility of the uplands and their blank sterility would create the necessity for some artificial means of importing supplies from the plains before any formidable force could be kept alive at the front. Modern methods point to military railways, for the ancient methods which included the occupation of the country by well-planted military colonies are no longer available. All military engineers nowadays believe in a line, more or less perfect, of railway connection between the front of a field force and its base of supply. But it would be a long and weary, if not absolutely hopeless, task to bring a railway across the highlands of Badakshan to the foot of the Hindu Kush from the Oxus plains.

We have read what Wood has to say of the routes from Kunduz southward to Bamian and Kabul. This is the recognized trade route; the great highway to Afghan Turkistan. Seven passes to be negotiated over as many rough mountain divides, plunges innumerable into the deep-rifted valleys by ways that are short and sharp, a series of physical obstacles to be encountered, to surmount any one of which would be a triumph of engineering enterprise. Amongst the scientific devices which altitude renders absolutely necessary, would be a repeated process of tunnelling. No railway yet has been carried over a sharp divide of 10,000 or 11,000 feet altitude, subject to sudden and severe climatic conditions, without the protection of a tunnel. As a work of peaceful enterprise alone, this would be a line probably without a parallel for the proportion of difficulty compared to its length in the whole wide world. As a military enterprise, a rapid construction for the support of a field army, it is but a childish chimera. Yet we are writing of Badakshan's best road!

It is true that by the Haibak route to Ghori and that ancient military base of the Greeks, Andarab, the difficulty of the sheer physical altitude of great passes is not encountered, and there are spaces which might be pointed out where a light line could be engineered with comparative facility. Even to reach thus far from the Oxus plains would be a great advantage to a force that could spend a year or two, like a Chinese army, in devising its route, but this comparative facility terminates at the base of the Hindu Kush foot-hills; and it matters not beyond that point whether the way be rough or plain, for the wall of the mountains never drops to less than 12,500 feet, and no railway has ever been carried in the open over such altitudes. Tunnelling here would be found impossible, owing to the flat-backed nature of the wide divide. With what may happen in future military developments; whether a fleet of air-ships should in the farther future sail over the snow-crested mountain tops and settle, replete with all military devices in gunnery and stores, on the plains of the Kohistan of Kabul we need hardly concern ourselves. It is at least an eventuality of which the risk seems remote at present, and we may rest content with the Hindu Kush barrier as a defensive line which cannot be violated in the future as it has been in the past by any formidable force cutting through Badakshan, without years of preparation and forewarning.

For any serious menace to the line of India's north-western defence we must look farther west--much farther west--for enough has been said of the great swelling highlands of the Firozkohi plateau, and of the Hazara regions south of the Hari Rud sources, to indicate their impracticable nature as the scene of military movement. It is, after all, the highways of Herat and Seistan that form the only avenues for military approach to the Indian frontier that are not barred by difficulties of Nature's own providing, or commanded from the sea. Once on these western fields we are touching on matter which has been so worn threadbare by controversy that it might seem almost useless to add further opinions. Historically it seems strange at first sight that, compared with the northern approaches to which Kabul gives the command, so very little use has been made of this open way. It was not till the eighteenth century saw the foundation laid for the Afghan kingdom that the more direct routes between Eastern Persia and the Indus became alive with marching troops. The reason is, obviously, geographical. Neither trade, nor the flag which preceded it from the west, cared to face the dreary wastes of sand to the south of the Helmund, backed, as they are, by the terrible band of the Sind frontier hills full of untamed and untameable tribes, merely for the purpose of dropping into the narrow riverain of the lower Indus, beyond which, again, the deserts of Rajputana parted them from the rich plains of Central India. When the Indus delta and Sind were the objective of a military expedition, the conquerors came by way of the sea, or by approaches within command of the sea--never from Herat. Herat was but the gateway to Kandahar, and to Kabul in the days when Kabul was "India."

It was not, so far as we can tell, till Nadir Shah, after ravaging Seistan and the rich towns of the Helmund valley, found a narrow passage across the Sind frontier hills that any practical use was ever made of the gates of Baluchistan. Although there are ethnological evidences that a remnant of the Mongol hordes of Chenghis Khan settled in those same Sind hills, there is no evidence that they crossed them by any of the Baluch passes. It seems certain that in prehistoric times, when the geographical conditions of Western India were different from what they are now, Turanian peoples in tribal crowds must have made their way into India southwards from Western Asia, but they drifted by routes that hugged the coast-line. We have now, however, replaced the old natural geographical conditions by an artificial system which totally alters the strategic properties of this part of the frontier. We have revolutionised the savage wilderness of Baluchistan, and made highways not only from the Indus to the Helmund, but from Central India to the Indus. The old barriers have been broken down and new gateways thrown open. We could not help breaking them down, if we were to have peace on our borders; but the process has been attended with the disadvantage that it obliges us to take anxious note of the roads through Eastern Persia and Western Afghanistan which lead to them.

For just about one century since the first scare arose concerning an Indian invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte, have we been alternating between periods of intense apprehension and of equally foolish apathy concerning these Western Indian gateways. The rise and fall of public apprehension might be expressed by a series of curves of curious regularity. At present we are at the bottom of a curve, for reasons which it is hardly necessary to enter into; but it is not an inapt position for a calm review of the subject. There is, then, one great highway after passing through Herat (which city is about 60 miles from the nearest Russian military post), a highway which has been quite sufficiently well described already, of about 360 miles in length between Herat and Kandahar; Kandahar, again, being about 80 miles from our frontier--say 500 miles in all; and the distinguishing feature of this highway between Russia and India is the comparative ease with which that great Asiatic divide which extends all the way from the Hindu Kush to the Persian frontier (or beyond) can be crossed on the north of Herat. There, this great central water-parting, so formidable in its altitudes for many hundreds of miles, sinks to insignificant levels and the comparatively gentle gradients of a debased and disintegrated range. This divide is parted and split by the passage of the Hari Rud River; but the passage of the river is hill-enclosed and narrow, with many a rock-bound gorge which would not readily lend itself to railway-making (although by no means precluding it), so that the ridges of the divide could be better passed elsewhere.

We must concede that, taking it for all in all, that 500 miles of railway gap which still yawns between the Indian and Russian systems is an easy gap to fill up, and that it affords a road for advance which (apart from the question of supplies) can only be regarded as an open highway. Then there is also that other parallel road to Seistan from the Russian Transcaspian line across the Elburz mountains (which here represents the great divide) via Mashad--a route infinitely more difficult, but still practicable--which leads by a longer way to the Helmund and Kandahar. Were it not for the political considerations arising from the respective geographical positions of these two routes, one lying within Persian territory and the other being Afghan, they might be regarded as practically one and the same. Neither of them could be used (in the aggressive sense) without the occupation of Herat, and most assuredly should circumstances arise in which either of the two should be used (in the same aggressive sense) the other would be utilized at the same time.

This is, then, the chief problem of Indian defence so far as the shutting of the gate is concerned, and there are no two ways of dealing with it. We must have men and material sufficient in both quantity and quality to guard these gates when open, or to close them if we wish them shut. The question whether these western gates should remain as they are, easily traversable, or should yield (as they must do sooner or later) to commercial interests and admit of an iron way to link up the Russian and Indian railway systems is really immaterial. In the latter case they might be the more readily closed, for such a connection would serve the purposes of a defence better than those for offence; but in any case in order to be secure we must be strong.

FOOTNOTE:

[13] Afghan Turkistan and Badakshan are now said to be connected with Kabul by good motor roads.

INDEX

Abbas the Great, Shah, 494

Abbot, General Sir James, cited, 107-109, 119

Abdurrahmon, Amir, 357, 377, 419

Ab-i-lal river, 486

Abistada, Lake, 514

Abkhana route, 351

Abu Abdulla Mohammed (Al Idrisi). _See_ Idrisi

Accadian tradition cited, 34, 73

Achakzai (Duranis), 212, 361, 375, 491

Adraskand, 229 _and n._; river, 216

Aegospotami, xiii, 160, 163

Afghan, Armenian identification of word, 50

Afghan Boundary Commission. _See_ Russo-Afghan

Afghan Turkistan: Agricultural possibilities of, 251 Ferrier in, 481 Greek settlements in, 31 Kabul, route to: Modern improvements in, 419 _and n._, 522 _n._ Wood's account of, 418-19 Richness of, known to Tiglath Pilesur, 49 Route to, by southern passes of Hindu Kush, 378 Routes to, from Herat, 248 Slavery in, 253 Snakes in, 253 Valley formations in, 253-4

Afghanistan: Arab exploration of, 192 Assyrian colonies in highlands of, 61 Barbarity in, 78-9 Boundary Commission. _See_ Russo-Afghan British attitude towards, in early 19th century, 349; Afghan attitude towards British, 337-8 British war with (1839-40): Conduct of, 359, 411 Effects of, 346, 353, 392 Geographical information acquired during, 411-12 Remnants of British disasters in, 478 British war with (1878-80), surveys in connection with, 397, 500 Christie's and Pottinger's exploration of, 329 _et seq._ Durani corner of, character of, 212 _Ethnography of Afghanistan_ (Bellew) cited, 20, 91 Foreign policy of, 353 Greek names in, 21 Helmund boundary of, 80 Hinterland of India, viewed as, 5 Indian land gates always held by, 22 Language of, Persian in origin, 21 Natural beauty of, 392 Persia: Colonies of, in, 61 Intrigues of, British nervousness as to, 399-400 War with (1837), 402 Persian Empire including, in antiquity, 21 Rain-storms in, 233-4 Russian intrigues regarding, British nervousness as to, 399-400 Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission. _See that title_ Rulers of (Ben-i-Israel), traditions of, 49-50 Social conditions in, past and present, 337-8, 395 Surveying of, gaps in, 501; important unexplored regions, 514

Afghanistan, Central: Aimak tribes of, 488-9 Broadfoot's exploration of, 412, 470 _et seq._ Conformation of, 215 Hazara highlands, 84-6 Records of, scanty, 213-14 Routes through, 220, 222-3 Survey of (1882-3), 212, 214

Afghanistan, North (Baktria): Alexander in, 88 Altitudes of peaks and passes in, 262-3 Assyrian estimate of, 6 Irrigation works in, 75-6 Kafir inhabitants of, 50 Kyreneans in, 91 Milesian Greeks (Brankhidai) transported to, 16, 19, 20, 31, 45, 87, 91; survival of Greek strain in, 354-5, 358 Murghab river's economic value in, 246-7 Plateau of, 258 Route to, from Mesopotamia, 47-8, 54, 67-8, 70 Winter climate of, 240

Afghanistan, South: Christie's and Pottinger's exploration of, 329 _et seq._ Firearms imported into, 55 Historic monuments scarce in, 211

Afghans: Burnes' estimate of, 491 Durani. _See that title_ European travellers' intercourse with (unofficial), 452, 457-8 Foreigners, attitude towards, 337-8, 353, 392 Masson's intimacy with, 346-7, 350, 352, 362-3; his influence with, 380 Slavery, attitude towards, 421

