Part 11

Of the bone represented in fig. 42, I have determined, from a Cromarty specimen, the place and use: it formed the interior base to which one of the ventral fins was attached. In all fishes the bones of the hinder extremities are inadequately represented: in none do we find the pelvic arch complete; and to that nether portion of it which we do find represented, and which Professor Owen regards as the homologue of the _os ischium_ or hip-bone, the homologues of the metatarsal and toe-bones are attached, to the exclusion of the bones of the thigh and leg. In the Abdominales,—fishes such as the salmon and carp,—that have the ventrals placed behind the abdomen, in the position analogous to that in which the hinder legs of the reptiles and mammals occur, the ischiatic bones generally exist as flat triangular plates, with their heads either turned _inwards_ and downwards, as in the herring, or _outwards_ and downwards, as in the pike; whereas in some of the cartilaginous fishes, such as the Rays and Sharks, they exist as an undivided cartilaginous band, stretched transversely from ventral to ventral. And such, with but an upward direction, appears to have been their position in the _Asterolepis_. They seem to have united at the narrow neck A, over the middle of the lower portion of the abdomen; and to the notches of the flat expansion B,—notches which exactly resemble those of the immensely developed carpal bones of the Ray,—five metatarsal bones were attached, from which the fin expanded. It is interesting to find the number in this ancient representative of the vertebrata restricted to five,—a number greatly exceeded in most of the existing fishes, but which is the true normal number of the vertebrate sub-kingdom as shown in all the higher examples such as man, the _quadrumana_, and in most of the _carnaria_. The form of this bone somewhat resembles that of the analogous bone in those fishes, such as the perch and gurnard, cod and haddock, which have their ventrals suspended to the scapular belt; but its position in the Cromarty specimen, and that of the ventrals in the various specimens of the Cœlacanth family in which their place is still shown, forbids the supposition that _it_ was so suspended,—a circumstance in keeping with all the existing geological evidence on the subject, which agrees in indicating, that of the low type of fishes that have, monster-like, their _feet_ attached to their necks, the Old Red Sandstone does not afford a trace. This inferior type, now by far the most prevalent in the ichthyic division of the animal kingdom, does not seem to have been introduced until near the close of the Secondary period, long after the fish had been degraded from its primal place in the fore front of creation. In one of my specimens a few fragments of the rays are preserved, (fig. 43, _b_.) They are about the eighth part of an inch in diameter: depressed in some cases in the center, as if, over the internal hollow formed by the decay of the cartilaginous centre, the bony crust of which they are composed had given way; and, like the rays of the thornback, they are thickened at the joints, and at the processes by which they were attached to the ischiatic base. It may be proper, I should here state, that of some of the internal bones figured above I have no better evidence that they belonged to the _Asterolepis_, than that they occur in the same beds with the dermal plates which bear the characteristic star-like markings,—that they are of very considerable size,—and that they formed no part of the known fishes of the formation.

On exactly the same grounds I infer that certain large coprolites of common occurrence in the Thurso flagstones, which contain the broken scales of Dipterians, and exhibit a curiously twisted form, (fig. 44,) also belonged to the _Asterolepis_; and from these, that the creature was carnivorous in its habits,—an inference which the character of its teeth fully corroborates; and farther, that, like the sharks and rays, and some of the extinct Enaliosaurs, it possessed the spiral disposition of intestine. Paley, in his chapter on the compensatory contrivances palpable in the structure of various animals, refers to a peculiar substitutory provision which occurs in a certain amphibious animal described in the Memoirs of the French Academy. “The reader will remember,” he says, “what we have already observed concerning the _intestinal_ canal,—that its length, so many times exceeding that of the body, promotes the extraction of the chyle from the aliment, by giving room for the lacteal vessels to act upon it through a greater space. This long intestine, whenever it occurs, is in other animals disposed in the abdomen from side to side, in returning folds. But in the animal now under our notice, the matter is managed otherwise. The same intention is mechanically effectuated, but by a mechanism of a different kind. The animal of which I speak is an amphibious quadruped, which our authors call the Alopecias or sea-fox. The intestine is straight from one end to the other but in this straight, and consequently short intestine, is a winding, cork-screw, spiral passage, through which the food, not without several circumvolutions, and, in fact, by a long route, is conducted to its exit. Here the shortness of the gut is _compensated_ by the obliquity of the perforation.” This structure of intestine, which all the true Placoids possess, and at least the Sturiones among existing Ganoids, seems to have been an exceedingly common one during both the Palæozoic and Secondary periods. It has left its impress on all the better preserved coprolites of the Coal Measures, so abundant in the shales of Newhaven and Burdie House, and on those of the Lias and Chalk. It seems to be equally a characteristic of well nigh all the bulkier coprolites of the Lower Old Red Sandstone.[19] In these, however, it manifests a peculiar trait, which I have failed to detect in any of the recent fishes; nor have I yet seen it indicated, in at least the same degree, by the Carboniferous or Secondary coprolitic remains. In the bowels which moulded the coprolites of Lyme-Regis, of the Chalk, and of the Newhaven and Granton beds, a single screw must have winded within the cylindrical tube, as a turnpike stair winds within its hollow shaft; and such also is the arrangement in the existing Sharks and Rays; whereas the bowels which moulded the coprolites of the Lower Old Red Sandstone must have been traversed by triple or quadruple screws laid closely together, as we find the stalk of an old-fashioned wine-glass traversed by its thickly-set spiral lines of thread-like china. And so, while on the surface of both the Secondary and Carboniferous coprolites there is space between the screw-like lines for numerous cross markings that correspond to the thickly set veiny branches which traverse the sides of the recent placoid bowel, the entire surface of the Lower Old Red coprolites is traversed by the spiral markings. Is there nothing strange in the fact, that after the lapse of mayhap millions of years,—nay, it is possible, millions of ages,—we should be thus able to detect at once general resemblance and special dissimilarity in even the most perishable parts of the most ancient of the Ganoids?

