Chapter 29
FARM DRAINAGE
Some farm lands contain so much water that the conditions of fertility are interfered with and therefore the crop producing power of these lands is lowered.
HOW SURPLUS WATER AFFECTS FERTILITY
This surplus water diminishes fertility by reducing the area of film water in the soil.
It checks soil ventilation.
It tends to keep the soil cold.
It dilutes plant food in the soil.
It interferes with proper tillage.
INDICATIONS OF A NEED OF DRAINAGE
The above-mentioned state of affairs occurs sometimes in fields at the foot of hills, or on sloping uplands which receive spring water or seepage water from higher lands. Some fields are underlaid by a close, compact subsoil which so checks percolation that the surface soil is too wet for tillage operations the greater part of the year. In such cases:
A need of drainage is generally indicated by the presence of more or less free water standing on the surface.
In some lands the surface water does not appear as free water standing on the surface. In such cases:
A need of drainage is indicated by the curling and wilting of the leaves of corn and other crops during dry, hot weather. This curling and wilting is due to the fact that during the early growth of the crop free water stands so high in the soil that the crop roots are confined to a shallow layer of soil. When dry, hot weather comes, the free water recedes, the upper soil dries out, and the roots cannot get sufficient water to supply the demands of transpiration, hence the curling and wilting of the leaves.
If drains are placed in this soil, the free water will be kept at a lower level in the spring and the plant roots will develop deeper in the soil, where there will be constant supply of film water during the dryer and warmer summer weather.
The wiry and spindling growth of grass and grain crops may indicate too much water.
The growth of moss on the surface of the ground and the cracking of the soil in dry weather are also indications of too much water.
DRAINS
How can we get rid of this surplus free water?
We can make passageways through the soil to a lower level and then let gravity pull the water through them to lower ground below. These passageways are called drains.
Drains may be classed as:
Surface drains which are shallow, open channels made in the soil with a plow, hoe or other tool, to carry off surface water. They are temporary and need frequent renewing.
Open-ditch drains are deeper, more permanent water passageways around or across the fields.
Surface and open-ditch drains take only surface water. They also carry off surface soil and manures washed into them. They frequently become choked or stopped by trash and soil, and are in the way of cultivation and harvesting operations.
Covered drains, under drains or blind ditches are water passageways made of brush, poles, stones, tiles, etc. (Figs. 80-81), placed in the bottoms of ditches and then covered with soil.
INFLUENCE OF COVERED OR UNDER DRAINS ON FERTILITY
_Influence on soil water._
Covered or under drains take not only surface water, but also remove free water from the soil beneath down to nearly the level of the bottom of the drains, and thus increase the area of film water. Removing the free water enables the soil to absorb more readily rain water falling on the surface and therefore checks surface wash and the gullying of fields.
_Influence on soil ventilation._
Lowering the free water allows a deeper penetration of air and, therefore, a deeper root development and enables crops to better resist dry periods.
_Influence on soil temperature._
Lowering the free water in the soil influences soil temperature:
By diminishing the amount of water to be heated.
By checking evaporation.
By letting warm showers sink down into the soil.
By increasing ventilation and therefore permitting the circulation of warm air in the soil.
The cropping season is lengthened by causing the soil to be warmer and drier earlier in the spring and later in the fall.
_Influence on plant food in the soil._
Covered or under drains check losses of plant food that occur with surface and open ditch drains. They render available more plant food, for lowering free water and increasing ventilation:
Deepen the feeding area of the roots.
Aid the process of nitrification.
Aid chemical changes which make plant food available.
Check denitrification.
LOCATION OF DRAINS
As gravity is the force that is to take the surplus water from the soil, the outlet of the drainage system should be at the lowest part of the area to be drained.
The main drains should be located in the lowest parts of the fields, indicated by courses taken by water after a rain or by small streams running through the farm.
The lateral drains, if surface or open ditch drains, should run across the slopes; if under drains, they should run up and down the slopes.
_Grade or slope of the drain._
The grade of the drain should be sufficient to cause a flow of the water. In the case of open ditches it should not be steep enough to cause too rapid a current and a consequent serious washing of the banks of the ditch. Large, deep ditches will carry water with a grade of one inch to a hundred feet.
_Tile drains._
Covered or under drains are made of brush, poles, planks, stones, tiles, etc. (Figs. 83-84). Where tiles can be obtained at reasonable prices they are considered best. Tiles are made of clay and are burnt like brick. They are more lasting than wood and are easier and cheaper to lay than stone, unless the stone must be gotten rid of.
The most approved form of drain tile is the round or circular form. These are made in sizes ranging from two and one-half to six and eight inches in diameter, and in pieces one foot in length.
