Part 2

Chapter 23,748 wordsPublic domain

A _nice_ house, with An _ice_ house. False _sights_, ” False _heights_. The darkest _hour_, ” The darkest _tower_. It strikes with an _awe_, ” It strikes with a _naw_. My heart was _awed_, ” My heart was _sawed_. A _notion_ of sweetness, ” An _ocean_ of sweetness. There was a great _error_, ” There was a great _terror_. My _brothers ought_ to go, ” My _brother sought_ to go. He walked in _fields of ice_, ” He walked in _fields of vice_. Wastes _and_ deserts, ” Waste _sand_ deserts. Look on this _spot_, ” Look on this _pot_. Goodness _centers_ in the heart, ” Goodness _enters_ in the heart. Luxurious _soil_, ” Luxurious _oil_. Chaste _stars_, ” Chased _tars_. Such a _notion_ exists, ” Such an _ocean_ exists. To obtain _either_, ” To obtain _neither_. His _cry_ moved me, ” His _crime_ moved me. The same _arrow_, ” The same _marrow_.

ACCENT.

The remarks on _Accentuation_ in the third book of this series have already familiarized the learner with the uses of accent. He has learned how accent determines the pronunciation of words, and how it shows, in many cases, the sounds of the vowels. He has also learned, that many words are differently accented, and, of course, differently pronounced, when used as nouns, from the manner in which they are accented and pronounced, when used as verbs.

We shall not repeat what we have there explained; but we will here inform the pupil, that while all words of more than one syllable have one accented syllable, almost all words of more than three syllables have two accented syllables. These two syllables are not accented with equal force, and this makes necessary the terms _Primary Accent_, and _Secondary Accent_.

Where two syllables are accented in the same word, that which has the greater amount of stress laid upon it, receives the primary accent (generally marked ˝), and that which has the less amount of stress laid upon it, receives the secondary accent (generally marked ˊ or ˋ).

EXAMPLES.

edˊ-u-ca˝-tion recˊ-o-mend˝ vo-cab˝-u-larˊ-y resˊ-o-lu˝-tion amˊ-bi-gu˝-i-ty adˊ-mon-i˝-tion tem˝-po-raˊ-ry mo˝-ment-aˊ-ry inˊ-de-pend˝-ence conˊ-ver-sa˝-tion satˊ-is-fac˝-tion mat˝-ri-moˊ-ny conˊ-se-quen˝-tial rĕˊ-sur-rec˝-tion morˊ-ti-fi-ca˝-tion

Observing the proper position of the accent, and paying particular attention to it, is indispensable for good reading. Those who fail to do so, always read with a drawling, monotonous tone, and cannot please their hearers. There is no precision in their pronunciation, and there can be no clearness in their enunciation. (See the “Columbian Spelling Book,” page 105, where the nature and uses of accents are treated of at considerable length.)

TIME.

The second requisite of good reading is, that due regard be paid to TIME: if the reader hurries on without making the necessary pauses, the pronunciation is not only indistinct, but the sense is often altogether lost; and if he hesitates, making pauses where none should be made, and reads without animation or spirit, the sense is equally injured, or made difficult to ascertain, and the reading is of that drawling kind to which it is so tiresome to listen.

Those who desire to become good readers, then, must pay due attention to the pauses which should be made. Pauses are of two kinds, Grammatical Pauses, which are marked by characters, and Rhetorical Pauses, which are not marked by characters, but which the sense of what you read, requires to be made. We shall first speak of the GRAMMATICAL PAUSES; they are—

The Comma (marked) , ” Semicolon ” ; ” Colon ” : ” Period ” . ” Interrogation ” ? ” Exclamation ” !

The Parenthesis () is used to inclose some word or words which are not essential to the structure of the sentence; and the Dash (—) is used to denote a sudden breaking or turning off in the discourse or sentence.

When any of these points is met with in reading, there must be a pause of greater or less duration. You should stop at the comma about as long as you would be saying a word, or while you can draw breath; at the others you should stop a little longer, but there can be no proper time fixed upon; the sense and requirements of the sentence or clause must always determine. It is usual to stop longer at each subsequent pause marked in the table, than at the preceding one; thus, longer at the semicolon than the comma, longer at the colon than the semicolon, and so on. This cannot be given as an invariable rule, however, due attention to the sense of the passage read being the best possible, indeed, the only way in which the proper duration of the pause can be determined.

RHETORICAL PAUSES are such as the sense requires, though not marked by characters. It will be at once perceived, that the proper making of them is much more difficult to the young reader, than those of which we have just spoken; and yet, if he desires to read with grace and elegance, he cannot dispense with them. We do not think that very young learners will be benefited much by studying rules for making rhetorical pauses, (they can be made to understand their proper use and place more readily by a competent teacher,) but we give a few of the most useful and simple.

