Chapter 2

Thus, to return, in that little anecdote relative to the Conqueror and William Fitz-Osbern, mentioned above, not the crane, but _the flesh of the crane_ is said to have been under-roasted. Table, or case-knives, would be of little use at this time [82], and the art of carving so perfectly useless, as to be almost unknown. In about a century afterwards, however, as appears from archbishop Neville's entertainment, many articles were served whole, and lord Wylloughby was the carver [83]. So that carving began now to be practised, and the proper terms devised. Wynken de Worde printed a _Book of Kervinge_, A. 1508, wherein the said terms are registered [84]. 'The use of _forks_ at table, says Dr. Percy, did not prevail in England land till the reign of James I. as we learn from a remarkable passage in _Coryat_ [85]'; the passage is indeed curious, but too long to be here transcribed, where brevity is so much in view; wherefore I shall only add, that forks are not now used in some parts of Spain [86]. But then it may be said, what becomes of the old English hospitaliy in this case, the _roast-beef of Old England_, so much talked of? I answer, these bulky and magnificent dishes must have been the product of later reigns, perhaps of queen Elizabeth's time, since it is plain that in the days of Rich. II. our ancestors lived much after the French fashion. As to hospitality, the households of our Nobles were immense, officers, retainers, and servants, being entertained almost without number; but then, as appears from the Northumberland Book, and afterwards from the household establisliment of the prince of Wales, A. 1610, the individuals, or at least small parties, had their _quantum_, or ordinary, served out, where any good oeconomy was kept, apart to themselves [87]. Again, we find in our Roll, that great quantities of the respective viands of the hashes, were often made at once, as No. 17, _Take hennes or conynges_. 24, _Take hares_. 29, _Take pygges_. And 31, _Take gees_, &c. So that hospitality and plentiful housekeeping could just as well be maintained this way, as by the other of cumbrous unwieldy messes, as much as a man could carry.

As the messes and sauces are so complex, and the ingredients consequently so various, it seems necessary that a word should be spoken concerning the principal of them, and such as are more frequently employed, before we pass to our method of proceeding in the publication.

Butter is little used. 'Tis first mentioned No. 81, and occurs but rarely after [88]; 'tis found but once in the Editor's MS, where it is written _boter_. The usual substitutes for it are oil-olive and lard; the latter is frequently called _grees_, or _grece_, or _whitegrece_, as No. 18. 193. _Capons in Grease_ occur in Birch's Life of Henry prince of Wales, p. 459, 460. and see Lye in Jun. Etym. v. _Greasie_. Bishop Patrick has a remarkable passage concerning this article: 'Though we read of cheese in _Homer_, _Euripides_, _Theocritus_, and others, yet they never mention _butter_: nor hath Aristotle a word of it, though he hath sundry observations about cheese; for butter was not a thing then known among the _Greeks_; though we see by this and many other places, it was an ancient food among the eastern people [89].' The Greeks, I presume, used oil instead of it, and butter in some places of scripture is thought to mean only cream. [90]

Cheese. See the last article, and what is said of the old Britons above; as likewise our Glossary.

Ale is applied, No. 113, et alibi; and often in the Editor's MS. as 6, 7, &c. It is used instead of wine, No. 22, and sometimes along with bread in the Editor's MS. [91] Indeed it is a current opinion that brewing with hops was not introduced here till the reign of king Henry VIII. [92] _Bere_, however, is mentioned A. 1504. [93]

Wine is common, both red, and white, No. 21. 53. 37. This article they partly had of their own growth, [94] and partly by importation from France [95] and Greece [96]. They had also Rhenish [97], and probably several other sorts. The _vynegreke_ is among the sweet wines in a MS of Mr. Astle.

Rice. As this grain was but little, if at all, cultivated in England, it must have been brought from abroad. Whole or ground-rice enters into a large number of our compositions, and _resmolle_, No. 96, is a direct preparation of it.

Alkenet. _Anchusa_ is not only used for colouring, but also fried and yfoundred, 62. yfondyt, 162. i. e. dissolved, or ground. 'Tis thought to be a species of the _buglos_.

Saffron. Saffrwm, Brit. whence it appears, that this name ran through most languages. Mr. Weever informs us, that this excellent drug was brought hither in the time of Edward III. [98] and it may be true; but still no such quantity could be produced here in the next reign as to supply that very large consumption which we see made of it in our Roll, where it occurs not only as an ingredient in the processes, but also is used for colouring, for flourishing, or garnishing. It makes a yellow, No. 68, and was imported from Egypt, or Cilicia, or other parts of the Levant, where the Turks call it Safran, from the Arabic Zapheran, whence the English, Italians, French, and Germans, have apparently borrowed their respective names of it. The Romans were well acquainted with the drug, but did not use it much in the kitchen [99]. Pere Calmet says, the Hebrews were acquainted with anise, ginger, saffron, but no other spices [100].