The size used depends on the length of the drain, the amount of water to carry, the frequency of heavy rainfalls and the character of the soil.
The distance apart varies from twenty-five feet in heavy soils to over two hundred feet in light soils. The usual depth is about three feet, though the farther apart the deeper they are put.
A lateral tile drain should enter a main at an acute angle to prevent too great a check in the current.
In putting in a drainage system the first thing to be done is to make a plan of the ground and determine the slope of the land and the grade of the drain. The ditches are then staked out and the digging proceeds. In digging the ditches plows are sometimes used to throw out the top soil, then the work is finished with spades and shovels.
Professional ditchers use special tools and they take out only sufficient earth to make room for the tiles (Fig. 85). The tiles are then laid end to end, the joints covered with a piece of sod, some grass, straw, paper or clay, to prevent loose soil sifting in. As the tiles are laid, enough soil is placed on them to hold them in place until the ditch is filled.
In laying the tiles an even grade should be maintained (Fig. 86). A lessening of the grade checks the current of water and tends to cause a stoppage of the drain.
The water gets into the drain through the joints where the tiles come together.
The outlet of a tile drain should be protected by brick work or should be of glazed tile such as the so-called terra-cotta tile, to prevent injury by frost.
The mouth of the drain should be protected by a screen of wire to prevent the entrance of rats and other small animals.
GLOSSARY
=Acid=, a chemical name given to many sour substances.
=Albumen=, a nitrogenous organic compound.
=Albuminoid=, a nitrogenous substance resembling albumen.
=Ammonia=, a gas containing nitrogen produced by the decay of organic matter.
=Annual=, a plant that lives only one year; corn and sunflower are examples.
=Anther=, the part of a stamen that bears the pollen.
=Available=, that which can be used.
=Bacteria=, very small plants, so small that they cannot be seen without the aid of a powerful microscope. They are sometimes called "germs." Some of them are beneficial, some do great harm and some produce disease.
=Biennial=, a plant that lives two years, usually producing seeds the second year.
=Bordeaux mixture,= a mixture of copper sulphate, lime and water used to prevent plant diseases. It was invented in Bordeaux, France.
=Bud=, an undeveloped branch.
=Calyx=, the outermost part of a flower.
=Cambium=, the active growing layer between the bark and the wood of a tree.
=Capillary=, Hair-like. A name given to very small spaces through which water flows by the force of capillary attraction.
=Carbohydrate=, an organic substance made of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon, but containing no nitrogen; cellulose or woody fibre, sugar, starch are examples.
=Carbon=, a chemical element. Charcoal is nearly pure carbon.
=Carbonic acid gas=, a gas consisting of carbon and oxygen. It is produced from the lungs of animals, and by the decay or burning of organic matter.
=Catch crop=, a crop growing during the interval between regular crops.
=Cereal=, a name given to the grain crops that are used for food.
=Chlorophyl=, the green matter in plants.
=Commercial fertilizers=, materials containing plant food which are bought and sold in the markets to improve the soil.
=Compost=, a mixture of decaying organic matter used to enrich the soil.
=Cross pollination=, the pollination of a flower by pollen brought from some other flower.
=Cover crop=, a crop to cover the soil during the interval between regular corps.
=Cultivator=, a farm implement used to loosen the surface of the soil and to kill weeds after a crop has been planted.
=Cutting=, a part of a plant placed in moist soil, water or other medium with the object of its producing roots and making a new plant.
=Dormant=, said of plants when they are resting or inactive. Most plants are dormant during the winter season.
=Drainage=, the method by which surplus water is removed from the land.
=Element=, a substance that cannot be divided into simpler substances.
=Fermentation=, the process by which organic substances are broken down or changed and new substances formed.
=Fertility=, that state or condition of the soil which enables it to produce crops.
=Fibre=, long thread-like structure.
=Flocculate=, to make crumbly.
=Free water=, standing water or water which flows under the influence of gravity.
=Function=, the particular action of any part of an organism.
=Furrow=, the trench left by the plow.
=Furrow slice=, the strip of earth which is turned by the plow.
=Germinate=, to sprout.
=Grafting=, the process of inserting a cion or bud in a stock plant.
=Green manure crops=, crops intended to be plowed under to improve the soil.
=Harrow=, an implement used to pulverize the surface of the soil.
=Heavy soils=, soils that are hard to work; stiff, cloddy soils.
=Horticulture=, that branch of agriculture which deals with the growing of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants.
=Humus=, partially decayed animal and vegetable matter in the soil.
=Hydrogen=, a gaseous, chemical element, one of the constituents of water.
=Inter-tillage=, tillage between plants.
=Irrigation=, the practice of supplying plants with water by artificial means.
=Kainite=, a potash salt used in making fertilizer.