Afridi (Aprytae), 28, 31

Aimak tribes of Central Afghanistan, 488-9

Ak Robat, 446

Ak Robat pass, 378, 382, 421; Wood's account of, 417

Ak Tepe (Khuzan), 245-6

Ak Zarat pass, 262

Akbar Khan (Afghan general), 398

Akcha (Akbarabad), 449

Akulphis, 125

Al Kharij, 313

Alakah ridge, 257

Alauddin (Allah-u-din), 218, 467

Alexander the Great: Alexandreia (? Herat) founded by, 77

Alexander the Great: Bakhi obliterated by, 31-2 Brankhidai of Milesia exterminated by, 20 Expedition of, to India: Aornos episode, 106-107, 109-21 Army, constituents of, 64-5 Course and incidents of, 66-8, 70, 76-9, 83, 86-8, 90, 92-4, 96, 98-100, 103-107, 111-22, 125 Darius' flight from, 47-8, 67-8 Geographical information possessed by, 10, 26, 29, 38, 61, 79, 86, 147 Greek influence of, in Indus valley less than supposed, 22 Greeks in Afghanistan welcoming, 16, 63 Knowledge acquired by, 60 Mutiny beyond Indus, 46 Nature of, 60, 65 Recruitment from Greece during, 92 Retreat, route of, 38, 51, 86, 145-54, 156, 161-6, 291 Skythic tribes encountered by, 93 Marriage of Alexander with Roxana, 92 Philotas tortured to death by, 78 Reverential attitude towards, still felt in India, 58-9

Alexandreia (Bagram, Herat), 77, 87, 93, 96, 393

Ali Khan, 497

Ali Masjid, 351

Aliabad, 421, 505

Alingar (Kao) river, 96, 99-100, 327, 358, 507, 509

Alishang river, 99, 356-8, 507

Alishang valley, Masson in, 396

Allard, General, 366, 455

Almar, 249

Altitude: Abstract, mediæval ignorance of, 279 As a factor in defence, 419

Amb (Embolina), 107-108, 114-15, 121

Ambela pass, 121

Amise, General, 366

Amritsar, 363, 367

Anardara, 335, 336

Anbar, 250-51

Andarab (Adraspa, Ariaspa, Zariaspa): Alingar river, communication with, 327 Capital of Greek colonies situated in, 511 Fertility of, 90 Greek settlements about, 435 Haibak route to, 524 Site of, 272, 427-8 Strategic importance of, 92, 275, 277, 357 Timur at, 355 otherwise mentioned, 243, 272-4, 276

Andarab river, 268, 272, 428; strategic importance of, 261

Andarab valley, 88, 90, 438, 509

Andkhui, 248, 439, 448

Anjuman, 270

Anjuman valley, 274, 436, 507, 509; importance of route, 275; unexplored, 427-8

Aornos, 92, 106-107, 109-21

Aprytae (Afridi), 28, 31

Arabian Sea: Command of, necessary for safety of southern Baluchistan passes, 140-41 Islands in, disappearance of, 286, 288 Phenomena of, 286-7

Arabic, derivatives from, 192

Arabii, 146, 305

Arabius river. _See_ Purali

Arabs: Ascendency of, in seventh century, 191-2 Himyaritic, 372 Indian invasion by, 293-4 Indian route used by, _via_ Girishk, 209 Makran under ascendency of, 292-5 Methods of, mediæval and modern, 227 Records of travel by, untrustworthiness of, 213 Saboean, 372 Sind under, 293, 311, 366

Arbela, Arbil. _See_ Erbil

Arbela, battle of, 47, 67

Archa pass, 421, 505

Ardewan pass, 234

Argandi, 379

Arghandab river, 83, 86, 208, 224, 515

Arghastan river, 224

Argu plain, 424

Aria, 32, 479. _See also_ Herat

Ariaspa. _See_ Andarab

Arigaion, 103

Arimaspians, 14

Aristobulus cited, 151-2

Armail (Armabel, Karabel, Las Bela), 150, 304-307, 320; distances to, 303-304

Armenia, Israelites deported to, 39, 49

Arnawai valley, 358

Arrian cited, 19-20, 51, 54, 62-3, 87, 89, 91, 103, 104, 107, 114, 118, 119, 124, 126, 147, 148, 150, 152-3, 155, 156, 160, 165-6, 316

Artakoana, 32, 77, 479. _See also_ Herat

Artobaizanes, 68

Asfaka, 312, 314

Asfaran (? Subzawar), 229-30

Asmar Boundary Commission (1894), 123

Asoka, 129

Aspardeh, 250

Aspasians, 96, 100, 103, 104

Aspurkan (? Sar-i-pul), 250, 252

Assagetes, 114

Assakenians, 96, 104

Assakenoi, 121, 126, 129

Asshur (Assyrian god), 53

Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus), 52, 162-3

Assyria: Afghan colonies of, 61 Buildings in, nature of, 40-43 Israelite serfs in, 39

Assyrian Empire, Second: Afghanistan as viewed by, 6 Art of, 7, 52-4 Babylonian overthrow of, 52 Golden age of, 51-3 Influence of, in India, 70 Israelites deported by, 16, 39, 44, 49, 61 Naval fight of, first, 52 Satrapies, institution of, 44

Astarab stream and route to Bamian, 252-4; valley, 266

Astarabad, 225

Astola I. (Haftala), 160

Attok, Carpatyra probably near, 29

Auca (Obeh), 225

Auckland, Lord, 405, 409

Avitabile, 367

Azdha of Bamian, 380

Azdha of Besud, 380

Babar (Baba) pass, 234, 236, 481

Baber, Emperor, cited, 133, 358; estimate of, 326-7

Babylon: Antiquities of, 73 Assyria overthrown by, 52 Barrenness of country round, 41

Badakshan: Alexander in, 93 Antiquarian treasures in, 511 Balkh-Pamirs route across, 177-8 British knowledge of, only recent, 345 Climate of, 422 Dorah route from, to Kunar valley, 520 Exploration of, by Indian surveyors, 268-9 Geographical knowledge of uplands of, defective, 501, 503, 510 Greek settlements and remains in, 20, 31, 423 Kabul, modern all-the-year-round route to, 275-6, 419 _n._, 522 _n._ Kafirs anciently in, 132 Lord's and Wood's mission to, 402 Moorcroft's journey to, 444 Railway across uplands to, impracticability of, 523 Routes to, compared, 414 Wood's views on, 436-7

Badakshan (town) (? Jirm), 273-5

Badakshani transported by Murad Beg, 432, 505

Badghis, 235, 236, 237

Bado river, 338-9

Baghdad: Masson at, 368 Railway from, _via_ Hamadan and Kum, question as to, 322

Baghlan, 90, 261, 421, 505, 511; Greek settlements about, 435

Baghlan river, 434; valley, 437

Baghnein, 206-208

Bagisara (? Damizar), 158

Bagnarghar, 282-3

Bagram (Alexandreia), 77, 87, 93, 96, 393

Bahawalpur, 349, 364

Bahrein Is., 56

Bahu Kalat (Fahalfahra), 312-14

Bahu valley, 165

Baio peak, 120-21

Bajaor, 103

Bajaur, 128

Bajgah, 261, 384

Bajgah (Parwan, Sar Alang) pass, 414

Bajitan (Najitan), 225

Bakhi, 31-32

Bakhtyari, 32

Bakkak pass, 256, 262

Baktra. _See_ Balkh

Baktria. _See_ Badakshan

Bakwa plain, 493

Bala Murghab, 237, 240, 247, 481

Balangur (Bala Angur), 251

Balkh: Antiquity of, 7, 71, 73 Approach to, by Akcha road, 72, 73 Buddhism at, 263, 502-503 Coins and relics at, 459 Ferrier's account of, 482 Importance of, in antiquity, 88 Khotan, distance from, 177 Modern, 71-4 Moorcroft at, 446, 449 Persian satrapy including, 31 Routes to, from: Bamian, 267-8 Bokhara, 278 Herat, 239-40, 247-8 Kabul, 272-3 Khotan, 277, 278-9 Merv, 249-50 Punjab, 177 Southward, 257

Balkh Ab river, 215

Balkh Ab valley, 252, 255, 257; route to Kabul, 259-60

Balkh plains: Antiquarian interest of, 88, 511 Extent and character of, 74 Mapping of, 501 Rivers of, 75 Waterway ruins of, 76

Balkh (Band-i-Amir) river: Course of, 257-8 Lakes and aqueducts of, 256 Sarikoh, junction with, 267 Scenery of, 262-3 Source of, 84

Baluch Confederation: Kaiani Maliks at head of, 37 Lawlessness of, 334

Baluchistan: Arab exploration of, 192 Desert of, 82 Exploration of, modern, 194; by Christie and Pottinger, 329 _et seq._ Firearms imported into, 55 Frontier of, the Gomul, 137 Hinterland of India, viewed as, 5 Hot winds of, 341 Language of, Persian in origin, 21 Lasonoi emigration to, 30 Makran. _See that title_ Mediæval geography regarding, 200 Mongol invasion of India through, 526 Natural features and conditions of, 32-3, 47, 373 Persian Empire including, 21 Political intrigue in, 409 Southern passes from, into India commanded from the sea, 140-41 Surveying of, 501

Baluchistan, East: Inhabitants of, character of, 373-4 Masson's travels in, 369

Baluchistan, South: Brahui of, 34 Configuration of, 48

Baluchs, Masson's intimacy with, 374

Bam, 323

Bamain, 213-14

Bam-i-dunya. _See_ Pamirs

Bamian: Buddhist relics at, 177, 263, 265-6, 381, 446 Founding of kingdom of, 218 Importance of, in Middle Ages, 205, 261-2, 267 Masson in, 378-86 Route through, importance of, 438 Routes to, from: Balkh, 267-8 Ghur, 224 Kabul (open in winter), 385-6 Oxus plains, 257 Sar-i-pul, 252

Bamian (Unai) pass, 87, 221

Bamian river, 260, 388

Bamian valley: Description of, 263, 265-6 Importance of, 437-8

Bampur: Alexander at, 165, 166, 316 Mountain conformation of, 323 Pottinger at, 342

Bampusht Koh mountains, 313

Band (Binth), 311-12, 314

Band-i-Amir mountains, 257

Band-i-Amir river. _See_ Balkh river

Band-i-Baian (Siah Koh, Sufed Koh) mountains, 84, 215, 486, 487

Band-i-Nadir, 245

Band-i-Turkistan, 239, 249, 250, 484

Banj mountain, 184, 185

Banjohir (Panjshir), 276-7

Bannu, 512

Baraki, 91

Barbarra (? Mabara), 434

Barna, Badara (Gwadur), 159

Barnes, Sir Hugh, 374 _and n._

Baroghel pass, 517, 521

Barohi, meaning of term, 34, 163. _See also_ Brahuis

Bashgol valley, 426

Bashkird mountains, 200

Basrah, 368

_Bassarika_ cited, 62

Bast, 236

Bazar (ancient) (Rustam, Bazira, Bazireh), 106, 113, 114

Bazar (modern) (? Ora), 106

Bean, Captain, 406-407

Begram, site of ancient city at, 393; Cufic coins at, 394

Behistan inscriptions cited, 30

Behvana (Jirena), 245

Bela (in Baluchistan), 331

Bela. _See_ Las Bela

Belchirag, 251, 255, 484

Bellew cited, 32, 35, 163-4; his _Ethnography of Afghanistan_ cited, 20, 91; his _Inquiry_ cited, 21