Pynes. There is some difficulty in enucleating the meaning of this word, though it occurs so often. It is joined with dates, No. 20. 52. with honey clarified, 63. with powder-fort, saffron, and salt, 161. with ground dates, raisins, good powder, and salt, 186. and lastly they are fried, 38. Now the dish here is _morree_, which in the Editor's MS. 37, is made of mulberries (and no doubt has its name from them), and yet there are no mulberries in our dish, but pynes, and therefore I suspect, that mulberries and pynes are the same, and indeed this fruit has some resemblance to a pynecone. I conceive _pynnonade_, the dish, No. 51, to be so named from the pynes therein employed; and quære whether _pyner_ mentioned along with powder-fort, saffron, and salt, No. 155, as above in No. 161, should not be read _pynes_. But, after all, we have cones brought hither from Italy full of nuts, or kernels, which upon roasting come out of their _capsulæ_, and are much eaten by the common people, and these perhaps may be the thing intended.

[Addenda: after _intended_. add, 'See _Ray_, Trav. p. 283. 407. and _Wright's_ Trav. p. 112.']

Honey was the great and universal sweetner in remote antiquity, and particularly in this island, where it was the chief constituent of _mead_ and _metheglin_. It is said, that at this day in _Palestine_ they use honey in the greatest part of their ragouts [101]. Our cooks had a method of clarifying it, No. 18. 41. which was done by putting it in a pot with whites of eggs and water, beating them well together; then setting it over the fire, and boiling it; and when it was ready to boil over to take it and cool it, No. 59. This I presume is called _clere honey_, No. 151. And, when honey was so much in use, it appears from Barnes that _refining_ it was a trade of itself [102].

Sugar, or Sugur [103], was now beginning here to take place of honey; however, they are used together, No. 67. Sugar came from the Indies, by way of Damascus and Aleppo, to Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, and from these last places to us [104]. It is here not only frequently used, but was of various sorts, as _cypre_, No. 41. 99. 120. named probably from the isle of Cyprus, whence it might either come directly to us, or where it had received some improvement by way of refining. There is mention of _blanch-powder or white sugar_, 132. They, however, were not the same, for see No. 193. Sugar was clarified sometimes with wine [105].

Spices. _Species_. They are mentioned in general No. 133, and _whole spices_, 167, 168. but they are more commonly specified, and are indeed greatly used, though being imported from abroad, and from so far as Italy or the Levant (and even there must be dear), some may wonder at this: but it shouid be considered, that our Roll was chiefly compiled for the use of noble and princely tables; and the same may be said of the Editor's MS. The spices came from the same part of the world, and by the same route, as sugar did. The _spicery_ was an ancient department at court, and had its proper officers.

As to the particular sorts, these are,

Cinamon. _Canell_. 14. 191. _Canel_, Editor's MS. 10. _Kanell_, ibid. 32. is the Italian _Canella_. See Chaucer. We have the flour or powder, No. 20. 62. See Wiclif. It is not once mentioned in Apicius.

Macys, 14. 121. Editor's MS. 10. _Maces_, 134. Editor's MS. 27. They are used whole, No. 158. and are always expressed plurally, though we now use the singular, _mace_. See Junii Etym.

Cloves. No. 20. Dishes are flourished with them, 22. 158. Editor's MS. 10. 27. where we have _clowys gylofres_, as in our Roll, No. 104. _Powdour gylofre_ occurs 65. 191. Chaucer has _clowe_ in the singular, and see him v. Clove-gelofer.

Galyngal, 30. and elsewhere. Galangal, the long rooted cyperus [106], is a warm cardiac and cephalic. It is used in powder, 30. 47. and was the chief ingredient in _galentine_, which, I think, took its name from it.

Pepper. It appears from Pliny that this pungent, warm seasoning, so much in esteem at Rome [107], came from the East Indies [108], and, as we may suppose, by way of Alexandria. We obtained it no doubt, in the 14th century, from the same quarter, though not exactly by the same route, but by Venice or Genoa. It is used both whole, No. 35, and in powder, No. 83. And long-pepper occurs, if we read the place rightly, in No. 191.