1. _The rhetorical pause should be made after the subject, or nominative, if it consists of several words_; as—To express this connection | two marks are used. The love of riches | is not a virtue. The experience of want | enhances the value of plenty.

4. _The rhetorical pause should be made after the objective in sentences of inverted construction_; as—To my mother | give my fond remembrance. On all sides | were carnage and death. On Linden | when the sun was low. On this side of the grave | there is no real happiness.

EMPHASIS.

Emphasis is a peculiar stress laid on words for the purpose of distinguishing them _from_, or contrasting them _with_ other words; also for the purpose of drawing marked attention to any particular word.

EXAMPLES.

1. I spoke not _for_ | but _against_ Cæsar.

2. I did not say _here_ | but _there_.

3. You say | he is _honest_. There is not | a more _dishonest_ man | in town.

4. I care not | who is _in_ | or | who is _out_.

5. We have offended against the lord | _already_.

6. He | who cannot _bear_ a joke | should not _give_ a joke.

7. _Little_ minds | are _crushed_ by misfortune, when _great_ ones | _rise above_ it. _He_ raised a _mortal to_ the skies, | _she_ drew an _angel down_.

8. Many mistake _love_ of virtue | for _virtue_.

Emphasis is sometimes laid only on particular syllables of a word; as—

1. What is _said_ | cannot be _un_said.

2. He will _decrease_ | but I will _in_crease.

3. There is seldom _convenience_ | without _in_convenience.

4. To _do_ | and to _un_do | are common things.

Emphasis is _slight_, _strong_, and _vehement_; as—

1. Let our motto be | _our country_, our WHOLE COUNTRY, and | NOTHING BUT OUR COUNTRY.

3. If I was an American | as I am an Englishman, I would _never_ lay down my arms—_never_, NEVER, NEVER.

4. The _union_, it SHALL | and MUST be _preserved_.

5. RISE | _arch of the ocean_, and _queen of the west_!

6. _Romeo_, ROMEO, _wherefore_ art thou _Romeo_?

The following admirable observations on EMPHASIS are worthy of attention.

“In every sentence, and clause of a sentence, there is one or more words which require to be pronounced with a greater degree of force than the other words. Without knowing and marking the _accented_ syllables in words, we cannot give them their proper pronunciation; nor can we bring out the full meaning of a sentence, unless we know and mark the _emphatic_ words. The accented syllables of words we learn by imitating the pronunciation of correct speakers; and by referring, in cases of doubt, to a dictionary in which they are given. The emphatic words in a sentence we can only learn by knowing their relative importance in it, and the precise meaning which the writer of it intended each of them to convey. In fact, if we know the meaning and drift of the sentence, we shall have no difficulty in discovering the emphatic words. In all such cases they are naturally and spontaneously suggested to us, just as they are to persons uttering or speaking their own sentiments. For even the most illiterate persons are sure, when uttering their own sentiments, to lay the proper emphasis on their words; though they may, and very often do, give them the wrong _accents_. If a laboring man, for example, were to say, “It is a spade, and not a shovel that I want,” he would be sure to pronounce the words “_spade_” and “_shovel_” with a greater degree of force than the other words; because he wishes to draw the particular attention of the person whom he addresses to the _ideas_ or things which they represent. Had he merely said, “It is a spade I want,” he would nevertheless have pronounced the word “_spade_” emphatically, because he wished it to be particularly understood that it was a _spade_, and not any other implement, such as a shovel, that he wanted. Should he say, “Is the spade broken?” he would pronounce the word “_broken_” emphatically; because his object is to obtain precise information on that point. But if he should say, “Is it the spade that is broken?” he will lay the emphasis on the word “_spade_,” and not upon “_broken_;” because, understanding that there is some implement broken, he wishes to be informed whether it is the _spade_. Again, should he say, “Is it my spade that is broken?” he will lay the emphasis on the word “_my_”; because he desires to know whether the spade that is broken is _his_ or not. Should he ask, “Who broke the spade?” he will lay the emphasis on the word “_who_;” because, being already aware that the spade is broken, his object in making the inquiry is, to learn the name of the person who broke it. And, lastly should he say, “How was the spade broken?” he will make “_how_” the emphatic word; because, in this case, he wishes to be informed of the manner or way in which the accident occurred.