Belous (Bolous), 200

Ben-i-Israel, traditions of, 49-50, 378

Benjawai, 207, 208, 210

Bentinck, Lord Wm., 344

Berwan lake, 282

Bessos (later Artaxerxes), 47, 68, 76, 88, 90

Besud route to the Helmund, 262

Besud territory, 378, 380-81

Bih (Geh), 311-12, 314

Binadur, 493

Binth (Band), 311-12, 314

Birdwood, Sir Geo., cited, 53

Birmal hills, 513

Birs Nimrud, 41, 43, 71

Bist (Kala Bist), 204, 207, 208

Bitchilik pass, 387

Blood, Sir Bindon, cited, 120

Bodh, 372

Bokhara (Sogdiæ): Alexander's success in, 92 Balkh under chief of, 459 Kabul and Bamian, main route from, 389 Khulm and Balkh route from, 278 Modern popularity of, 395 Moorcroft's journey to, 444

Bolan (Mashkaf) pass, 139, 362

Bolar, kingdom of, 327

Boledi, 36-7

Bolor, Kafiristan part of, 269

Bolous (Belous), 200

Bombay N.I., geographical record of, 454

Boodhi, 483-4

Botm, 282 _and n._

Bouchinj (Zindajan), 479

Bousik (Boushinj, Pousheng), 231, 234, 237

Brahmi script cited, 171

Brahuis (Barohis): Baluchistan, in, 331 Masson's estimate of, 374 Mingals, 142, 306 Revolt of, at Kalat, 406 Sakæ, 163-4 Stock of, 34 Traditions of, 142

Brankhidai of Milesia, 20, 91

Brick buildings of antiquity, 42-3

Broadfoot, Lieut. J. S., 513; travels of, in Central Afghanistan, 412, 470 _et seq._; estimate of, 471

Bubulak, 387

Buddhism: Balkh, at, in antiquity, 72, 263, 502-503 Bamian, relics in, 263-6, 381, 446 Building age of, a later development, 170 Haibak, at, 264-5, 511 Jalalabad, relics at, 352 Kashmir, in, 179-80 Nava Sanghârâma, 178 Ritual of, 174-6, 181-2 Sind, ruins in, 372 Swat, in, 129 Takla Makan, in the, 283

_Buddhist Records of the Western World_, quoted, 175-6

Buddhiya kingdom, 305-306

Budu river, 341

Bunbury cited, 31

Buner river, 108, 120-21

Buner valley, Blood's expedition to, 120

Bushire, 348

Burhan, Lake, 283

Burnes, Sir Alexander, Indus navigation by, 368, 454; at court of Ranjit Singh, 455-7; mission of, to Kabul (1832), 344, 376; to Kunduz, 378; _Travels in Bokhara_ quoted, 455, 491; date of publication, 344, 351; commercial mission of, to Kabul (1837), 398-401, 404-405; work of, 440-41; estimate of, 453, 461

Burzil pass, 182

Candace, 479

Canouj, 273

Cariat (Kariut), 210

Carpatyra, 28-9

Cavalry on frontier expeditions, 117

Celadon ware, 82-3, 197, 300

Chach of Sind, 303, 306

Chachnama of Sind cited, 305

Chagai, 335

Chagan Sarai, 130

Chahar Aimak, 212, 214, 481

Chaharburjak, 81

Chahardar (Chapdara) pass, 261, 415, 419, 522 Height of, 357 Military road over, 277

Chaharshamba river and route to Balkh from Herat, 242, 248

Chahil Abdal (Chalapdalan) mountain, 223, 486, 488

Chahilburj, 257, 267

Chahiltan heights, 370-71

Chakesar ford, 121

Chakhansur, 497

Chalapdalan (Chahil Abdal) mountain, 223, 486, 488

Chandragupta (Sandrakottos), 129

Chapdara pass. _See_ Chahardar

Charbar, 299

Chardeh plain, 379

Charikar: Military road from, over Chapdara pass, 277 Strategical position of, 357

Charsadda, 114

Chashma Sabz pass, 234, 235

Chenghiz Khan, 72, 85, 142, 193, 194, 218, 267, 376, 526

Cherchen, 174

China, Buddhist pilgrimage routes from, 169 _et seq._, 502, 518

Chinese Turkistan: Buddhist occupation of, 280 Conditions of life in, in antiquity, 171, 172 Tibet, included in, 283

Chiras, 252

Chitral, passes converging on, 426-7, 519

Chitral river. _See_ Kunar river

Chitral valley: Accessibility of, 517 Dorah route to, 519-20

Choaspes. _See_ Kunar

Chol country, 236, 238, 246, 247, 258

Christians: Armenian, in Kabul, 377 Merv, at, 241 Sakah, at, 229

Christie, Captain, 329 _et seq._

Chumla river, 108; valley, 121

Climate as affecting race distribution, 8, 46

Conolly, Lieut., 390

Cophæus, 114

Court, M., 455, 457

Crockery debris, 82, 197

Cufic coins, 394

Cunningham, General, cited, 106, 148

Curtius, Quintus, cited, 107, 122, 148-9, 221, 459

Cyrus, King of Persia, 79, 147

Dadar, 362

Dahuk (? Dashtak), 304

Dames, Longworth, cited, 201

Damizar (? Bagisara), 158

Dand, 472

Dandan Shikan pass, 260, 384, 421; Wood's account of, 418

Daolatabad, 249

Daolatyar, 221, 223-4, 256, 486

Daraim valley, 424

Darak (Dizak), 311-14

Darak Yamuna (Yakmina), 317

Dards, 31

Darel (To-li), 179, 182-3

Darel stream, 183-4

Darius, flight of, from Alexander, 47, 67; death of, 70

Darius Hystaspes, transportation of Greeks by, 16, 19, 20, 31, 45, 87, 91

Darra Yusuf river, 257, 200

Darwaz mountains, 432-3

Darya-i-Zarah (Gaod-i-Zireh), 204

Dasht river, 165

Dasht-i-bedoulat plain, 362, 370

Dasht-i-Lut, 323

Dasht-i-Margo desert, 81, 495

Dawar (Zamindawar), 83, 205-206, 223, 491

Deane, Major Sir H., cited, 129

Debal, 293, 301, 303, 307, 308, 310

Deh Dadi, 257

Dehao (? Dehi), 483

Dehertan (? Dahertan), 236, 237

Dehgans, 269

Dehi (? Dehao), 483

_Delight of those who seek to wander through the Regions of the World, The_ (Idrisi), cited, 199 _et seq._

Dendalkan, 245, 246

Dera Ismail Khan, 463

Derah, 245

Derak (Dizek), 244

Dereh Mustapha Khan (Deria-dereh), 487

Derenbrosa, I., 159

Derthel, 206-208, 210

Deserts as barriers, 7-9

Dev Hissar fortress, 484-5

Dev Kala, 89, 92

Dihsai (Dshara), 465-6

Diodoros cited, 107

_Dionysiaka_ cited, 62

Dir valley, 129

Dizak (Darak), 311-14

Dizek (Derak), 244

Djil, 273

Doctors as travellers, 463

Domai (Manora), I., 154

Domandi, 464, 513

Dorah pass, 508-509; nature and importance of, 426-7, 519-21

Dorak (? Dizek), 245

Dosh, 261

Doshak. _See_ Jalalabad

Doshak range, 233

Dost Mahomed Khan, 344, 353, 359, 390, 403, 444, 462, 490; operations by, against Sikhs, 397-8; methods and estimate of, 360

Drangia. _See_ Seistan

Dravidian Brahuis, 306

Dravidian races entering India, 142-4

Dshara (Dihsai), 465-6

Dufferin lake, 520

Durand, 471

Durani Afghans: Districts inhabited by, 212 Herat under occupation of, 348 Shikarpur, at, 363 Truculence of, 212, 490 Zarangai alleged to be recognisable as, 33-4

Duvanah valley, 424

Dwa Gomul river, 475

Eastward migrations, 6, 7, 9, 45, 49

Ecbatana: Darius' flight to, 47-8, 67 Route, direct, to India from, 51

Egypt, buildings in, 40

Elam, 163

Elburz mountains: Alexander's passage of, 74, 76, 258 Rivers of, 75 Road across, 528 mentioned, 74, 257

Elliott, Sir H., cited, 302, 304, 305; quoted, 313

Embolina (Amb), 107-108, 114-15, 121

Erbil (Arbil): Battle of Arbela at, 47 Route from, to Hamadan, 48

Ersari Turkmans, 251, 459-60

Esar Haddon, King of Assyria, 52

Ethiopians, Asiatic, problem regarding, 34-6, 163

Euxine (Black Sea): Milesian colonies S. and W. of, 18 Skythic nomads N. of, 14, 19

Explorations of Indian trans-frontier, recentness of, 1, 17, 32, 60, 345

Fa Hian, 170, 172, 178, 180, 181, 184-5; quoted, 174-6, 179, 183

Fahalfahra (Bahu Kalat), 312-14

Fahraj (Pahrag, Pahra, Pahura), 315, 317; two places so named, 316

Faizabad: Dorah route from, 519 Situation of, 273-4, 425 Wood's account and estimate of, 422, 425 Zebak, route from, 511 mentioned, 279, 506

Farah (Prophthasia): Alexander the Great at, 78 Antiquity of, 7 Ferrier at, 493-4 Herat, route from, 230-34 Situation of, 7

Farah Rud river, 204, 216, 221, 336, 488, 494

Farajghan, 356

Fardan (? Bampur or Pahra), 315-17

Farsi, 223

Fazilpur, 365

Fazl Hag, 458

Ferengal, lead mines at, 416

Ferghana, 282

Ferrier, M., career of, 477; at Herat, 477-8; journey across Firozkohi plateau, 476, 478, 484; route to Ghur, 485-7; imprisonments of, 491-3; at Farah, 493-4; in Seistan, 496-7; back to Herat, 498; methods of, 346; estimate of, 476, 480, 498; cited, 214, 231, 335, 516; _Caravan Journeys_ cited, 497

Ferrying by ponies, 89-90, 449, 460-61

Feruk (Feruckabad), 449

Firabuz (Kanazbun), 302-303; distances from, 304, 313, 317

Firozand, 207

Firozkohi (mediæval capital of Ghur), 219

Firozkohi plateau: Ferrier's journey across, 476, 478, 484; route to Ghur, 485-7 Impracticability of, for military operations, 525 Outlook from, 266 mentioned, 247, 258

Firozkohis: District of, 84, 214, 217, 219, 253 Origin of, 481

Foosheng, 231

Forbes, Dr., murder of, 497

Forrest's _Selections from Travels and Journals preserved in the Bombay Secretariat_ quoted, 348, _and n._

Gadrosia. _See_ Makran

Gadrosii, 146, 151

Gaduns, 111

Gadurs, 35

Galjin, 497

Gandhara (Upper Punjab), 99, 179, 185

Gandava (Sind), 305

Gaod-i-Zireh (Darya-i-Zarah), 204

Gardandiwal, 260, 379, 388

Gauraians, 96

Gauraios river. _See_ Panjkora

Gawargar, 267

Gazban (Karbis), 159

Gazdarra pass, 465, 472

Geh (Bih), 311-12, 314

Geography: Ancient records of, absence of, 14-16, 18, 29 Distances, difficulties of estimating, by "a day's journey," 298 Influence of, on migratory movements, 9, 45-6; on history, 214 Makran, of, 295 _et seq._ Official _v._ unofficial, 332, 345 Persian, extent and accuracy of, 17, 25-6, 29, 31 Recent advances in, 1, 17, 32, 60