Ginger, gyngyn. 64. 136. alibi. Powder is used, 17. 20. alibi. and Rabelais IV. c. 59. the white powder, 131. and it is the name of a mess, 139. quære whether _gyngyn_ is not misread for _gyngyr_, for see Junii Etym. The Romans had their ginger from Troglodytica [109].

Cubebs, 64. 121. are a warm spicy grain from the east.

Grains of Paradice, or _de parys_, 137. [110] are the greater cardamoms.

Noix muscadez, 191. nutmegs.

The caraway is once mentioned, No. 53. and was an exotic from _Caria_, whence, according to Mr. Lye, it took its name: 'sunt semina, inquit, _carri_ vel _carrei_, sic dicti a Caria, ubi copiosissimè nascitur [111].'

Powder-douce, which occurs so often, has been thought by some, who have just peeped into our Roll, to be the same as sugar, and only a different name for it; but they are plainly mistaken, as is evident from 47. 51. 164. 165. where they are mentioned together as different things. In short, I take powder-douce to be either powder of galyngal, for see Editor's MS II. 20. 24, or a compound made of sundry aromatic spices ground or beaten small, and kept always ready at hand in some proper receptacle. It is otherwise termed _good powders_, 83. 130. and in Editor's MS 17. 37. 38 [112]. or _powder_ simply, No. 169, 170. _White powder-douce_ occurs No. 51, which seems to be the same as blanch-powder, 132. 193. called _blaynshe powder_, and bought ready prepared, in Northumb. Book, p. 19. It is sometimes used with powder-fort, 38. 156. for which see the next and last article.

Powder-fort, 10. 11. seems to be a mixture likewise of the warmer spices, pepper, ginger, &c. pulverized: hence we have _powder-fort of gynger, other of canel_, 14. It is called _strong powder_, 22. and perhaps may sometimes be intended by _good powders_. If you will suppose it to be kept ready prepared by the vender, it may be the _powder-marchant_, 113. 118. found joined in two places with powder- douce. This Speght says is what gingerbread is made of; but Skinner disapproves this explanation, yet, says Mr. Urry, gives none of his own.

After thus travelling through the most material and most used ingredients, the _spykenard de spayn_ occurring only once, I shall beg leave to offer a few words on the nature, and in favour of the present publication, and the method employed in the prosecution of it.

The common language of the _formulæ_, though old and obsolete, as naturally may be expected from the age of the MS, has no other difficulty in it but what may easily be overcome by a small degree of practice and application [113]: however, for the further illustration of this matter, and the satisfaction of the curious, a _fac simile_ of one of the recipes is represented in the annexed plate. If here and there a hard and uncouth term or expression may occur, so as to stop or embarrass the less expert, pains have been taken to explain them, either in the annotations under the text, or in the Index and Glossary, for we have given it both titles, as intending it should answer the purpose of both [114]. Now in forming this alphabet, as it would have been an endless thing to have recourse to all our glossaries, now so numerous, we have confined ourselves, except perhaps in some few instances, in which the authorities are always mentioned, to certain contemporary writers, such as the Editor's MS, of which we shall speak more particularly hereafter, Chaucer, and Wiclif; with whom we have associated Junius' Etymologicon Anglicanum.

As the abbreviations of the Roll are here retained, in order to establish and confirm the age of it, it has been thought proper to adopt the types which our printer had projected for Domesday-Book, with which we find that our characters very nearly coincide.

The names of the dishes and sauces have occasioned the greatest perplexity. These are not only many in number, but are often so horrid and barbarous, to our ears at least, as to be inveloped in several instances in almost impenetrable obscurity. Bishop Godwin complains of this so long ago as 1616 [115]. The _Contents_ prefixed will exhibit at once a most formidable list of these hideous names and titles, so that there is no need to report them here. A few of these terms the Editor humbly hopes he has happily enucleated, but still, notwithstanding all his labour and pains, the argument is in itself so abstruse at this distance of time, the helps so few, and his abilities in this line of knowledge and science so slender and confined, that he fears he has left the far greater part of the task for the more sagacious reader to supply: indeed, he has not the least doubt, but other gentlemen of curiosity in such matters (and this publication is intended for them alone) will be so happy as to clear up several difficulties, which appear now to him insuperable. It must be confessed again, thatthe Editor may probably have often failed in those very points, which he fancies and flatters himself to have elucidated, but this he is willing to leave to the candour of the public.

Now in regard to the helps I mentioned; there is not much to be learnt from the Great Inthronization-feast of archbishop Robert Winchelsea, A. 1295, even if it were his; but I rather think it belongs to archbishop William Warham, A. 1504 [116]. Some use, however, has been made of it.