=Kernel=, a single seed or grain.
=Leaching=, passing through and going off in drainage water.
=Legume=, a plant belonging to the bean, pea and clover family.
=Light soils=, soils which are loose and open and easy to work.
=Loam=, a mixture of sand, clay and organic matter.
=Mould board=, the curved part of the plow which turns the furrow slice.
=Mulch=, a covering on the soil. It may be of straw, leaves, pulverized soil or other material.
=Nectar=, a sweet substance in flowers from which bees make honey.
=Nitrate=, a soluble form of nitrogen.
=Nitrification=, the changing of nitrogen into a nitrate.
=Nitrogen=, a gas forming four-fifths of the air. Nitrogen is a very necessary food of plants.
=Organic matter=, substances produced by the growth of plants and animals.
=Osmose=, the movement of fluids through membranes or thin partitions.
=Oxygen=, a gas which forms one-fifth of the air. Its presence is necessary to the life of all green plants and all animals.
=Ovary=, the part of the pistil that bears the developing seeds.
=Ovule=, an immature seed in the ovary.
=Perennial=, living through several years.
=Phosphoric acid=, an important plant food found in phosphates.
=Pistil=, the part of the flower which produces seeds.
=Propagate=, to increase in number.
=Pollen=, the powdery substance produced by stamens.
=Pollination=, the transfer of pollen from stamens to pistils.
=Potash=, an important plant food.
=Pruning=, removing parts of a plant for the good of what remains.
=Retentive=, holding, retaining, said of soil which holds water.
=Reverted=, said of phosphoric acid in the process of becoming insoluble.
=Rotation of crops=, a change of crops in regular order.
=Sap=, the juice or liquid contents of plants.
=Seed bed=, the earth in which seeds are sown.
=Seedling=, a young plant just from the seed. Also a plant raised from a seed in distinction from one produced from a graft or a cutting.
=Sepal=, one of the parts of the calyx.
=Slip=, a cutting placed in water or moist soil or other substance to produce roots and form a new plant.
=Soil=, that part of the earth's crust into which plants send their roots for food and water.
=Stamen=, that part of a flower which bears the pollen.
=Stigma=, the part of the pistil which receives the pollen.
=Stomata=, breathing pores in plants.
=Subsoil=, that part of the soil which lies beneath the soil that is worked with the tillage tools.
=Sap root=, a main root that runs straight down into the soil.
=Tillage=, stirring the soil.
=Transpiration=, the giving off of water from plants.
=Tubercle=, a small nodular growth on the roots of plants.
=Under drainage=, drainage from below.
=Vitality of seeds=, the ability of seeds to grow.
INDEX
Acid phosphates, 196.
Adobe soils, 30.
After-cultivation, 158, 164. benefits from, 164. flat, 169. frequency of, 167. saves water, 164. shallow, 15, 167, 169. time for, 166. tools for, 167.
Agencies active in making soils, 32.
Agents, with which farmer works, 5. most important, 6.
Agriculture, foundation facts and principles of, 22.
Air, and the farmer, 5. in relation to germination, 72. necessary for root growth, 20. work of, in making soils, 36.
Albuminoids in plants, 64, 66.
Alfalfa or lucern, 68. roots, 13. soils, 29.
Ammonia in fertilizers, 204, 205. in barn manures, 175. lost by fermentation, 175. sulphate of, 194.
Analysis of plants, 163-166. of fertilizers, 203.
Animals, 5. and the farmer, 5. dependent on plants, 6. work of, in making soils, 37.
Annual plants, 125.
Anthers, 129.
Aphis, 116.
Apple, flower of, 129, 130.
Ash in plants, 65, 66.
Ashes, a source of potash, 199. cotton hull, 199.
Bacteria, 68, 143. and the farmer, 5, 144. denitrifying, 144. in manures, 174. in the roots of legumes, 68. in the soil, 68, 143. nitrifying, 144. nitrogen-fixing, 144.
Bare fallow, 100. when advisable, 100.
Barn manures, 171. application of, 177. condition of, 179. effect of on soil texture, 172. loss of value of, 173. meaning of term, 173.
Beet, 6.
Beets, 4. nitrogen for, 214.
Biological properties of a fertile soil, 143.
Biology, 143.
Blood, dried, 194. as a fertilizer, 194. nitrogen in, 194.
Bokhara clover, 190.
Bone, dissolved, 197. dust, 197. ground, 197.
Bone fertilizers, 197. meal, 197. raw, 197. steamed, 197.
Bone black, 197. dissolved, 198.
Bones, 195, 197.
Bordeaux mixture, 118.
Breaking out the middles, 97.
Brick, 30.
Brush harrow, 102, 105.
Buds, 120.