Gerard, Dr., 376, 395

Germany, firearms from, imported to Persia, Seistan, etc., 55

Gharan, 429

Gharo river, 153

Ghazni (region): Raids from, 136 Vigne's exploration of, 462, 465

Ghazni river, 468

Ghazni (town): Alauddin's sack of, 218 Desolation of, 210-11, 376 Kandahar, route to, 512 Masson at, 359-60 Vigne at, 467

Ghaznigak, 261

Ghilzais (Khilkhis): Districts of, 375-6 Importance of, 206, 212 Suliman Khel. _See that title_

Ghizao, 515

Ghorband drainage system, 468

Ghorband river, 413

Ghorband valley: Beauty of, 97 Easy pass to, 260, 261, 387 Lead mines in, 416 Military road up, 277

Ghori, 524

Ghoweh Kol (? Pai Kol), 380

Ghulam Khana, 385

Ghur: Ferrier at, 478 Ghazni to, no direct route from, 220

Ghur, kingdom of: Description and history of, in mediæval times, 205, 211-13, 217-19 Routes through, in mediæval times, 220-24

Ghur river, 204, 221, 488

Ghur valley, 221-2

Ghurian (Koure), 231-2

Giaban headland, 159

Gichki, 37

Gilgit basin, 517; river, 182

Girishk: Ferrier's imprisonment at, 491-3 Ford at, 204, 206-10 Kandahar route by, 490 Ruins at, 492

Gish (war god), 131

Glass, Arabic, 300

Gobi desert, 171

Goës, Benedict, 327-8

Goldsmid, General Sir F., 299

Gomul river, 136, 464, 473-4

Gomul route from the Indus to Ghazni, Vigne's exploration of, 462, 512, 513

Gondakahar (Gandakahar, Gondekehar) caves, 305, 306, 320

Gondrani caves, 305, 306

Granikos river, 66

Great Britain: Afghan attitude towards, 337-8; British attitude towards Afghanistan in early nineteenth century, 349 Afghan war (1839-40). _See_ Afghanistan, British war with Afghan war (1878-80), surveys in connection with, 397, 500 Sixteenth century, condition of England in, 2

Greeks: Baghlan and Andarab, settlements about, 435 Baktria, deportation to, 87, 91; survival of strain in, 354-5, 358, 423 Dionysian, migration of, to Indian frontier, 16, 19, 62-3, 124-5, 358, 423 Indian art, influence on, 59-60 Kyrenean, in Baktria, 91 Milesian. _See that title_ Persian Empire, relations with, 20-21, 36, 61 Women of, as influencing language in Indus valley, 22

Grierson, Dr., cited, 132

Gulgula citadel, 381, 386

Gulkatz, 473

Gulkoh mountain, 515

Gulran (? Kilrin), 235

Gurkhas in Nepal, 188

Guzwan (? Gurkan, Juzjan, Jurkan, Jirghan), 250, 251, 255

Gwadur (Barna, Badara), 159, 299

Gwalian (Walian) pass, 414

Habibullah, 444

Haftala (Astola, Hashtala, Nuhsala, Nosala) Island, 161, 286

Haibak (Semenjan): Andarab, distance from, 272; route to, 524 Buddhist remains at, 177, 264-5, 511 Description of, 271 Moorcroft at, 446 mentioned, 261, 482

Haidar, cited, 186, 327

Haidarabad, 399

Haig, General, 27; cited, 309-10; _Indus Delta Country_ by, cited, 145, 153

Haji Khan, 378-87, 417

Hajigak pass, 260, 420, 446; Masson's account of, 388; Wood's account of, 417

Hajjaj, 292

Hala pass, 150

Hamadan, 322; telegraph route from, to Teheran, 48

Harat Rud, 498

Hari Rud river: Course of, 528 Herat-Kabul route by, 248, 256, 262 Pul-i-Malun across, 229 _n._, 230 Source of, 84, 256

Hari Rud valley, 215, 485-6, 528

Hariana, 276-7

Harnai pass, 139

Hazaras: Characteristics of, 216, 481 Country of, nature of, 84-6, 214, 221, 516; British interest in, merely academic, 514 Forced labour of, 380-81 Haji Khan's treachery against, 384 Kidnapping of, by Taimanis, 253 Masson's relations with, 387-8 Slave-gangs of, 421 Trading of, 252 Women of, Ferrier's account of, 485 Yezdambaksh, under, 378-9

Hazart Ghaos, 371

Hazrat Baba Kamur, 505

Hazrat Imam, 432-3, 504, 505, 506

Hedin, Sven, 170

Helawerd, 274

Helmund basin, 201; central unexplored, 512

Helmund river (Etymander): Course of: Description of, 81-2, 83-4, 379 Variations in, 79-80, 202 Crossing-places on, 204-10, 380 Detritus borne by, 81 Indus, route to, 527 Northern branches of, unexplored, 515 Ruins bordering, 492 Unexplored portion of, 512, 515

Helmund valley: Antiquarian treasures in, 496 Description of, 79 _et seq._ Nadir Shah in, 526 Pottery débris in, 197 Survey of, thoroughness of, 207

Hephæstion, 94, 95, 99, 150, 151

Herat (Aria): Ancient cities on or near site of, 77 Balkh, routes to, 239-40, 247-8 Capital of Ghur in mediæval times, 219 Christie at, 336-7 Commerce of, during Arab supremacy, 225 Defence of, against the Persians (1837), 402 Description of, by Idrisi, 228 Durani occupation of, 348 Farah, route to, 230-34 Ferrier at, 477; his views as to, 479 India, military route to, 525-6 Kabul, route to, by Hari Rud, 248, 256, 262; other routes, 257 Kandahar, direct route to, 490, 525-8 Mosalla, 228 Panjdeh and Merv, route to, 236 Persian satrapy including, 32 Persian siege of, 477 Tributary to Ghur in mediæval times, 218

Herat valley, 202, 205, 211-12, 217; route from, to India, 209; trees in, 237

Herodotus cited, 17, 25, 26, 30, 31, 33-4, 56, 163

Hicks, 469

Hindu Koh range, 182

Hindu Kush mountains: Direction of, 4 Geographical knowledge of, defective, 508-9 Passes over, 274, 327, 328, 357, 378, 381-2, 387, 413-15, 426-7, 434-5, 507, 517, 519-25 Andarab in relation to, 275, 277 Command of, 261 Masson's account of, 388 Mediæval use of, 277 Wood's account of, 417-18 Snow line of, on north and south sides, 415

Hinglaz mountain and shrine, 162-3

Hingol river, 291; Alexander at, on the retreat, 151, 157, 161-3, 166

History, unimportance of, to the ancients, 11, 25

Hiuen Tsiang cited, 178

Honigberger, M., 394-5, 462, 468

Hormuz, 200

Housab, 225

Huc, Abbé, cited, 439, 440

Huec Sheng, 184

Huen Tsang cited, 262, 279

Huntington, Ellsworthy, cited, 8, 278

Hunza (Kunjut), 180-81

Hupian, 394

Hyperboreans, 14, 19

Ibn Batuta cited, 210

Ibn Haukel of Baghdad cited, 203, 217, 228-31, 236, 237, 243, 251, 255, 295, 303; _Ashkalu l' Bilad_ of, quoted, 304, 308-309; map of Makran by, cited, 297-8, 307, 312, 313

Ichthyophagi, 160, 318

Idrisi (Abu Abdulla Mohammed) cited,199 _et seq._, 301-304, 307-309, 312, 313, 315-17, 427-8, 434, 446; quoted, 303, 314, 316-17

Ilchi (Khotan), 172

_Iliad_ cited, 12

Imám Sharif, 222

India (_for particular districts, rivers, etc., see their names_): Aboriginal inhabitants of, 157 Afghanistan: Commercial treaty with, attempted, 397; Burnes' mission, 398-401, 404-5 Land gates of India always in possession of, 22 Arab invasion of, by land and sea, 287 Art of: Assyrian influence on, 7, 52-4 Greek influence on, 6, 22, 59-60, 129 Syrian and Armenian influence on, 6 Aryan influx to, 61 Assyrian influence in, 70; on art, 7, 52-4 Bombay N.I., record of, 454 Defences of, natural: North and north-east frontier, on, 3 South frontier, on--ridge and valley formation, 140; Indus to Punjab desert, 7, 143-4, 226, 526 Dravidian races entering, 142-4, 158 Gold-fields of, 51 Government of: Characteristics of, 408-10 Masson's criticisms of, 408, 409 Greek impression left on, slightness of, 59 History of, ancient, non-existent, 11 Makran route to. _See under subheading_ Routes N.W. barrier of, true situation of, 5 Population of, not indigenous, 49 Railway systems of, 324 Rajput families of, 7 Routes to: Makran route: Arab supremacy, under, 226, 294, 311 Importance of, in antiquity, 167-8 Modern ignorance regarding, 141; modern possibilities as to, 319-24 Northern, from Mongolia, 169 _et seq._, 186 _et seq._ Persian, 311, 319, 321-4 Sea-routes to N.W. in antiquity, 55 Russian designs as to, question of, 319-20 Trade of: Persian, 21 Syrian and Phoenician, 13, 45 Wealth of, 295 Turanian races in, 157-8

Indian Survey, 183

Indus river (Sintu ho): Boundary of early exploration, 7 Burnes' flotilla on, 454 Course of, variations in, 26-7, 296 Delta of, area of, 27 Desert flanking, 143-4, 226, 526 Gharo, creek of, 153 Gorge of, below the Darel, 183-4 Haig's _Indus Delta Country_ cited, 145, 153 Navigability of, near Baio, 121 Opening of, to commercial navigation, Burnes' mission regarding (1837), 399 Rann of Katch, estuary of, in antiquity, 144 Routes from, to Helmund river and Central India, 527 Voyage down, by Scylax, 26-8

Indus valley: Climate of, 46; fog, 85-6 Greek and Arabic remains in, 364; Greek language and its disappearance, 21, 59 Inscriptions, undecipherable, found in, 129-30 Mahomedan supremacy in, 293 Pathans in, ancient settlement of, 28 Persian satrapy including large part of, 31 Routes to, through Makran, 141. _See also under_ India--Routes Vegetation in, in antiquity, 121-2

Inscriptions on stone slabs, 129-30; on bricks, 494, 496, 499

Irak, 292; valley, 387; stream, 388; pass, 417

Irrigation in Afghanistan, 75-6, 475

Ishak Khan, 261

Ishkashm, 429

Islam. _See_ Mahomedanism

Ispahan: Railway from, question as to, 319, 321-2 Telegraph route from, to Panjgur, 322

Ispahak pass, Wood's description of, 417

Israelites: Assyrian deportation of, 16, 39, 44, 49, 61 Disappearance of, as a nation, 40

Issyk Kul lake, 173

Istakhri of Persepolis cited, 295, 302, 303, 307, 308, 312

Jabar Khan, 462, 469

Jacobabad, 139

Jacquet, Eugene, 395

Jadran hills, 513

Jadwa, 236

Jagdallak defile, 95

Jahanabad, 497

Jhal, 371

Jalalabad (Doshak), 335, 497; Buddhist relics near, 177, 352

Jalawan Brahuis, 164

Jalk, 335

Jam Kala, 222

Jamrud, 398

Jamshidis, 214, 216, 481

Jaor, 486

Jats, Jatas, 293, 501

Jawani, 336

Jebel al Ghur, 217

Jerkere, 231

Jews (Yahudi): Afghan hatred of, 50, 377 Balkh, at, 71 Sar-i-pul, at, 252 Transportations of, 44 Yahudia, at 251, 255

Jihun. _See_ Oxus.