I must advert, in passing, to a peculiarity exemplified in the state of keeping of the bones of this ancient Ganoid, in at least the deposits of Orkney and Caithness. The original animal matter has been converted into a dark-colored bitumen, which in some places, where the remains lie thick, pervades the crevices of the rocks, and has not unfrequently been mistaken for coal. In its more solid state it can hardly be distinguished, when used in sealing a letter,—a purpose which it serves indifferently well,—from black wax of the ordinary quality; when more fluid, it adheres scarce less strongly to the hands than the coal-tar of our gas-works and dock-yards. Underneath a specimen of _Asterolepis_, first pointed out to me in its bed among the Thurso rocks by Mr. Dick, and which, at my request, he afterwards raised and sent me to Edinburgh, packed up in a box, there lay a quantity of thick tar, which stuck as fast to my fingers, on lifting out the pieces of rock, as if I had laid hold of the planking of a newly tarred yawl. What had been once the nerves, muscles, and blood of this ancient Ganoid still lay under its bones, and reminded me of the appearance presented by the remains of a poor suicide, whose solitary grave, dug in a sandy bank in the north of Scotland, had been laid open by the encroachments of a river. The skeleton, with pieces of the dress still wrapped round it, lay at length along the section; and, for a full yard beneath, the white dry sand was consolidated into a dark-colored pitchy mass, by the altered animal matter which had escaped from it, percolating downwards, in the process of decay.

In consequence of the curious chemical change which has thus taken place in the animal juices of the _Asterolepis_, its remains often occur in a state of beautiful preservation: the pervading bitumen, greatly more conservative in its effects than the oils and gums of an old Egyptian undertaker, has maintained, in their original integrity, every scale, plate, and bone. They may have been much broken ere they were first committed to the keeping of the rock, or in disentangling them from its rigid embrace; but they have, we find, caught no harm when under its care. Ere the skeleton of the Bruce, disinterred after the lapse of five centuries, was recommitted to the tomb, such measures were taken to secure its preservation, that, were it to be again disinterred, even after as many more centuries had passed, it might be found retaining unbroken its gigantic proportions. There was molten pitch poured over the bones, in a state of sufficient fluidity to permeate all the pores, and fill up the central hollows, and which, soon hardening around them, formed a bituminous matrix, in which they may lie unchanged for a thousand years. Now, exactly such was the process to which nature resorted with these gigantic skeletons of the Old Red Sandstone. Like the bones of the Bruce, they are bones steeped in pitch; and so thoroughly is every pore and hollow still occupied, that, when cast into the fire, they flame like torches. Though black as jet, they still retain, too, in a considerable degree, the peculiar _qualities_ of the original substance. The late Mr. George Sanderson of Edinburgh, one of the most ingenious lapidaries in the kingdom, and a thoroughly intelligent man, made several preparations for me, for microscopic examination, from the teeth and bones; and though they were by far the oldest vertebrate remains he had ever seen, they exhibited, he informed me, in the working, more of the characteristics of recent teeth and bone than any other fossils he had ever operated upon. Recent bone when in the course of being reduced on the wheel to the degree of thinness necessary to secure transparency, is apt, under the heat induced by the friction, to acquire a springy elasticity, and to start up from the glass slip to which it has been cemented; whereas bone in the fossil state usually lies as passive, in such circumstances, as the stone which envelopes it. Mr. Sanderson was, however, surprised to find that the bone of the _Asterolepis_ still retained its elasticity, and was scarce less liable, when heated, to start from the glass,—a peculiarity through which he at first lost several preparations. I have seen a human bone that had for ages been partially embedded in a mass of adipocere, partially enveloped in the common mould of a churchyard, exhibit two very different styles of keeping. In the adipocere it was as fresh and green as if it had been divested of the integuments only a few weeks previous; whereas the portion which projected into the mould had become brittle and porous, and presented the ordinary appearance of an old churchyard bone. And what the adipocere had done for the human bone in this case, seems to have been done for the bones of the _Asterolepis_ by the animal bitumen.