Buildings, 5. and the farmer, 5.
Bureau of soils, United States, 28. Department of Agriculture, 28.
Buttercup, flower of, 129, 130.
Cabbage, fertilizer for, 211. soil, 28, 161. transplanting, 87, 88. worm, 117.
Cabbages, 4.
Calcium in plants, 66, 67. in soils, 68.
Calyx, 129. function of, 132.
Cambium, 126.
Canadian field pea, 189.
Canteloupe soil, 28.
Capillary force, 49. meaning of term, 49. tubes, 49. water, 153.
Carbon in plants, 66.
Carbonic acid in soil, 37.
Carrots, 4, 6.
Cauliflower soil, 28.
Celery, 4.
Cellulose in plants, 63, 66.
Chain harrow, 102, 105.
Chemical properties of a fertile soil, 147.
Cherry flower, 129, 130.
Chlorophyl in leaves, 113.
Classification of soils, 26.
Clay, 27, 38. and lime, 42. loams, 29. power to absorb water, 41, 42. relation to water, 25, 41, 43. soils, 29. soils injured by working when wet, 45. to improve texture of, 42. water-holding power, 44.
Clevis, 93.
Climbing plants, 121.
Clover, 68. Bokhara, 190. crimson, 189. mammoth, 189. red, 188.
Clovers, as green manure-crops, 188. as nitrogen gatherers, 184. nodules on roots of, 184.
Commercial fertilizers, 171, 192. amount to buy, 212. home mixing, 211. kind to buy, 212. raw materials, 192. (See also Fertilizers.)
Composts, 171, 181.
Conditions necessary for root growth, 20.
Corn, a humus waster, 226. depth of root growth of, 13. flower of, 132. germination of, 78, 79. in rotation, 226, 229, 234. plant, 6. pollination of, 133. rapid growth of roots of, 13. roots cut by plow, 14. soils, 28, 29, 30, 161. structure of seed, 78. water used by, 40.
Corolla, 129. function of, 132.
Cotton, 5, 161. a humus waster, 221. in rotation, 225-229. plant, 6. plant food removed by, 227. Sea Island, 161. soils, 28, 29, 161. upland, 161.
Cotton hull ashes, 199.
Cotton-seed meal, 194.
Cotyledons, 77. use of, 79.
Coulter of plow, 94.
Coulter-toothed harrow, 102, 104.
Cow manure, 178. losses by exposure, 178.
Cowpeas, 68, 186. for green manuring, 186. plant food in, 187. root growth of, 12. soils for, 187.
Cropping and soil water, 159, 160.
Crops, cleansing, 232. feeding, 232. in rotation, 219. manurial, 232. money, 232.
Cucumber flower, 133.
Cultivation. (See After-cultivation.)
Denitrification, 147. conditions favoring, 147.
Denitrifying germs, 144, 147.
Draft ring of plow, 93.
Draining, need of, 235.
Drains, 158-239. and capillary water, 237. covered, 237.
Drains, effect on film water, 237. effect on plant food, 238. effect on soil temperature, 238. effect on soil water, 237. grade of, 239. lateral, 239. location of, 238. main, 239. open ditch, 237. surface, 237. tile, 239.
Dried blood, 194. as a fertilizer, 194. nitrogen in, 194.
Early crops, soils for, 27, 28.
Egg experiments to show osmose, 18, 19.
Egg plant, soil for, 28.
Elements in plants, 66.
Elm tree leaf beetle, 117.
Endosperm, 78. use of, 79.
Epicotyl, 78.
Essential organs of flowers, 131.
Evaporation, loss of water by, 54. loss of heat by, 59.
Excursion, to examine soils, 24. to see plow cutting roots, 14. to study roots, 11. to study leaves, 108. to study stems, 120. to visit farm, 4.
Experiment to show, air necessary for germination, 73. amount of transpiration, 110. capillarity, 49. capacity of soils for film water, 51. checking loss of water by evaporation, 55. chlorophyl necessary for starch making, 113. effect of soil mulch, 55. depth of planting seeds, 81. effect of lime on clay soil, 42. effect of working soil when wet, 26, 45. exclusion of oxygen by leaf, 113. film water, 50. growth in length of roots, 16. heat necessary for germination, 73. how food and water get into the root, 18, 19. how soils are warmed, 58. how soils lose heat, 59. importance of roots, 7. moisture necessary for germination, 71. no starch formed in dark, 112. osmose, 18, 19. plants contain albuminoids, 64. plants contain ashes, 65. plants contain cellulose, 63. plants contain gum, 64. plants contain oil, 64. plants contain starch, 64. plants contain sugar, 64. plants contain water, 65. power of soils to absorb rain, 40. power of soils to hold water, 44, 45. power of soils to pump water, 43. roots absorb moisture, 9. roots take food from soil, 9. roots produce new plants, 10. roots need air, 21. soil characteristics, 24, 25. soil temperature, 57, 60. starch in leaf, 111. stems carry sap, 122. stems store food, 124. transpiration, the fact, 109. transpiration, amount, 111. use of cotyledons, 79. what becomes of water taken by roots, 39.