Jil district, 278

Jilgu river, 475

Jirena (Behvana), 245

Jirghan (? Jurkan, Gurkan, Juzjan, Guzwan), 250, 251, 255; range, 249

Jirift, 201

Jirm (? Badakshan), 270, 506 Position and importance of, 270, 274-5 Wood's estimate of, 422, 425-6

Joubert's translation of Idrisi cited. _See_ Idrisi

_Journal of the Royal Society of Arts_ cited, 146

Junasdara pass, 424-5

Jurkan (Gurkan, Juzjan, ?Guzwan or Jirghan), 250, 251, 255; range, 249

Jutes, 61

Kabadian, 278

Kabul: Arab expedition against, 292 Burnes' mission to (1832), 344, 376; his commercial mission to (1837-8), 392, 398-401, 404-405 Hicks' tomb at, 469 Masson British agent in, 397; his account of, 376-7 Mediæval estimate of, as "Indian" town, 211, 219, 226, 262; mediæval description quoted, 211 Modern conditions in, social and material, 377 Moorcroft's journey to, 444 Routes to and from: Afghan Turkistan, Wood's account of route to, 418-19; modern improvements in, 419 _and n._, 522 _n._ Andarab, Khafila road to, 88 Badakshan, all-the-year-round route to, 275-6, 419 _n._ Balkh, Frontier Commission's route from, 272-3 Bamian, route to, open in winter, 385-6 Bokhara and Bamian, main route to, 389 Herat, route from, by Hari Rud, 248, 256, 262; other routes, 257 Kunduz, 416, 523 Mazar and Band-i-Amir, by, 259-261 Peshawar _via_ Kuram valley and Peiwar pass, 135 Punjab, route from: Buddhist character of, 177 Kunar, Laghman and Lundai valleys, by, 101 Sar-i-pul, from, 252 Vigne at, 468-9

Kabul province, India in Middle Ages, 277

Kabul (Kophen, Nahrwara) river: Alexander's probable course along, 100 Source of, 84 mentioned, 96, 276

Kabul river basin (Ki-pin), 96, 176, 215

Kabulis, 492

Kach (Kaj), meaning of term, 35

Kach Gandava, 305-306

Kafir wine, 133-4

Kafiristan: Homogeneity of natives of, 508 Inhabitants of, 96, 269 Ivy and vine in, 124 Timur's invasion of, 327, 355-6 Unexplored wildness of, 269-70

Kafirs in Afghanistan: Badakshan, in, 437 Ignorance regarding, 269-70 Kunar valley, in, 102-103; two Kafirs of Kamdesh, 131-2 Siahposh. _See that title_

_Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, The_ (Robertson), cited, 510

Kafzur (Hajigak) pass, 417

Kah, 267, 268

Kaiani of Seistan, 34

Kaiani kingdom, ruins of, 82

Kaiani Maliks, 37, 208

Kaibar river, 232

Kaisan (Kasan) river, 272

Kaisar drainage, 248-9

Kala Bist, 204, 207, 208

Kala Sarkari, 260

Kala Sarwan, 206-208

Kala Shahar, 251, 255

Kala-i-Fath, 355, 496, 497

Kalagan, 342

Kalah, ruins of, 42

Kalama (Khor Khalmat), 158

Kalapani river, 106

Kalat, 323 British expedition to, 406 Christie and Pottinger at, 332 Masson at, 370-71 Strategic position of, 138-9

Kalat-i-Ghilzai (Khilkh), 206, 210

Kalatak, 301

Kalawun, 236, 238

Kalloo (Panjpilan) pass, 417

Kalu, 388

Kalwan (? Kolwah), 304

Kaman-i-Bihist, 232, 236

Kamard, Tajik chief of, 383, 384, 421

Kamard valley, 260, 261, 437

Kambali (? Khairokot), 150, 307-308

Kamdesh, 131

Kamran, Shah, 403

Kanazbun (Firabuz), 302-303; distances from, 304, 313, 317

Kandabel, 305

Kandahar: Flank march on, possibility of, 204-5 Indian frontier, distance from, 528 Kabul compared with, in matter of tolerance, 377 Leech's mission to, 401-402 Masson at, 360-61 Mediæval insignificance of, 210 Routes from, to: Ghazni, 512 Herat, 490; Herat as gateway to, 525-8 Kabul, Alexander's, 86-7 Kalat, _via_ Mangachar valley, 374-5 Sonmiani, 331

Kandahar (in Kach Gandava), 305-306

Kandaharis, 492

Kanowar, 238

Kao river. _See_ Alingar

Kaoshan pass, 435: Alexander's passage of, tradition as to, 87 Greek control of, before Alexander's expedition, 20, 91; Greek use of, 277 Height of, 88, 357 "Hindu Kush," known as the pass of, 414

Kara pass, 260, 418

Karabel (Armail, Armabel, Las Bela), 304-307, 320

Karabel plateau: Description of, 248 Route across, from near Panjdeh to Balkh, 250

Karabia I., 159

Karabine, 158

Karachi: Approaches to, 140-41 Configuration of, changes in, 153 Makran route to, modern possibilities as to, 319-24 Malir waterworks, 310 Masson refused landing at, 368 Voyage from, to Persian Gulf (by Nearkhos), 146, 152-61

Karakoram pass, 180

Karakoram trade route, 181, 517; description of, 3-4

Karaks, 286, 292

Karamat Ali, Saiad, 390

Karapa route, 351

Karat, 231

Karbat, 250

Karbis (Gazban), 159

Kardos, 327

Kardozan, 479

Karez Ilias route to Sarakhs, 234

Karia Pir, 307

Kariut (Cariat), 210

Karmania, 32, 165

Karmatians, 293, 311

Karomurs, 71

Karosthi language, 280; script cited, 171

Kartchoo, 482

Karuj (Korokh), 236, 237

Karwan (? Parwan), 276-7

Karza (? Kafza) pass, 382, 385

Kasan, 511; stream, 428

Kashan, 322; river, 236, 237, 240; valley, 481

Kashmir (Kie-sha): Buddhism in, 179-80 Fa Hian in, 178-9, 182 Persian knowledge of, 31

Kashmir passes, no records of military use of, 517

Kashmund mountains, 100, 101

Kashran (? Khasrin), 317

Kaspioi, 31

Kaspira (Kasmira), 31

Kasr Akhif (Ahnef), 245

Kasrkand, 311-12, 314

Kasur spur, 426

Kataghani horses, 504-505

Katan Chirak, 132

Katawar, 355

Kattasang, 472

Kattawaz plain, 465, 472, 475

Kawak (Khawak), 355

Kawakir, 235

Kej (Kiz, Kirusi, ?Labi), 301-302

Kej valley, 297

Kenef, 238

Kunjut (Hunza), 180-181

Kerman desert, 201; valley, 262

Kermanshah, 322

Ketnev, 356

Khaibar route to India: Evil reputation of, 458 Hyphæstion's march by, 95 Masson's journey by, 351-2

Khair, 310

Khair Kot (? Kambali), 150, 307-308

Khalmat tombs, 196, 310-11

Khan Nashin, 495

Khana Yahudi, 257

Khanabad, 423, 506

Kharachanabad (Khardozan), 230

Kharan, 331, 335, 339

Kharan desert, 339-41

Khardozan (Kharachanabad), 230

Khariab river, 278

Khariab (Kokcha) river, 270, 273, 274

Kharkerde, 231

Kharotis, 513

Khash, 495

Khash Rud valley, 204

Khashka pass, 387

Khasrin (? Kashran), 317

Khawak pass: Height of, 357, 435 Importance of, 521 Popularity of, 414 Timur at, 327, 355, 435 otherwise mentioned, 261, 275, 277, 419, 428, 434, 507

Khawak river, 274

Khazar, 388

Khilkh (Kalat-i-Ghilzai), 206

Khilkhis. _See_ Ghilzais

Khiva (Khwarezm), 218, 244

Khizilji Turks, 281-2

Khoes river, 99-100

Khoja Mahomed range, 424, 436, 437, 506, 507

Khojak range, 139

Khor Khalmat (Kalama), 158

Khorasan, 348

Khorienes, 93

Khotan (Ilchi): Balkh, distance from, 177; route to, 277, 278-9 Buddhist centre, as, 172, 174

Khozdar: Christie and Pottinger at, 331 Masson at, 373 Turan, capital of, 315

Khulm, 88, 270-72, 416; river, 84

Khur, 308, 310

Khurd Kabul defile, 95

Khud Rud, 515

Khuzan (Ak Tepe), 245-6

Khwaja Amran (Kojak) range, 374

Khwaja Chist, 217, 223

Khwaja Salar, 448, 449, 460

Khwarezm (Khiva), 218, 244

Ki-pin (Kabul river basin), 176

Kie-sha. _See_ Kashmir.

Kila Adraskand, 229 _n._

Kila Gaohar, 485

Kila Khum, 511

Kila Maur, 237, 245

Kila Panja, 430

Kila Shaharak, 486

Kila Sofarak, 256

Kila Wali, 243, 248

Kilif, 279; pony ferry at, 89-90, 460

Kilik pass, 180, 517

Kilrin (? Gulran), 235

Kir (Kiz) Kaian, 313-17

Kirghiz (? Kirkhirs): Idrisi's account of, 282-3 Wood's estimate of, 430

Kirman, 311, 313-15, 322-3; telegraph _via_, to India, 69

Kirman desert, 147

Kirthar range, 140

Kishm, 509

Kiz (Kirusi, Kej, ?Labi), 301-302

Kiz (Kir) Kaian, 313-17

Kizzilbash, 467

Knidza (Kyiza), 160

Koh Daman: Alexander at, 94 Description of, 96-7 Lord's expedition to, 412-13

Koh-i-Babar (Baba) mountains: Altitude of, 263 Nature and direction of, 84, 381 Rivers starting from, 215

Koh-i-Basman, 323

Koh-i-Malik Siah, 209

Koh-i-Mor (Meros) mountains, 105, 123-4, 358

Koh Umber mountain, 423, 506

Kohendil Khan, 493

Kohistan: Inhabitants of, 96 Mountain scenery of, 392

Kohistan plains, 87

Kohistani, 486

Kohistani Babas, 487

Kohnak divide, 513

Kojak (Khwaja Amran) range, 374

Kokcha (Khariab, Minjan) river: Course of, nature of, at Faizabad, 424, 425 Mouth of, 434 Robertson's view regarding, 510 Route by headwaters of, nature of, 426, 427, 436 mentioned, 270, 273, 274, 507, 520

Kokcha valley, 424, 425, 427

Kokhar Ab river, 515

Kolab, 433-4

Kolar gold-fields, 51

Kolwah (? Kalwan), 304

Konche river, 174

Kophen river. _See_ Kabul river

Korokh (Karuj), 236, 237, 239, 240

Kotal-i-bed, 374

Kotal Murgh pass, 90

Kotanni pass, 513

Koure (Ghurian), 231-2

Koyunjik mound, 43

Krateros, 103, 147

Krokala, 148, 153, 156

Kua (Kau), 235, 236

Kudabandan, 303

Kuen Lun mountains, 171, 172, 173

Kufs, 200

Kughanabad, 236

Kuhsan, Kusan (? Kuseri, Kouseri), 232-3, 239, 479

Kum, 322

Kunar (Choaspes, Chitral) river, 122, 431; importance of, 100

Kunar (Choaspes, Chitral) valley: Description of, 100-103 Direction of, 509-10 Dorah route from, 520 Ivy and vine in, 133 Kafirs in, 102-103; of Kamdesh, 131-2 Masson's investigations as to, 396 Survey of (1894), 123