(One fifth the nat. size, linear.)]

The size of the _Asterolepis_ must, in the larger specimens, have been very great. In all those ganoidal fishes of the Old Red Sandstone that had the head covered with osseous plates, we find that the cranial buckler bore a certain definite proportion,—various in the several genera and species,—to the length of the body. The drawing-master still teaches his pupils to regulate the proportions of the human figure by the seven head-lengths which it contains; and perhaps shows them how an otherwise meritorious draftsman,[21] much employed half an age ago in drawing for the wood-engraver, used to render his figures squat and ungraceful by making them a head too short. Now, those ancient Ganoids which possessed a cranial buckler may, we find, be also measured by head-lengths. Thus, in the _Coccosteus decipiens_, the length of the cranial buckler from nape to snout equalled one fifth the entire length of the creature from snout to tail. The entire length of the _Glyptolepis_ was equal to about five one half times that of its cranial buckler. The _Pterichthys_ was formed in nearly the same proportions. The _Diplopterus_ was fully seven times the length of its buckler: and the _Osteolepis_ from six and a half to seven. In all the cranial bucklers of the _Asterolepis_ yet found, the snout is wanting. The very fine specimen figured in page 99 (fig. 28) terminates abruptly at the little plate between the eyes, the specimen figured in page 98 (fig. 27) terminates at the upper line of the eye. The terminal portion which formed the snout is wanting in both, and we thus lack the measure, or _module_, as the architect might say, by which the proportions of the rest of the creature were regulated. We can, however, very nearly approximate to it. A hyoid plate in my collection (fig. 45) is, I find, so exactly proportioned in size to the cranial buckler, (fig. 28,) that it might have belonged to the same individual; and by fitting it in its proper place, and then making the necessary allowance for the breadth of the nether jaw, which swept two thirds around it, and was surmounted by the snout, we ascertain that the buckler, when entire, must have been, as nearly as may be, a foot in length. If the _Asterolepis_ was formed in the proportions of the _Coccosteus_, the buckler (fig. 28) must have belonged to an individual five feet in length; if in the proportions of the _Pterichthys_ or _Glyptolepis_, to an individual five and a half feet in length; and if in those of the _Diplopterus_ or _Osteolepis_, to an individual of from six and a half to seven feet in length. Now I find that the hyoid plate can be inscribed—such is its form—in a semicircle, of which the nail-shaped ridge in the middle (if we strike off a minute portion of the sharp point, usually wanting in detached specimens) forms very nearly the radius, and of which the diameter equals the breadth of the cranial buckler, along a line drawn across at a distance from the nape, equal to two thirds of the distance between the nape and the eyes. Thus, the largest diameter of a hyoid plate which belonged to a cranial buckler a foot in length is, I find, equal to seven one quarter inches, while the length of its nape somewhat exceeds three five eighth inches. The nail of the Stromness specimen measures five and a half inches. It must have run along a hyoid plate eleven inches in transverse breadth, and have been associated with a cranial buckler eighteen one eighth inches in length; and the _Asterolepis_ to which it belonged must have measured from snout to tail, if formed, as it probably was, in the proportions of its brother Cœlacanth the _Glyptolepis_, eight feet three inches; and if in those of the _Diplopterus_, from nine feet nine to ten feet six inches. This oldest of Scottish fish—this earliest-born of the Ganoids yet known—was at least as bulky as a large porpoise.