“It is obvious from what has been said, that if we understand the meaning of what we read, in the same degree as a person understands the thoughts which he utters, we shall, like him, naturally and spontaneously lay the _emphasis_ on the proper words. It is equally obvious, that if we do not understand the meaning of what we read, we shall either have to pronounce all the words with the same degree of force—which would be absurd—or to run the risk of perverting the meaning of the author, by laying the emphasis on the wrong words. The following sentence will exemplify this:—“O fools and slow of heart to believe all that the prophets have written concerning me.” If we perceive that the intention of our Saviour was to reproach his disciples for their _backwardness_ in believing, we shall, in reading it, naturally lay the principal emphasis on the word “_slow_.” But if we do not see that this was the object of the speaker, the chances are we shall lay the emphasis on one of the other words, and thus change or pervert the meaning. For example, if we lay the emphasis on “_believe_,” it would imply that the disciples were reproached for _believing_; if on “_all_,” then the inference would be that they might have believed _some_ of the things which the prophets had written, but that it was foolish in them to believe _all_. If we lay the emphasis on “_prophets_,” it would imply that they might have believed _others_, but that they were fools for believing the _prophets_; if on “_written_,” the inference would be, that though they might have believed what the prophets had _said_, it was foolish in them to believe what they had _written_; and, finally, if we lay the emphasis on “_me_,” it would imply that though they might have believed what the prophets had written concerning _others_, yet they were fools for believing what they had written concerning the _Saviour_.

Even in the most familiar sentences, illustrations of this may be found. The simple question, for example: “Do you ride to town to-day?” may, by varying the position of the emphasis, be made to suggest as many different meanings as it contains words. If we lay the emphasis on “_you_,” we wish to ascertain from the person addressed, whether it is he or some other person that is to ride to town to-day; if on “_ride_,” we mean to ask him whether he purposes to ride or walk; if on “_town_,” our purpose is to inquire whether it is to the town or to the country he means to ride; and, finally, if we make “_to-day_” the emphatic word, we wish him to say whether it is to-day or to-morrow he intends to ride to town. Even the preposition “_to_,” if made emphatic, would imply, though obscurely, that we wished the person addressed to say whether he intended to ride quite as far as the town, or only part of the way.

“We shall show, by a few illustrations, the power which EMPHASIS has over accent when the sense or meaning requires it:—

1. He must _in_crease, but I must _de_crease.

2. Neither justice nor _in_justice has any thing to do with the matter.

3. What is done cannot be _un_done.

4. Religion raises men above themselves, _ir_religion sinks them below the brutes.

5. This corruptible must put on _in_corruption, and this mortal must put on _im_mortality.

6. To me it was far from being an agreeable surprise; on the contrary, it was a _dis_agreeable one.

7. Thought and language act and _re_act upon each other.

8. What fellowship hath righteousness with _un_righteousness? and what communion hath light with darkness?

9. I shall always make nature, truth, and reason, the measures of praise and _dis_praise.

10. A gentleman who was pressed by his friends to forgive his daughter, who had married against his wishes, promised to do so, but added, that he would have them remember that there was a difference between giving and _for_giving.

“In the preceding, and in all similar cases, the position of the _accent_ is completely changed by the _emphasis_. The reason is obvious: the speaker wishes to draw the special attention of the person addressed to the contrasted parts of the words; and hence he pronounces those parts or syllables _emphatically_, the effect of which is, in such cases, to change the seat of the accent.

“This transposition of the accent takes place also in words which have a sameness of termination, even though they may not be directly opposed in sense; as in the following examples:—

1. Cataline was expert in all the arts of _sim_ulation and _dis_simulation; covetous of what belonged to others, lavish of his own.

2. In this species of composition, _plaus_ibility is more essential than _prob_ability.

“From what has been said with regard to emphasis, we may draw the following general conclusion: Whenever a person wishes to bring an _idea_ prominently or forcibly under the notice of the person or persons whom he addresses, he will naturally and instinctively pronounce the _word_ which expresses it with a corresponding degree of _emphatic_ force. The degree or intensity of the emphasis will, of course, depend upon the importance of the idea to be expressed, the nature of the subject, and the feelings or emotions of the speaker. In some cases it will be _slight_, in others _strong_, and in others, _vehement_ or energetic; and hence a good general division of emphasis, with regard to its intensity, might be into three degrees, namely SLIGHT, STRONG, and VEHEMENT. Of course, there must be a great diversity in the degrees of emphasis, from the _slight_ to the _vehement_; but the general divisions which we have suggested will be quite sufficient for practical purposes—and we have no other in view.

“Though in all properly constructed sentences, every word is useful and necessary, yet in every sentence the relative importance of the words must be different. _Articles_, _Prepositions_, _Conjunctions_, and _Auxiliary_ Verbs, for example, are less important in their significations than the words which they introduce or connect—as _Nouns_, _Verbs_, _Adjectives_, and _Adverbs_. And hence it may be laid down as a general rule, that _the less important words in a sentence should be pronounced with less of force and distinctness than the more important words_. And this, as we have seen, we always do in SPEAKING; for it is to the more important words that we naturally desire to draw the special attention of the person or persons whom we address, and not to the ancillary or subordinate words.