Kundar river, 464

Kunduz (town): Burnes' mission to, 378 Description of, 504 Lord's invitation to, 413, 416, 420-422 Southward routes from, to Bamian and Kabul, 523 Warwalin near, 272 Wood's estimate of, 422

Kunduz district: Fortified towns of, 504 Pestilential climate of, 432, 447-9, 505 Kunduz river, 261, 421, 428, 436, 505; scenery of, 257, 259-260

Kunduz valley route to Kabul, 434

Kunjut, 186

Kupruk, 257

Kuram, 482-3, 505

Kuram valley route, 135, 512

Kurchi, 251

Kurdistan hills, 322

Kurt (Tajik) dynasty in Ghur, 218

Kuseri, Kouseri (? Kuhsan, Kusan), 231-3

Kushan (Tokhari), 241

Kushk, 324

Kushk river, 236, 237, 240; description of, 246

Kushk-i-Nakhud, 210, 492

Kyiza (Knidza), 160

Labi (? Kiz, Kirusi, Kej), 304

Ladakh ("Little Tibet"): Idrisi's description of the town of, 281 Mongol invasion _via_, 186 Moorcroft in, 443-4 Vigne in, 462

Laghman valley, 96, 99-101; inhabitants of, 100, 133

Lahore: Burnes at, 455 Masson at, 366-7

Lakshur (? Langar), 238-9

Lalposh, 270

Lamghan. _See_ Laghman

Language, women's preservation of, 22, 143, 295

Lapis-lazuli mines above Jirm, 426, 507

Las (Lumri) tribe of Rajputs, 305

Las Bela (Armail, Armabel, Karabel): Distances to, 303-304 Gadurs of, 35 Historic interest of, 304-307, 320 Masson at, 369 Ruins near, 372 Strategic position of, 138-9

Lash Jowain, 493, 498

Lasonoi, 30

Lataband pass, 424

Leach, Lieut., 471

Lead mines of Ferengal in Ghorband valley, 416

Leech, Lieut., on Burnes' staff, 401-402, 412; work and methods of, 440-41

Leh, 180, 443, 444, 519

Leonatus, 151, 156, 161

Lhasa: Buddhist centre, as, 172-3 Moorcroft's residence at, question as to, 439-40, 444 Pilgrimages to, 181, 187 Route from, to India, 517

Liari, 308

Lockhart mission, 358, 429, 509

Logar river, 380, 468; valley, 466, 475

Lohanis, 360, 463, 467

Lob, 283

Lop basin, 172, 173

Lop Nor, 171, 174, 280

Lord, Dr., mission of, to Badakshan, 402; expedition of, to Koh Daman and Hindu Kush passes, 412-15; in Ghorband valley, 416; at Kunduz, 413, 416, 420-21; visit of, to Hazrat Imam, 432; investigations by, regarding Moorcroft, 439; _Uzbek State of Kundooz_ by, 504; cited, 420, 505

Loveday, Lieut., 406

Ludhiana, 344

Ludi (Lydoi), 30

Lulan, 174

Lumri (Las) tribe of Rajputs, 35, 305

Lundai valley, 101

Lungar, 468

Lydoi (Ludi), 30

Mabara (? Barbarra), 434

Mackenzie, Captain, 148

M'Crindle cited, 159

MacMahon, Sir Henry, 374 _and n._, 497

MacNab, Dr., 131

McNair, 358

Mada Khel hills, 108

Mahaban (Shah Kot), 108, 110-11, 113, 117-21

_Mahabharata_ cited, 12, 63

Mahighir canal, 394

Mahmud of Ghazni, Multan conquered by (1005), 192-3, 293; raids by, 200, 210, 218, 513; tomb of, 376; mentioned, 219, 468

Mahmudabad, 491

Mahomed Akbar Khan, 490

Mahomed Ali, Chief of Saighan, 378-9, 382-3

Mahomed Azim Khan, 444

Mahomed Kasim, 293-4, 307

Mahomed Khan, Sultan, 360, 403, 483

Mahomedanism, rise of, 187

Mahomedans: Balkh, at, 72, 74 Kafir attitude towards, 131 Vigne's estimate of, 467

Maidan, 260, 468

Maimana, 239, 248-50, 258, 481

Makran (Gadrosia). _For particular districts, etc., see their names_ Alexander's retreat through, 38, 51, 86, 145-54, 161-6 Ancient relics in, 56 Arabian interest in, prior to A.D. 712, 292; Arab governors of, 193, 292, 293 Baluch traditions as to, 291 Bampur the ancient capital of, 165 Boledi long the ruling tribe in, 36-7 Coasting trade of, in antiquity, 57 Configuration, orography, and geological features of, 32-3, 48, 285, 288-91, 296 Decline of, in eleventh century, 295 Desiccation of, 288-9 Greek knowledge of, in ancient time scanty, 37 Hots of (? Uxoi), 34 Islands off, disappearance of, 286, 288 Kaiani Maliks' supremacy in, 37 Kushite race in, question as to, 34-5 Negroes in, 36 Persian satrapies including, 32, 200 Physical features of. _See subheading_ Configuration Ports of, for importation of firearms, 55 Route through, to India under Arab supremacy, 209, 226, 294, 311 Ignorance as to, 141 Importance of, in antiquity, 167-8 Modern possibilities as to, 319-24 Stone-built circles in, 372 Tombs in (Khalmati), 310-11 Turanian relics in, 158 View of, from Arabian Sea, 284-5

Malan headland, 158, 285, 291; range, 161-2, 164

Malek Hupian, 394

Malistan valley, 515

Malli (? Meds), 155, 160-61

Malun Herat, 229 _n_.

Manabari, 308-309

Manasarawar lakes, 440

Manbatara, 308

Mandal pass, 426, 507, 519

Manga (Manja, Mugger) Pir, 309

Mangachar valley, 374

Manglaor, 121

Manhabari (? Minagar, Binagar), 304, 309-10

Manjabari, 309

Manora (Domai) Island, 154

Mansura, 309

Mansuria, 315-16

Mashad: Russian telegraph _via_, 69 Seistan, route to, 528 Teheran, objections regarding railway to, 319

Mashad valley, 424

Mashkaf (Bolan) pass, 139

Mashkel (? Maskan), 313-14; swamp, 323, 339, 341

Massaga: Alexander's capture of, 105, 122; route from, 113 Nysæans at, question as to, 128-9

Marabad, 225

Marakanda (Samarkand), 88

Mardians, 68, 76

Maruchak. _See_ Merv-el-Rud

Marwa, 225

Masson, arrival of, at Bushire, 348, 368; in Peshawar, 350; journey to Kabul _via_ Khaibar route, 351-4, 359; to Ghazni and Kandahar, 359-60; to Quetta and Shikapur, 361-3; in the Punjab, 364-5; at Lahore, 365-367; to Karachi, 377; trips by water, 367-8; in E. Baluchistan, 369; at Chahiltan, 370-71; through Sind, 371-2; again to Kalat, Kandahar, and Kabul, 372-7; Besud expedition, 378, 380; to Bamian (1832), 378-86; to Kabul, 386, 388; researches near Kabul, 393; accepts post as British agent in Kabul, 397; relations with Burnes, 399-401, 404; resigns office under Indian Government, 405, 407; experiences at Quetta, 406-7; meeting with Vigne, 469; intimacy with Afghans, 346-7, 350, 352, 362-363; influence with them, 380; intimacy with Baluchs, 374; coins collected by, 393; criticisms of Indian Government by, 408, 409; value of work of, 345, 347-8, 367, 388, 391, 396, 407; methods of, 346; estimate of, 361, 370, 372, 395-6, 408; _Travels in Afghanistan_, _etc._, see that title; otherwise mentioned, 458, 462, 463, 468, 491

Masurjan, 317

Matakanai, 105, 128

Matiban, 200

Mazanderan, 481

Mazar, 434, 435, 448, 459

Mazar-i-Sharif, 257, 439

Meder, 267, 268

Meds (? Malli), 155, 160-61, 292-3

Megasthenes, 129; his _India_ cited, 126-7

Mehrab Khan, 406

Meilik (Nimlik), 482

Menk, 274

Mesiha, 245

Mesopotamia: Earliest immigrants into, question as to origin of, 34-5 Irrigation works necessary in, 40-41 Israelite deportations to, 39 Nana-worship in, 163 Teheran-Mashad route from, to Baktria, 47-8, 54, 70

Merv-el-Rud: Confused with Russian Merv by Idrisi, 244-5 Date and destruction of, 241-2 otherwise mentioned, 236, 239, 240-41

Merv of the Oasis (Russian): Balkh, routes to, 249-50 Confused with Merv-el-Rud by Idrisi, 244 Herat route from, 236 Historic importance of, 241

Milesian Greeks: Brankhidai, 20 Colonies of: N. of Euxine, 14 S. and W. of Euxine, 18 Transportation of, to Baktria region, 16, 19, 20, 31, 45

Miletus: Alexander's reduction of (334 B.C.), 66 Carpet-making industry of, 18 Destruction of, date of, 16

Minab river, 166

Minagar, Binagar (? Manhabari), 304, 309-10

Mingal, 482

Mingals, 142, 306

Minjan pass, 507, 519; Chitral route through, 359, 426

Minjan river. _See_ Kokcha

Minjan valley, 132, 426, 436

Miri fort of Quetta, 138, 148

Mockler, Col., cited, 159-60

Mongols: Afghanistan, in central plateau of, 85 Asiatic civilization overrun by, 200 Army of, destroyed on the Karakoram route, 4 Chenghiz Khan, under, 73 Ghur dynasty, subject to, 218 India: Central Southern, problem of arrival in, 142-4 Invasion of, by, 326 Military expeditions to, attempted, 186 Pilgrimages to, 169 _et seq._

Monze, Cape, 154

Moorcroft, explorations by, 440; question as to residence at Lhasa, 444; journey from to Kabul, Badakshan, and Bokhara, 444-8; official attitude towards, 442-3; records of, 443; fate of, 438-9; grave of, 259; estimate of, 443-4, 448, 503-504; otherwise mentioned, 423, 434, 467

Morontobara, 154-5

Mosarna, 161

Mugger (Manga, Manja) Pir, 309

Mugheir (Ur), 42

Mula (Mulla) pass, 139, 140, 147, 371

Multan: Hindu bankers in, 363 Mahmud's conquest of (1005), 193, 293 Masson's account of, 366 Tubaran, distance from, 315

Murad Beg, Mir of Kunduz, position of, 378-9, 504; Badakshani families transported by, 432, 505; Lord's invitation by, 413, 416; estimate of, 413; Wood's estimate of, 422; Moorcroft's experience and estimate of, 446-8; otherwise mentioned, 385, 418, 425, 429, 503