Fallow, bare, 100.
Fall plowing, 99.
Families of plants, 86.
Farm drainage, 235.
Farm manures, 171, 183. classification of, 171. importance of, 172.
Farmer deals with agents, laws and forces, 5.
Fat in plants, 64.
Fermentation of manures, 174.
Fertile soil, a, 141. biological properties of, 142, 143. chemical properties of, 142, 147. most important properties of, 150. physical properties of, 142.
Fertility of the soil, 150. economizing the, 150. maintaining the, 150.
Fertilizers, commercial, 68, 192. analysis of, 203. classification of, 171. home mixing, 211. how to know what kind is needed, 212. importance of thorough mixing with the soil, 15. manufactured, 202. many brands, 202. mixed, 202. raw materials, 192. sources of lime, 193, 200. sources of nitrogen, 193. sources of phosphoric acid, 193, 195. sources of potash, 193, 199. use of by farmer, 172, 192. value of plant food in, 205.
Filament of stamen, 129.
Film water, 50.
Fish scrap as a fertilizer, 194.
Flower, of apple, 129, 130. of buttercup, 129, 130. calyx, 129. of cherry, 129, 130. corolla, 129. of cucumber, 133. functions of parts of, 130. of honeysuckle, 129. of melon, 133. parts of, 129. of peach, 129, 130. petals, 129. of petunia, 129. pistil, 130. pollen, 130. of potato, 129. sepals, 129. stamen, 129. of squash, 133. of tomato, 129. of wild mustard, 129, 130.
Flowers, 8, 128. essential parts of, 131. functions of, 130.
Food of plants, 63.
Forces of nature and the farmer, 5.
Forest soils, 29.
Foundation facts and principles of agriculture, 22.
Free water in the soil, 48, 153. injurious to roots, 153. source of capillary and film water, 153.
Fresno sand, 28.
Fruit, 8, 136.
Fruit soils, 29.
Fruits, 27.
Furrow slice, 96.
Gas lime, 201.
Geranium, 6.
Germinating seeds, need air, 73. need heat, 73. need water, 71.
Germs, 143. denitrifying, 144, 147. nitrifying, 144, 145. nitrogen fixing, 144.
Goosefoot family, 86.
Gourd family, 86.
Grafting, 136.
Grain crops humus wasters, 224.
Grain soils, 28.
Grass, 5. family, 86. soils, 28, 29, 30, 162.
Gravel, 26.
Gravelly loams, 29.
Green-crop manures, 171, 183. benefits from, 185. best plants for, 185.
Green manure-crops, 186. clovers as, 188. cowpeas as, 186. legumes as, 186. non-leguminous, 191. soy-bean as, 189. time for growing, 186.
Gum in plants, 64, 66.
Gypsum, 201.
Habit of growth of roots, 11.
Handles of plow, 93.
Harrowing, 101, 158. objects of, 101. time for, 101.
Harrows, 4, 102. brush, 102, 105. chain, 102, 105. coulter-toothed, 102, 104. plank, 102, 105. rolling cutter, 102, 103. spike-toothed, 102, 104. spring-toothed, 102, 103.
Hay soils, 29, 30.
Heat and the farmer, 5.
Heat necessary for germination, 73.
Hilling the crop, 169.
Hilum, 77.
Hoeing and soil water, 158.
Hoes, 4.
Horn shavings as fertilizer, 195.
Horse manure, 176. losses when piled, 176.
House plants, watering of, 51.
How the bean gets up, 78.
How the corn gets up, 79.
Humus, 27, 38. influence on soil texture, 62. nitrogen in, 67. a source of nitrogen, 67. water-absorbing power of, 41. water-holding power of, 44. water-pumping power of, 43.
Hydrogen in plants, 66.
Hypocotyl, 78.
Ice, work of, in making soils, 35.
Insects, chewing, 117. how to combat, 116, 117. injure leaves, 116. sucking, 116.
Insect pollination, 131.
Inter-tillage, 164.
Iodine, test for starch, 64.
Iron in plants, 66.
Jointer of plow, 95. value as a pulverizer, 95.
Kainite, 199.
Knowledge of flowers, value of, 134.
Land plaster, 200.
Laws of nature, 5.
Leaf work, conditions necessary for, 114. interfered with, 115, 118.
Leather as a fertilizer, 195.