“It may also be observed that _Pronouns_, though important parts of speech, should be classed, with regard to their pronunciation in a sentence, with the less important words, as _Articles_, _Prepositions_, and _Conjunctions_. The reason is obvious: no new idea is introduced by a _Pronoun_. It stands for, or represents, a word which has been mentioned before, and which is, consequently, already before the mind of the person addressed. _Pronouns_, therefore, should be always pronounced without emphasis, unless when some contrast or opposition is intended.[3] We shall illustrate this by a familiar sentence or two:—

If John is there, I will thank yŏu to give hĭm this book—though, perhaps, I should give it to _you_, and not to _him_. Yŏu are right; it is to _me_ you should give it. _You_ think so, but _I_ think differently; and so, I am sure, does _he_.

“In the foregoing sentences, the pronouns printed in _Italic_ are emphatical, because they are _antithetical_, or opposed to each other; while the other pronouns in the same sentence should be pronounced without emphasis, because no contrast or opposition is intended.

“In the same way, any of the less important parts of speech may become emphatical; as—

I told you to bring me _the_ book, not _a_ book. You were told to put the book _on_ the table—not _under_ it. It was _and_ I said—not _or_.

“From what has been said with regard to emphasis, it is evident that all _antithetic_ or contrasted words are emphatic; and in fact, it is usual to consider such words only as emphatic. Mr. Walker, and his followers, for example, hold that in every case of emphasis there is an antithesis expressed or implied; and that it never can be proper to give emphatic force to a word unless it stands opposed in sense to some other word expressed or understood.[4] But this is to take too narrow a view of emphasis. There are other sources of it besides contrast or antithetic relation. There may be _absolute_, as well as _antithetic_ emphasis. For example, if the _idea_ to be communicated is of peculiar or paramount importance in itself, the word expressing it should be pronounced with a corresponding degree of emphatic force; and this a person speaking his own sentiments will naturally do, particularly if he is under the influence of passion or emotion. It is evident, too, that this kind of emphasis may extend to _several words in succession_, and even to _whole clauses of sentences_. This kind of emphasis Mr. Walker himself admits under the head of “_General Emphasis_.” The following are examples:—

1. What men could do Is done already: heaven and earth will witness, _If Rome must fall_, that we are innocent.

2. There was a time, then, my fellow citizens, when the Lacedæmonians were sovereign masters both by sea and land; when their troops and forts surrounded the entire circuit of Attica; when they possessed Eubœa, Tanagra, the whole Bœotian district, Megara, Ægina, Cleone, and other islands; while this state had not one ship—no, _not—one—wall_.

3. Or shall I—who was born I might almost say, but certainly brought up, in the tent of my father—that most excellent general!—shall I the conqueror of Spain and Gaul, and not only of the Alpine nations, but what is greater yet, of the Alps themselves—shall I compare myself with this _half-year-captain_,—a captain—before whom, should one place the two armies without their ensigns, I am persuaded he would not know to which of them he is consul.

“It is usual to subdivide _Antithetic Emphasis_ into Single, Double, and Treble Emphasis;[5] and to give rules for the proper pronunciation of _emphatic_ words in each case. But the simple principles we have adopted render all such rules superfluous; for in all cases of antithesis the antithetic terms must be either expressed or understood; if they are expressed, which is usually the case, there can be no difficulty with regard to emphasis; for when the words which are opposed to each other in the sentence are expressed in it, the mind instantly perceives the opposition between them and the voice instinctively marks it in the pronunciation. The following are examples:—

SINGLE EMPHASIS.

1. Study not so much to _show_ knowledge as to _acquire_ it.

2. He that cannot _bear_ a jest should not _make_ one.

3. We think less of the injuries we _do_, than of those we _suffer_.

4. It is not so easy to _hide_ one’s faults, as to _mend_ them.

5. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our _stars_, But in _ourselves_, that we are underlings.

DOUBLE EMPHASIS.

1. To _err_ is _human_; to _forgive_, _divine_.

2. Custom is the _plague_ of _wise_ men, and the _idol_ of _fools_.

3. The _prodigal_ robs his _heir_, the _miser_ robs _himself_.

4. The pleasures of the imagination are not so _gross_ as those of _sense_, nor so _refined_ as those of the _understanding_.

5. Grief is the counter passion of joy. The _one_ arises from _agreeable_, and the _other_ from _disagreeable_ events—the _one_ from _pleasure_, and the _other_ from _pain_—the _one_ from _good_, and the _other_ from _evil_.

6. _One_ sun by _day_—by _night_ _ten thousand_ shine.

7. The foulest stain and scandal of our nature Became its boast—_one_ murder makes a _villain_, _Millions_ a _hero_.

TREBLE EMPHASIS.

1. _He_ raised a _mortal_ to the _skies_, _She_ drew an _angel_ _down_.