Murad Khan of Kunduz, 383

Murgh pass, 434-5

Murghab basin, Upper, unmapped, 477

Murghab river: Economic value of, 246-7 Head of, unexplored, 516 Head valleys of, 258 Ruins on, 243-4 Upper, climate of, 220 otherwise mentioned, 215, 236, 239-41

Murghab valley, 242, 282, 284

Muskat, 55

Mustapha Khan, 487

Muttra, 210

Nachan, 225

Nadir Shah, 267, 418, 526

Nagas, 501

Nahrwara river. _See_ Kabul river

Naisan, 225

Najil, 327, 356, 396-7

Najirman (? Nakirman), 200

Najitan (Bajitan), 225

Nalpach pass, 383-4

Nan Shan mountain system, 173

Nana (Chaldean goddess), 162-3

Naoshirwan, 339

Napoleon Buonaparte, Emperor, 328-329

Naratu, 236, 237, 239, 248

Narmashir, 323

Nasirs, 475

Nasratabad, 203

Nassoor, Sheikh, 497

Nava Sanghârâma, 178

Navigation, ancient, character of, 13, 56-7

Nawagai, 103

Nawak pass, 274, 428

Nawar valley, 515

Nearkhos, 26, 27; voyage of, from Karachi to Persian Gulf, 145, 152-61, 286; meeting of, with Alexander, 166-7; cited, 286

Negroes, Asiatic, 36

New Chaman, 324

Nicolas range, 431

Nikaia (modern Kabul), Alexander at, 98. _See also_ Kabul

Nili, 222

Nimchas, 269

Nimlik (Meilik), 482

Nimrud, 71

Nineveh: Ruins of, 42, 43 Zenith of, 52

Nishapur, 231

Nomadic life, conditions of, 23-5

Nonnus of Panopolis cited, 62-3, 98

North, Lieut., value of geographical work by, 411-12, 471

Nott, 406

Nuhsala (Nosala, Haftala, Hashtala) island, 161, 286

Nuksan pass, 508-509, 519, 520, 522

Nurzai, 212, 491

Nusa. _See_ Nysa

Nushki: Christie and Pottinger at, 38 Route _via_, 209, 323 Telegraph to, 323

Nysa, Nyssa (Nusa, Nuson): Tradition regarding, 62, 122-6 War-hymn connected with, 131-2

Nysæan inscriptions, question as to, 129-30

Nysaioi, 126-7

Obeh (Auca), 217, 225, 256

_Odyssey_ cited, 12

Olbia, 19

Omar I., Kalif of Baghdad, 307

Ora (? modern Bazar), 106

Oritæ, 146, 150, 151, 156, 161

Orodis, 241

Oxus district, mediæval geography of, 277 _et seq._

Oxus jungles, 433

Oxus (Jihun, Khariab) river: Channel of, variations in, 89 Fords of, accurate knowledge of, 501-502 Irrigation works connected with, 75 Khariab a name for, 273, 278 Pony ferry over, at Kilif, 89-90, 460; at Khwaja Salar, 449, 460-61 Wood's explorations of, 420, 423, 428-35

Oxydrakai, 127

Pactyans. _See_ Pathans

Padizar bay, 158, 159

Paghman offshoot of Hindu Kush, 97

Paghman, 387

Pahrag (Pahra, Pahura, Fahraj), 315, 317, 342; two places so named, 316

Pamirs: Climate of, 429 Mediæval geography of, 277 _et seq._ Routes across, 502 Taghdumbash, 517

Panja (Wakhab) river, 279

Panjdeh: Buddhist caves at, 244 Herat, routes from, 236 Karabel plateau route from near, to Balkh, 250

Panjgur: Dates of, 290 Description of, 302-303 Mountain conformation of, 323 Railway from, to Karachi, question as to, 324 Telegraph route to, from Ispahan, 322

Panjkora river, 104, 122

Panjkora valley, 96

Panjpilan (Kalloo, Shutar Gardan) pass, 386, 388, 417

Panjshir (Banjohir), 276-7

Panjshir pass, 87-8

Panjshir route between Kabul and Andarab, 87-8, 414

Panjshir valley: Mediæval reputation of, 435 Timur in, 355-6 otherwise mentioned, 261, 275, 356-7, 434, 510, 521

Pannah, 472

Parah, 230

Parana (Parwana), 229, 481, 498

Parikanoi, 163-4

Parjuman, 223

Park mountains, 221

Parkan stream, 164

Paropamisos (Hindu Kush), 79, 234, 247. (_See also_ Hindu Kush.)

Parsi (Tarsi), 489

Parwan (? Karwan), 276-7

Parwan (Sar Alang, Bajgah) pass, 328, 435; altitude of, 357; description of, 414

Parwana (Parana), 229, 481, 498

Pashai, 133

Pashat, 133

Pasiris, 158

Pasni, bay of, 159, 164

Patala, 146, 148

Pathans: Ancient settlement of, in present situation, 28 Greek names among, 21 Inscriptions used by, for decoration, 129-30 Persian origin of language of, 21

Peiwar pass, 135

Periplus cited, 310

Perjan (? Parwan), 355

Persepolis: Alexander the Great at, 68 Inscriptions at, cited, 30

Persia: Afghanistan: Colonies in, 61 Intrigues regarding, British nervousness as to, 399-400 War with (1837), 402 Army of, French officers' organisation of, 477 Charbar point fort built by, 299 Configuration of western, 48 Desert regions of, 69; "Great Desert," 201 Firearms imported into, 155 Helmund boundary of, 80 Routes through, to the East, two, 69; routes to India, 311, 319, 321-4 Russia: Sphere of influence of, 322 French organisation of Persian army resented by, 477 War with (1826), 348

Persian Empire: Extent of, 21, 26-7 Geographical information possessed by, extent and accuracy of, 17, 25-6, 29, 31 Greek permeation of, 20-21; Greek attitude towards, 36 Indian hinterland under control of, in Alexander's time, 61 Indian trade of, 21 Nations subject to, lists of, 29-30 Satrapies of, identification of, 30-32

Persian Gulf: Command of, necessary for safety of southern Baluchistan passes, 141 Masson's trip up, 367 Voyage to, from Karachi (by Nearkhos), 146, 152-61

Persians, Pottinger's estimate of, 333-4

Peshawar: Cession of, to Afghanistan mooted by Burnes, 401, 404 Moorcroft's journey from, to Kabul and Bokhara, 444 Route to, from Kabul _via_ Kuram valley and Peiwar pass, 135 Sikh occupation of, 350

Peshawaran, 336

Peukelaotis, 99, 114

Philotas, 78

Phur river, 151

Physical geography, influence of, on migratory movements, 9, 45-6; on history, 214

Pimuri defile, 421

Pir Mahomed, 445, 456

Pisacas, 133

Place-names, value of, in identifications, 115

Pokran (? Pokar), 371

Pola Island, 159

Polo, Marco, 281, 327

Polyænus quoted, 127-8

Pony-ferries on the Oxus--at Kilif, 89-90, 460; at Khwaja Salar, 449, 460-61

Poolka, 496

Poolki (Pulaki), 335-6, 497

Pottinger, Lieut., explorations by, 329 _et seq._; at Herat, 402; quoted--on Persian character, 333-4; on the Kharan desert, 339-40

Pousheng (Boushinj, Bousik), 231, 234, 237

Ptolemy (son of Lagos), with Alexander's expedition, 103, 104, 116; cited, 37, 104, 310

Pul-i-Malun bridge, 229 _n._, 230

Pulaki (Poolki), 335-6, 497

Punjab: Alexander's march on, 94 Fa Hian in, 179, 185 French and Italians in, 366 Greek architecture and sculpture in, 59 Ranjit Singh's hunting party in, 455-6 Sikh Government, under, 345-6, 363

Pura, 165

Purali (Arabius) river, 146, 148, 149, 156, 292, 305, 320, 370

Pushti Hajigak (Kafzur) pass, 417

Pushto, 350, 352

Quetta (Shall): British ignorance regarding, in 1880, 369 Masson and Bean at, 406; Masson's account of, 362 Strategic importance of, 137-9 Telegraph to, from Seistan, 323

Quintus Curtius. _See_ Curtius

Ragozin's _Chaldea_ quoted, 43

Rahmat Khan, 365

Rahmatulla Khan, 382, 421

Rahun, 304

Rajput tribes, 35

Rajputana desert, 27

Ramayana cited, 12, 63

Rambakia, 150

Ranjit Singh, Bentinck's interview with (1832), 344; position of, 350, 398; Burnes' entertainment by, 455-6; Burnes' estimate of, 457; Vigne's acquaintance with, 462; mentioned, 401, 404

Ras Kachari, 156

Rasak (? Sarbaz), 312-14

Ravi river, 366

Rawlinson, Sir Henry, cited, 241, 242, 245, 479; his _Five Monarchies_ quoted, 43

Regan, 316, 317, 323

Registan, 375

Reishkhan district, 424

Robat-i-Kashan, 237

Roberts, Lord, 87

Robertson, Sir George, 358, 426, 507, 510

Rohri, 364

Rokh, Shah, 242

Rookes cited, 118

Roxana, 92

_R.G.S. Journal_ cited, 123; _Proceedings_ cited, 241

Rozabagh, 229 _n._

Rozanak, 233

Ruby mines of Oxus valley, 428

Rudbar (? Rudhan), 207, 496

Rue Khaf (? Rudan), 231

Russia: Afghan intrigues of, British nervousness regarding, 399-400 India: Designs on, question as to, 319-20 Route to, nature of, 527-8 Persia: Army organisation of, resented by, 477 Sphere of influence in, 322 War with (1826), 348 Transcaspian railway terminus, 324

Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission: Camps of, 233, 235, 240 Escort of English officers of, 492 Geographical surveys in Reports of, 194, 264 Kwaja Salar, disappearance of, 450 Rapidity of movements of, 477 Routes of, 78, 248, 261, 272-3, 335, 415 otherwise mentioned, 71, 83, 231

Rustak, 504

Rustam (Bazira), 106, 113, 114

Sabaktagin, 414

Sacnia, 281

Sadik Khan, 493

Sadmurda, 260

Safed Khak pass, 379

Safed Koh, 95

Sagittæ, 163

St. John cited, 148, 316

Saiad Ahmad Shah, 350

Saib, 433

Saidabad fort, 386

Saighan valley, 260, 379, 382, 421, 437, 505

Sajidi, 164

Sakæ, 163, 164

Sakah, 229

Sakas, 501

Samad Khan, 390

Samaria, date of fall of, 39

Sarmakan, 245

Samarkand (Marakanda), 88, 292

Sandeman, Sir Robert, 137, 320; cited, 374

Sandrakottos (Chandragupta), 129

Sangadip Island, 161

Sangcharak, 258; mountains, 255

Sangiduktar, 231

Sangusar, 492

Sar Alang (Parwan, Bajgah) pass, 414

Saraswati river, 27, 144

Sarakhs, 230, 233, 234

Sarbaz (? Rasak), 312, 314; river, 312

Sardanapalus (Assur-bani-pal), 52, 162-3

Sargo pass, 472

Sargon, 39, 45

Sar-i-jangal stream, 256

Sarikoh stream, 267

Sar-i-pul (? Aspurkan), 250-52, 483

Sarwan (Kala Sarwan), 206-208

Sarwandi (Sir-i-koll) pass, 465, 472; ridge, 465-6

Satibarzanes, 77

Schintza, 473

Schwanbeck, Dr., 126

Scylax of Caryanda, 26-9

Sehwan, 371

Seistan (Sejistan, Drangia, Drangiana): Afghan army's experience in, 403 Climate and natural conditions in, 80, 85, 201-203, 403, 494 Extent of, less than of ancient Drangiana, 78; extent in mediæval times, 205 Firearms imported into, 55 Goldsmid's mission to, 299 Inhabitants of, mentioned by Herodotus, 33 Lake of, 497 Route to Mashad, 528 Persian satrapy, 32, 200 Ruins in, abundance of, 336 Reputation of, 201-202 Surveys of, 496-7 Telegraph to, from Narmashir, 323 Tributary to Ghur in mediæval times, 218