Leaves, 8, 108. digest food, 114. facts about, 108. functions of, 109. manufacture starch, 112. transpire water, 110.
Legume family, 86.
Legumes, definition of, 68. nitrogen fixers, 68, 186, 144. value as green manure plants, 144, 185.
Leguminous plants, 68.
Light necessary for leaf work, 114.
Lily family, 86.
Lime, 200. amount to use, 200. effect on sand, 200. effect on clay, 200. in soils, 149. its action on soils, 149, 200. sets free potash, 149. sources of, 171, 200.
Lime stone soluble in water, 31.
Loam, 28.
Loamy soils, 28.
London purple, 117.
Loss of soil water, 53, 155.
Lucern, 13. roots, 13.
Magnesium in plants, 66.
Maintenance of fertility, 150.
Materials composing soils, 26.
Mallow family, 86.
Manures, barn, 171, 173. application of, 177. care of, 173. checking losses from, 176. effect on soil texture, 172. effect on soil water, 159. functions of, 171. losses from leaching, 173. losses from heating, 174.
Many things the farmer deals with, 5.
Marigold, 6.
Marl, 201.
Melon flower, 133.
Miami sand, 28.
Microscopic organisms, 5.
Mixed fertilizers, 202. inflating the guarantee, 204. low grade, 204, 207. many brands, 202. valuation of, 205.
Morning-glory, 129.
Most important factor in the raising of crops, 151.
Mould board of plow, 94.
Muck, swamp, 30.
Mulch, soil, 56. how made, 56. to save water, 56.
Muriate of potash, 199.
Mustard, family, 86. flower, 129, 130.
Muskmelon soils, 161.
Night shade family, 86.
Nitrates, what they are, 146. availability of, 146, 193. solubility of, 146.
Nitrate of soda, 193. nitrogen, 193.
Nitric acid in soil, 146.
Nitrification, 146. aided by plowing, 146. aided by lime, 146. conditions favorable to, 146.
Nitrifying germs, 144, 145.
Nitrogen, 66. added to the soil by legumes, 68. grown on the farm, 68. in humus, 167. in soils, 67, 148. in plants, 66, 67. in fertilizers, 192. loss of, 67. sources of, 171.
Nitrogen-fixing germs, 144.
Non-leguminous green manure-crops, 191.
Norfolk sand, 28.
Oats, soil for, 29.
Object of this book, 3.
Odorless phosphate, 198.
Oil in plants, 64, 66.
One-crop system, 221. effect on fertility, 221.
Onion, 6.
Organic matter, in soils, 32, 62, 220. value of, 61.
Osmose, 18.
Ovary of flower, 130.
Ovules, 130.
Oxygen in plants, 66.
Paris green to destroy chewing insects, 117.
Parsley family, 86.
Parsnip root, depth of growth, 13.
Parsnips, 4.
Pasture, soils for, 30.
Pea family, 86. soils, 28.
Peach borer, 127. flower, 130.
Peanuts, 5.
Peat, 30.
Peppers, soil for, 28.
Percolation of water, 41.
Petals, 129.
Petunia, 129.
Pigweeds, 5, 6.
Pistil, 130. function of, 131.
Phosphate, odorless, 198. rock, 195. slag, 195, 198.
Phosphoric acid, 195. available, 195, 196. in fertilizers, 195. in soil, 148. insoluble, 195, 196. reverted, 196. soluble, 196. sources of, 171.
Phosphorus in plants, 66, 67. in soils, 68.
Plank harrow, 102, 105.
Plant, analysis of, 63. most important part of to plant itself, 7. most important part of to plant grower, 7.
Plant diseases, 118.
Plant food, 63. and the farmer, 5.
Plant food, in soil, 63. in fertilizers, 68, 192, 205. what it is, 63, 69.
Planting, corn, 84. grass seed, 84. grain seed, 84. method of, 83. seeds, 81. vegetable seeds, 84.
Plants, 5. and the farmer, 5. conditions for growth, 6. composition of food of, 63. for study, 6. living, growing things, 6. parts of, 6. resemble one another, 6. why raised, 6. work of in making soils, 36.
Plow beam, 93. coulter, 94. characteristics of, 95. clevis, 93. cutting roots, 15. draft ring, 93. handles, 93. jointer, 95. landside, 94. mouldboard, 94. parts of, 92. shackle, 93. share, 93. standard, 92. truck, 95.
Plowing, 90. depth of, 96. effect on soil water, 156. favors root growth, 14. in fall, 99, 157. in spring, 98, 157. importance of deep, 15, 17. objects of, 91, 92. to save water, 92. time for, 98.
Plows, 4.
Plumule, 78.
Pollen, 130.