It was small, however, compared with specimens of the _Asterolepis_ found elsewhere. The hyoid plate figured in page 110, (fig. 36,)—a Thurso specimen which I owe to the kindness of Mr. Dick,—measures nearly fourteen inches, and the cranial buckler of the same individual, fifteen one fourth inches, in breadth. The latter, when entire, must have measured twenty-three one half inches in length; and the fish to which it belonged, if formed in the proportions of the _Glyptolepis_, ten feet six inches; and if in those of the _Diplopterus_, from twelve feet five to thirteen feet eight inches in length. Did the shield still exist in its original state as a buckler of tough, enamel-crusted bone, it might be converted into a Highland target, nearly broad enough to cover the ample chest of a Rob Roy or Allan M’Aulay, and strong enough to dash aside the keenest broadsword. Another hyoid plate found by Mr. Dick measures sixteen one half inches in breadth; and a cast in the British Museum, from one of the Russian specimens of Professor Asmus, (fig. 46,) twenty-four inches. The individual to which this last plate belonged must, if built in the shorter proportions, have measured eighteen, and if in the longer, twenty-three feet in length. The two hyoid plates of the specimen of _Holoptychius_ in the British Museum measure but four and a half inches along that transverse line in which the Russian _Asterolepis_ measures two feet, and the largest Thurso specimen sixteen inches and a half. The maxillary bone of a cod-fish two and a half feet from snout to tail measures three inches in length. One of the Russian maxillary bones in the possession of Professor Asmus measures in length twenty-eight inches. And that space circumscribed by the sweep of the lower jaw which it took, in the Russian specimen, a hyoid plate twenty-four inches in breadth to fill, could be filled in the two-and-a-half-feet cod by a plate whose breadth equalled but an inch and a half. Thus, in the not unimportant circumstance of size, the most ancient Ganoids yet known, instead of taking their places, agreeably to the demands of the development hypothesis, among the sprats, sticklebacks, and minnows of their class, took their place among its huge basking sharks, gigantic sturgeons, and bulky sword-fishes. They were giants, not dwarfs.

But what of their organization? Were they fishes low or high in the scale? On this head we can, of course, determine merely by the analogies which their structure exhibits to that of fishes of the existing period; and these point in three several directions;—in two of the number, directly on genera of the high Ganoid order; and in the third, on the still higher Placoids and Enaliosaurs. No trace of vertebræ has yet been found; and so we infer—lodging, however, a precautionary protest, as the evidence is purely negative, and therefore it some degree inconclusive—that the vertebral column of the _Asterolepis_ was, like that of the sturgeon, cartilaginous. Respecting its external covering, we positively know, as has been already shown, that, like the _Lepidosteus_ of America and the _Polypterus_ of the Nile, it was composed of strong plates and scales of solid bone; and, regarding its dentition, that, as in these last genera, and even more decidedly than in these, it was of the mixed ichthyic-reptilian character,—an outer row of thickly-set fish-teeth being backed by an inner row of thinly-set reptile-teeth. And its form of coprolite indicates the spiral disposition of intestine common to the Rays and Sharks of the existing period, and of the Ichthyosauri of the Secondary ages. Instead of being, as the development hypothesis would require, a fish low in its organization, it seems to have ranged on the level of the highest ichthyic-reptilian families ever called into existence. Had an intelligent being, ignorant of what was going on upon earth during the week of creation, visited Eden on the morning of the sixth day, he would have found in it many of the inferior animals, but no trace of man. Had he returned again in the evening, he would have seen, installed in the office of keepers of the garden, and ruling with no tyrant sway as the humble monarchs of its brute inhabitants, two mature human creatures, perfect in their organization, and arrived at the full stature of their race. The entire evidence regarding them, in the absence of all such information as that imparted to Adam by Milton’s angel, would amount simply to this, that in the morning man _was not_, and that in the evening he _was_. There, of course, could not exist, in the circumstances, a single appearance to sanction the belief that the two human creatures whom he saw walking together among the trees at sunset had been “developed from infusorial points,” not created mature. The evidence would, on the contrary, lie all the other way. And in no degree does the geologic testimony respecting the earliest Ganoids differ from what, in the supposed case, would be the testimony of Eden regarding the earliest men. Up to a certain point in the geologic scale we find that the Ganoids _are not_; and when they at length make their appearance upon the stage, they enter large in their stature and high in their organization.

FISHES OF THE SILURIAN ROCKS—UPPER AND LOWER. THEIR RECENT HISTORY, ORDER, AND SIZE.

But the system of the Old Red Sandstone represents the _second_, not the _first_, great period of the world’s history. There was a preceding period at least equally extended, perhaps greatly more so, represented by the Upper and Lower Silurian formations. And what is the testimony of this morning period of organic existence, in which, so far as can yet be shown, vitality, in the planet which man inhabits, and of whose history or productions he knows anything, was first associated with matter? May not the development hypothesis find a standing in the system representative of this earliest age of creation, which it fails to find in the system of the Old Red Sandstone?