Sekhwan, 338

Sekoha, 498

Sejistan. _See_ Seistan

Semenjan. _See_ Haibak

Semiramis, 147

Senacherib, King of Assyria, 52

Senart, M., cited, 130

Seneca, cited, 21

Ser-ab (? Sar-i-ab), 468

Shah, 251, 255

Shah Kot (Mahaban), 108, 110-11, 113, 117-21

Shaharak, 486

Shahar-i-Babar, 257, 267

Shahar-i-Wairan (? Shahar, Shah), 254-5

Shaitana, 380

Shakiban, 338

Shams Tabieri, Saint, 366

Shamshirs, 233-4, 240

Shamsuddin pass, 418

Shansabi, 218

Sharif, Imam, 484

Sharifudin cited, 355

Sheherek, 486

Sheranni, 512

Sher-i-dahan, 468

Sherwan, 433-4

Shibar, 468

Shibar pass, 260, 277, 387

Shibarghan, 251-2

Shikapur, financial credit of, 331-2, 363, 452-3

Shorawak, 374-5

Shutar Gardan (Kalloo, Panjpilan) pass, 386, 388, 417

Siah Koh (Band-i-Baian), 486, 487

Siah Reg pass, 381

Siahposh Kafirs, 270, 354-6, 358

Siam, celadon furnaces in, 83

Sidonians, deportation of, by Assyria, 52

Sikhs, Dost Mahomed's operations against, 397-8

Simkoh, 234

Sind: Arab ascendency in, 192, 293, 311, 366; their geography of, 296; buried Arab city in, 196 Assyrian art in pottery of, 54 Buddhist ruins in, 372 Frontier passes of, 209 Hot winds in, 341 Independent government, under, 329, 331, 345-6, 363 Masson in, 349; his account of, 365 Mongols settled in, 526 Mountain barrier of, 140

Singlak, 485

Sin-ho-to. _See_ Swat

Sintu-ho river. _See_ Indus

Sirafraz Khan, 391

Sir-i-koll (Sarwandi) pass, 465

Sirondha lake, 155

Skytho-Aryans, 241

Skyths: Caspian, at north and west of, 19 Central Asia, of, 50; Alexander's encounter with, 92-3 Euxine, at north of, 14 Westward migration of, 61

Slavery in Badakshan, 520

Sofarak, 262

Sogdia (Bokhara), 32, 92

Sohrab, 332

Somnath, 210

Song Yun cited, 184

Sonmiani, 308, 368; route from, to interior, 330-31

Sousa, 479

Spinasuka pass, 103

Stein, Dr. M. A., 237, 503; Buddhist sanctuary discovered by, 184; methods of, 109-11; cited, 111, 113, 117-18, 120-21, 170

Stoddart, Colonel, 390, 402

Stone-built circles, 372

Strabo cited, 107, 122; quoted, 127

Stewart, General, 95

Subzawar, 230, 498

Sufed Koh mountains, 135, 215

Su-ho-to (Lower Swat), 185

Sujah, Shah, 344, 353, 405, 456

Suliman, Kalif, 294

Suliman hills, torrents and passes of, 36-7

Suliman Khel Ghilzais: Broadfoot the authority on, 474-5 Duties levied by, 464, 474-5 Kattasang, in, 472 Land of, unexplored, 514

Sultan Mahomed, 445, 446

Sura (? Suza), 317

Surkh Kila pass, 418

Survey methods, perfecting of, 500

Suza (? Sura), 317

Swat (Sin-ho-to, Su-ho-to): Buddhism in, 129 Fa Hian in, 179, 185 Geographical surveys of, 123 Uplands of, 128

Tabriz, 368

Taft, 322

Tagao Ghur river, 221

Tagao Ishlan river, 215-16, 223; valley, 486

Tagdumbash Pamir, 180, 279, 517

Taimanis: Country of, 84, 214, 217, 220, 222-223, 478, 488 Kidnapping by, in Afghan Turkistan, 253 Traditions of, 212 Women of, Ferrier's account of, 489 mentioned, 481, 489

Taiwara (Ghur): Herat, route from, 223 Importance of, 487 Ruins at, 222, 488 mentioned, 220, 515

Tajik (Kurt), dynasty in Ghur, 218

Tajiks, Badakshani, 432

Takla Makan, 283

Takht-i-Rustam (tope at Haibak), 446

Takht-i-Suliman mountain: Expedition to (1882), 112, 119, 513 River gorges of, 137 mentioned, 137, 464

Takzar (Zakar), 251, 252

Talara, 300-301

Talbot, Colonel the Hon. M. G., R.E., 264 _and n._, 446; cited, 489-90

Talekan, 271-4

Talikan, 241, 243, 504; Mahomedan saint at, 447

Talikan (Talikhan), 243 _and n._, 249

Talikan plains, 506, 509

Talikhan plain, 423

Taloi range, 164

Tamerlane. _See_ Timur

_Tarikh-i-Rashidi_ cited, 186

Tarim river, 173, 174, 283

Tarnak river, 224

Tashkurghan: Fort of, 279, 281 Kabul, routes to, 260, 419 Moorcroft at, 448 otherwise mentioned, 88, 482

Tashkurghan river, 261, 279

Tarsi (Parsi), 489

Tate, Mr. G. P., cited, 336

Taxila, 29, 94, 99

Taxiles, 99

Teheran: Hamadan telegraph route to, 48 Kashan, question as to railway _via_, 322 Mashad route from, 54, 77; question as to railway by, 319

Termez, 278, 279

Teshkhan, 424

Thakot, 121

Tibet: Chinese Turkistan formerly included in, 283 Gold-fields of, 51 Gold-digging legends concerning, 31 Idrisi's description of, 281-3 Invasion of India from, possibility as to, 188 Mongol invasion of, 186-7 Moorcroft in, 439-40

Tibetans, modern, 283

Tiglath Pilesur, King of Assyria, 6, 44, 46, 49, 51, 52, 57

Tigris river, 368

Til pass, 275

Timur Hissar, 356

Timur Shah (Tamerlane): Herat and Ghur broken up by, 219 Kafiristan invaded by, 327, 355-6, 435 Merv-el-Rud destroyed by, 242 otherwise mentioned, 193, 394, 414, 481

Tingelab river, 486

Tippak, 283

Tir, 238-9

Tir Band-i-Turkistan mountains, 239, 240, 247, 258

Tirah Expedition, 105

Tiz (Talara), 299-301

Tochi river, 475

Tochi valley, 136; route by, 512-14

Todd, Major d'Arcy, 480

Tokhari (Kushan), 241

Tokharistan (Oxus region), 241; capital of, 243

To-li (Darel), 179, 182-3

Tomeros river, 157

Tous, 479

Topchi valley, 386, 388

Torashekh, 237, 482

Transportation of whole populations, 40, 44

Travel, _camaraderie_ of, 463-4

_Travels in Afghanistan, Baluchistan, the Punjab, and Kalat_ (Masson) cited, 349 _et seq._

Trebeck, 439-40, 444, 448, 459

Tsungling, 177, 178

Tubaran, 315-17

Turan, 315-16

Turfan, 172

Turki language, 394

Turkistan, Afghan. _See_ Afghan Turkistan

Turkman women, 283

Turkmans, Ersari, 459-60

Turks, Khizilji, 281-2

Turks Tibetans, 282

Uch, 364, 366

Udyana (Wuchung), 179, 184

Ujaristan valley, 515

Unai (Honai, Bamian) pass, 87, 260, 262, 379, 389, 414, 420, 446; importance of, 521; Wood's description of, 417

Ur (Mugheir), 42

Urmara, 368

Urukh (Warka), 163

Urusgan valley, 515

Uthal, 307

Uzbeks: Agricultural pursuits of, 251 Dwellings of, 249 Kirghiz compared with, 430 Man-stealing propensities of, 421 Murad Khan acknowledged liege by, 383, 413 Snake-handling by, 253 Wood's estimate of, 423

Vaisravana, 178

Varsach river, 424

Vektavitch, Lieut., 400

Ventura, General, 367

Victoria Lake, 430-31

Wad, 373

Wade, Captain, 397, 398

Wainwright, E. A., cited, 313

Wakhab (Panja) river, 279

Wakhan, 273, 281, 327

Wakhjir pass, 279

Waksh, 273, 278

Wakshab river, 273, 278

Walian (Gwalian) pass, 414

Walid I., Kalif, 292, 307

Walker, General, cited, 123, 508

Wana, 513

Wardak valley, 466, 475

Wardoj river, 429, 437

Wardoj (Zebak) valley, 436

Warka (Urukh), 163

Warwalin, 271-2

Washir, 490

Wazirabad lake, 98

Waziris, 464, 474

Waziristan, 473

Weather, effects of, on natural features, 117-18

Westward migrations, 45, 61

Wilson, Major David, cited, 368

Wiltshire, General, 406

Wine made by Kafirs, 133-4

Wood, Lieut., mission of, to Badakshan, 402; with Lord, 412, 416-18, 420, 422, 432, 439; explorations of the Oxus by, 420, 423, 428-35; Indus navigation by, 454; cited, 505-507, 523; estimate of, 431; value of work of, 418

Wolff, Rev. Joseph, 376

Woodthorpe, 429, 509

Wuchung (Udyana), 179, 184

Wynaad gold-fields, 51

Xenophon, retreat of, from Persia, 18, 42; appreciation of, 66; cited, 42

Xerxes, 20, 31, 91

Yahudi. _See_ Jews

Yahudia, 251, 255

Yakmina (Darak Yamuna), 317

Yakulang, 262; valley, 256

Yaman, 220, 222

Yang Kila, 433

Yar Mahomed Khan, 445, 477, 480, 490, 494

Yarkand, 279, 328

Yezd, 322

Yezdambaksh, 378, 382-4

Yule, Sir Henry, cited, 219, 508

Yusli, 307-308

Yusuf Darra route to Sar-i-pul, 483

Yusufzai rising, 350

Zaimuni, 389

Zakar (Takzar), 251, 252

Zal valley, 262

Zamindawar (Dawar), 83, 205-206, 223, 491

Zarah swamp, 204

Zarangai, 33-4

Zardaspan, 90

Zari stream, 257

Zariaspa. _See_ Andarab

Zarinje, 203, 204

Zarni, 222

Zebak: Faizabad, route from, 511

Zebak: Importance of, 427, 429, 433 mentioned, 279

Zebak river, 437, 520

Zebak (Wardoj) valley, 436

Zhob valley, 137

Zindajan (Bouchinj), 231, 232, 479

Zirmast pass, 236, 239, 240

Zirni, 487, 488

Zohak, 267, 387; valley, 421

Zohaka, 466

Zoji-la, 180

THE END

_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_.