Pollination, 131, 132, 135. cross, 132, 133, 135. of wild goose plum, 134.
Potash, 199. in fertilizers, 199. in soils, 149. sources of, 171.
Potassium, in plants, 66, 67. in soils, 68.
Potato, 6. soils, 28, 29, 161.
Potato, sweet, roots of, 13. soils, 28, 160.
Properties of a fertile soil, 141.
Pruning, 137.
Quitch-grass, 121. underground stem of, 121.
Radicle, 78.
Radish, shrunken root of, 10.
Ragweed, 5.
Rain, work of in making soils, 33. on clay soils, 41. on sandy soils, 41.
Rake, 101.
Rakes, 4.
Raking and soil water, 158.
Red spider, 117.
Rhubarb soil, 28.
Ridging the soil, 98, 158, 169.
Rock salt, 31.
Rollers, 107.
Rolling, 101, 106, 158. autumn-sown grain, 106. light soils, 106. reason for, 106. spring-sown grain, 106.
Rolling cutter harrows, 102.
Root, 8. how it takes moisture, 18. most important part of plant, 7.
Root hairs, 17, 18.
Roots, absorb water, 9, 11, 17. absorb plant food, 10, 11. alfalfa, 13. and fertilizers, 15. growth of in length, 16. conditions necessary for growth of, 8, 20, 141, 220. corn, 13. cowpea, 12. depth of growth of, 12. extent of growth of, 12. habit of growth of, 11, 15. hold plant in place, 9, 11, 15, 16. important lessons from, 13, 15. location of, 12, 13. need firm soil, 20, 22, 23. need mellow soil, 20, 22, 23. need moist soil, 20, 22, 23. need plant food in soil, 20, 22, 23. need warm soil, 20, 22, 23. need air in soil, 21, 22, 23. produce new plants, 10, 11. rapidity of growth of, 15. soy-bean, 12. store food, 10, 11. sweet potato, 13. tree, 13. uses of, 9, 10, 11, 15. work of, 9, 10, 15.
Rotation of crops, 219. benefits from, 230. conditions which modify, 232. effect upon fertility, 224. examples of, 234. general rules for, 233. length of, 233. typical, 231.
Sampling soils, 163.
Sand, 26, 38. Fresno, 28. grades of, 26. Miami, 28. Norfolk, 28. power to absorb water, 41, 43.
Sandy soils, 27. adapted to early truck, 27. effect of humus on, 43, 44, 220. improving, 43. water-holding power of, 44.
Sandy loam, 28.
Sapwood, 126.
Scythes, 4.
Seed leaves, 77.
Seed, 130. classification of, 85. crab, drills, 4, 84. planting, 81, 83.
Seeds, 8. depth to plant, 81. how they come up, 77. how to test, 75. which germinate at a temperature of 45 degrees, 74. which germinate at a temperature of 60 degrees, 74.
Seeds to germinate, need air, 72, 73, 75. need heat, 73, 75. need moisture, 71, 75.
Sepals, 129.
Shallow cultivation, 14, 15, 167, 169.
Share of plow, 93.
Shackle of plow, 93.
Silt, 27, 38.
Silt loam, 29.
Small fruit soils, 20.
Soil, a fertile, 141. definition of, 23. formation of, 30, 237. material composing, 147, 26. mulch, 56. temperature, 57, 60. testing, 162, 215. texture, 37, 142. texture important, 142, 143. ventilation, 68, 142. warmed by sun, 58. warmed by conduction, 58. water, 40, 151.
Soils, 5, 23. adobe, 30. alfalfa, 29. and the farmer, 5. attitude of toward water, 40. cabbage, 28, 161. canteloupe, 28, 161. capacity for film water, 51. cauliflower, 28. classified, 26. clay, 29. cloddy, 38. close, 38. coarse, 38. compact, 38. corn, 28, 29, 30, 161. cotton, 28, 29, 161. effect of working when wet, 26, 41. egg plant, 28. fine, 38. forest, 29. fruit, 27, 29. general farming, 28, 29. grain, 28, 162. grass, 28, 29, 162. gravelly, 29. hard, 38. hay, 29, 30. heavy, 38. how made, 30. humus, 27, 38. leachy, 38. loamy, 28. loose, 38. lose heat, 59. light, 38. lime in, 67, 149. loss of water from, 53, 153. lumpy, 38. mellow, 38. oat, 29. open, 38. organic matter in, 220. pasture, 30. pea, 28. peat, 30. peppers, 28. plant food in, 63. potato, 28, 29, 161. porous, 38. relation of to water, 39, 46. relation of to plants, 23. retentive, 38. rhubarb, 28. sandy, 27. small fruit, 28, 29. soft, 38. sorghum, 162. stiff, 38. stony, 29. strawberry, 28. swamp, 30. testing, 162, 215. tobacco, 27. tomato, 28, 161. truck, 27, 28, 29, 161. vegetable, 28. water-absorbing power of, 40, 43, 46, 142. water-holding power of, 44, 142. watermelon, 28, 161. wheat, 29, 30.