Ralph Bourne was installed abbot of St. Augustine's, near Canterbury, A. 1309; and William Thorne has inserted a list of provisions bought for the feast, with their prices, in his Chronicle [117].

The Great Feast at the Inthronization of George Nevile archbishop of York, 6 Edward IV. is printed by Mr. Hearne [118], and has been of good service.

Elizabeth, queen of king Henry VII. was crowned A. 1487, and the messes at the dinner, in two courses, are registered in the late edition of Leland's Collectenea, A. 1770 [119], and we have profited thereby.

The Lenten Inthronization-feast of archbishop William Warham, A. 1504 [120], given us at large by Mr. Hearne [121], has been also consulted.

There is a large catalogue of viands in Rabelais, lib. iv. cap. 59. 60. And the English translation of Mr. Ozell affording little information, I had recourse to the French original, but not to much more advantage.

There is also a Royal Feast at the wedding of the earl of Devonshire, in the Harleian Misc. No. 279, and it has not been neglected.

Randle Holme, in his multifarious _Academy of Armory_, has an alphabet of terms and dishes [122]; but though I have pressed him into the service, he has not contributed much as to the more difficult points.

The Antiquarian Repertory, vol. II. p. 211, exhibits an entertainment of the mayor of Rochester, A. 1460; but there is little to be learned from thence. The present work was printed before No. 31 of the Antiquarian Repertory, wherein some ancient recipes in Cookery are published, came to the Editor's hand.

I must not omit my acknowledgments to my learned friend the present dean of Carlisle, to whom I stand indebted for his useful notes on the Northumberland-Household Book, as also for the book itself.

Our chief assistance, however, has been drawn from a MS belonging to the Editor, denoted, when cited, by the signature _MS. Ed._ It is a vellum miscellany in small quarto, and the part respecting this subject consists of ninety-one English recipes (or _nyms_) in cookery. These are disposed into two parts, and are intituled, 'Hic incipiunt universa servicia tam de carnibus quam de pissibus.' [123] The second part, relates to the dressing of fish, and other lenten fare, though forms are also there intermixed which properly belong to flesh-days. This leads me to observe, that both here, and in the Roll, messes are sometimes accommodated, by making the necessary alterations, both to flesh and fish-days. [124] Now, though the subjects of the MS are various, yet the hand-writing is uniform; and at the end of one of the tracts is added, 'Explicit massa Compoti, Anno Dñi M'lo CCC'mo octogesimo primo ipso die Felicis et Audacti.' [125], i.e. 30 Aug. 1381, in the reign of Rich. II. The language and orthography accord perfectly well with this date, and the collection is consequently contemporary with our Roll, and was made chiefly, though not altogether, for the use of great tables, as appears from the _sturgeon_, and the great quantity of venison therein prescribed for.

As this MS is so often referred to in the annotations, glossary, and even in this preface, and is a compilation of the same date, on the same subject, and in the same language, it has been thought adviseable to print it, and subjoin it to the Roll; and the rather, because it really furnishes a considerable enlargement on the subject, and exhibits many forms unnoticed in the Roll.

To conclude this tedious preliminary detail, though unquestionably a most necessary part of his duty, the Editor can scarcely forbear laughing at himself, when he reflects on his past labours, and recollects those lines of the poet Martial;

Turpe est difficiles habere nugas, Et stultus labor est ineptiarum. II. 86.

and that possibly mesdames _Carter_ and _Raffald_, with twenty others, might have far better acquitted themselves in the administration of this province, than he has done. He has this comfort and satisfaction, however, that he has done his best; and that some considerable names amongst the learned, Humelbergius, Torinus, Barthius, our countryman Dr. Lister, Almeloveen, and others, have bestowed no less pains in illustrating an author on the same subject, and scarcely of more importance, the _Pseudo-Apicius_.

[1] If, according to Petavius and Le Clerc, the world was created in autumn, when the fruits of the earth were both plentiful and in the highest perfection, the first man had little occasion for much culinary knowledge; roasting or boiling the cruder productions, with modes of preserving those which were better ripened, seem to be all that was necessary for him in the way of _Cury_, And even after he was displaced from Paradise, I conceive, as many others do, he was not permitted the use of animal food [Gen. i. 29.]; but that this was indulged to us, by an enlargement of our charter, after the Flood, Gen. ix, 3. But, without wading any further in the argument here, the reader is referred to Gen. ii. 8. seq. iii. 17, seq. 23.