Soil water, 150, 151. amount of used by plants, 40. and farm operations, 156. control of, 53. form of, 48, 153. greatest factor in growth of crop, 46. importance of, 39, 151. loss of, 53, 155, 157, 164. loss of by evaporation, 54. loss of by weeds, 54, 165. loss of by surface wash, 53. necessity for, 151. not enough, 154. saving, 165. sources of, 40, 153. too much, 154.
Soil water influenced, by cropping, 159. by harrowing, 101, 103, 158. by humus, 42, 43, 44, 45, 220. by plowing, 91, 156. by ridging, 98, 158. by rolling, 106, 158.
Sorghum soils, 162.
Soy-bean, as a green manure crop, 189. growth of roots, 12.
Spade, 90.
Spading, 90.
Spading-fork, 90.
Spike-toothed harrows, 102, 104.
Spraying, 118.
Spring plowing, 98.
Spring-toothed harrows, 102, 103.
Squash flowers, 133.
Stable manure, 171, 173.
Stamen, 129. function of, 131.
Staminate flowers, 133.
Starch in plants, 64, 66. iodine test for, 64.
Stems, 8, 120. distinguished from roots, 120. habit of growth of, 121. structure of, 125. underground, 121. uses of, 120. work of checked, 126.
Stigma, 130.
Stomata, 110.
Stones, 26, 31.
Stony loam, 29.
Strawberry flowers, 134. perfect, 135. pistillate, 135.
Study of plants begun, 6.
Style, 130.
Sugar cane, 5. soil, 162.
Sugar in plants, 64, 66.
Sulphate of ammonia, 194.
Sulphate of potash, 199.
Sulphur in plants, 66.
Sun, work of in making soils, 32, 34.
Sunlight, and the farmer, 5. necessary for leaf work, 110, 111, 112.
Superphosphates, 198.
Swamp muck, 30.
Sweet clover, 190.
Sweet potato roots, 13. soils, 28, 160.
Sweet potatoes, 5.
Sylvinite, 199.
Systems of cropping, 119.
Tankage, 194. as fertilizer, 194. nitrogen in, 194. phosphoric acid in, 194.
Temperature of soil, 57.
Tendrils, plants climb by, 122.
Testing seeds, 75.
Testing soils for water, 162. for plant food, 215.
Texture of soils, 37, 143, 150.
Thinning fruit, 137.
Thistle, 6.
Thistle family, 86.
Thomas slag, 198. as fertilizer, 198. phosphoric acid in, 198.
Tillage and plant food, 67. and fertility, 150.
Time to begin this study, 3.
Time to plow, 98.
Tobacco soils, 27.
Tomato soils, 161.
Tools, 5. and the farmer, 5.
Transpiration, the fact, 110. amount of, 111.
Transplanting, 87. machines, 89.
Truck of plow, 95.
Truck soils, 27, 28, 29, 161.
Tubercles on roots of legumes, 68, 144.
Turnip, 6.
Type soils, 26.
Under drains, 237. advantage of, 237.
Underground stems, 121.
Value of knowledge of flowers, 134.
Vegetables, roots, 13, 14, 15. soil for, 28.
Ventilation of soils, 68, 142. necessary for germination, 73. necessary for root growth, 21, 22, 23. necessary for fixation of nitrogen, 144.
Water, absorption of by soil, 40, 43, 46, 142. amount used by plants, 40. capillary, 49, 153. evaporation of, 54, 155. free, 48, 153. film, 50. ground, 48. importance of to plants, 39. percolation of, 41. relation of soils to, 39. standing, 48. work of in making soils, 33, 35.
Water and the farmer, 5.
Water in plants, 65.
Watering house plants, 51.
Watermelon soils, 28, 161.
Weeders, 167.
Weeds, 54. how they injure crops, 54, 92. how to kill, 119. waste soil water, 54.
Wheat soils, 29, 30. water used by, 40.
Wheel hoes, 168.
White hellebore, 117.
Wind pollination, 132.
Work of roots, 9, 10, 15.
Work of sun in making soils, 32, 34. air in making soils, 36. animals in making soils, 37. moving ice in making soils, 35. moving water in making soils, 33, 35. plants in making soils, 36. rain in making soils, 33.
Wood ashes, 199.
Wool waste as fertilizer, 195.
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End of Project Gutenberg's The First Book of Farming, by Charles L. Goodrich