Part 2

_Age of a Horse._—The age of a horse may be discovered by certain marks in the front teeth of the under jaw until he is eight years old, about which period they are generally worn out. An experienced person can, however, judge of a horse’s age pretty nearly by the countenance and general appearance of the animal, as well as by the length of the teeth and form of the tushes. Between the second and third year a colt begins to change his sucking or colt’s teeth, as they are termed, for permanent teeth, which are larger, and of a different form and colour. The sucking teeth are small, and of a delicate white colour. When a colt is three years old, or between the second and third year, he changes his two front teeth, above and below; between the third and fourth year the two next are changed; and between the fourth and fifth year the two next, or corner teeth, are changed. About the end of the fourth year, or a little later, the tushes appear. Mares have seldom any tushes. At five years old the horse has a full mouth of permanent or horse teeth, and the corner teeth are those by which the age is ascertained after that period: they have a remarkable hollow or shell-like appearance when they first come up; but by the time the horse has completed his fifth year they have acquired some size, and look more like the other teeth. There is a cavity on their upper surface, at this period, of a dark or blackish colour. At six years old the cavity is much diminished, and at seven it is still less; at eight it has entirely disappeared, or if any mark remain, it resembles rather the eye of a bean. The tushes at five years old have two concavities withinside them, converging upwards, and terminating in the point of the tooth: at six, one of these concavities is lost; that is, the one next the grinder: at seven, the other is diminished, but not quite gone: at eight, it is generally gone, but not always: afterwards the tush gradually gets more round and blunt. These are the changes by which the horse’s age is usually determined; but they are subject to variations, and the only certain method of ascertaining the age, after six, is by a reference to the breeder. The length of the teeth is no criterion whatever; nor can the countenance be depended upon until the horse becomes very old and grey. The marks in the upper teeth have been thought to indicate the age: the marks in the two front teeth disappearing at eight, in the two next at ten, and in the corner teeth at twelve.

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The general signs of age, unconnected with the animal’s teeth, are easily distinguishable. The head grows lean and fine; the features look more striking; the hollows over the eyes deeper; the eyes themselves grow irritable, and twinkle; the cheeks become lank; the gums and soft palate pale and shrunk; the sub-maxillary space is capacious; and grey hairs make their appearance in various places, more particularly over the eyes and about the face. In regard to the body generally, it also makes a more striking display of its shapes, than in any former part of life; the neck grows thin and fine; the withers grow sharp, and give an appearance of increased length and obliquity to the shoulder; the back sinks; the quarters assume a more blood-like turn, and seem to lengthen; tumors of all kinds, spavins, splents, windgalls, &c. generally become in part or wholly absorbed; the legs feel sinewy and free from puff, though they may evince instability and weakness. Now-a-days it is not often that we meet with horses thus advanced in years; still more rarely with any that have grown decrepit from age.

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The horse, if properly treated, will live to a great age. The best time of his life is considered to be betwixt that of five and ten years, although there have been instances where he has proved highly serviceable until twenty years; and it is on record, that some horses have wrought till upwards of thirty years old. Mares are said to be aged at seven years old, and horses at eight.

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_The Age of Dogs._—These animals do not, like horses and cattle, present any exact criterion of their age; nevertheless, attention to the following appearances will assist us in determining the matter. At about four years, the front teeth lose their points, and each of them presents a flattened surface, which increases as the age advances; they likewise lose their whiteness. In dogs fed much on bones, and in those who “_fetch and carry_,” these teeth suffer very much, and are sometimes broken out while the dog is yet young. The holders, or tusks, are also blunted by the same causes. At seven or eight, the hair about the eyes becomes slightly grey. Gradually, likewise, a greyish tint extends over the face; but it is not till ten, eleven, or twelve years, that the eyes lose their lustre: when they become dim, general decay proceeds rapidly, though the life of some dogs is extended to fifteen, sixteen, or seventeen years; and I have seen a mother and son vigorous at twenty and twenty-one years old. Although such instances as the latter must be considered as rare, yet even these have been exceeded, if I might depend on my authority; for I once saw a small French dog, which I was assured had reached his twenty-fourth year, and which, at the time I saw him, was still vigorous and lively. I am not aware that much difference exists between the various breeds, as to the age they arrive at: spaniels, however, I have observed, are usually long lived; while terriers, on the contrary, I have seldom observed very old. The usual life of the dog may be considered as ranging between twelve and fifteen years: domestication has tended, in some degree, to curtail the period, but not so much as might have been expected, considering the powerful operation of artificial habits.—_White_—_Percival_—_Brown_—_Blaine._

AGED, _a._ Old, stricken in years. When horses pass that period of life when their age is not discoverable by the teeth marks, they are commonly termed _aged_.

AGISTOR, _s._ Anciently an officer who attended upon the king’s woods and forest lands, to receive and take in cattle, &c. by agistment; that is to depasture within the forest, or to feed upon the pannage, &c. This officer was constituted by letters patent.

AIM, _v._ To endeavour to strike with a missile weapon.

AIM, _s._ The direction of a missile weapon; the point to which the thing thrown is directed.

AIR, _v._ To expose to the air; to take the air; to warm by the fire.

AIR-BLADDER, _s._ A bladder filled with air, and used in lake fishing to buoy the ends of night lines and mesh nets.

AIR-CELLS OF BIRDS.

The lungs of birds have several openings, communicating with corresponding air-bags or cells, which fill the whole cavity of the body from the neck downwards, and into which the air passes and re-passes in the process of breathing. This is not all: the very bones of birds are hollowed out with the design of receiving air from the lungs, from which air-pipes are conveyed to the most solid parts of the body, and even into the quills and plumelets of the feathers, which are hollow or spongy for its reception. As all these hollow parts, as well as the cells, are only open on the side communicating with the lungs, the bird requires only to take in a full breath to fill and distend its whole body with air, which, in consequence of the considerable heat of its body, is rendered much lighter than the air of the atmosphere. By forcing this air out of the body again, the weight becomes so much increased, that birds of large size can dart down from great heights in the air with astonishing velocity. The structure of insects is not a little analogous.—_Ins. Trans._

AIR-GUN, _s._ A species of gun charged with air instead of powder.

The _air-gun_, although long known, has never been much used, as its slight report is the only advantage it can possess over fire-arms, while its danger and inefficiency are admitted. Fatal accidents have occurred in charging it, and every attempt to remedy the danger has been unsuccessful. In the old principle, the globe or ball which forms the receiver has frequently blown up while the air was being pumped in, and loss of life or severe injury resulted. Latterly, the attention of several experimentalists has been directed to its improvement. One of them, Mr. Laing, of the Haymarket, imagined he had overcome the great objection; and by a very ingenious alteration, in which the globe was done away with, and the air-receiver transferred to the stock of the gun, he hoped thus to have removed the danger. But in this he was sadly disappointed. While trying the improved air-gun, the receiver burst, injured him severely, and induced him to abandon any farther experiments with this dangerous instrument.

Indeed, the manifest inferiority of the air-gun to the rifle, would, independently of its danger, prevent it from coming into general use. As an instrument, it is extremely troublesome to shoot with, and liable to constant derangement. Its power is very weak, and in accuracy of aim the rifle is far superior. Even the advantage of slight report in the discharge is now comparatively done away with, in consequence of the recent introduction of the small-bore rifles for rook and rabbit shooting; which, from the trifling quantity of powder used in charging, are scarcely louder than the air-gun.

Purday, whose reputation as a rifle maker is deservedly high, has brought them to great perfection; and some beautiful guns of this description may be seen at his manufactory, which, though so small in the gage as to require bullets eighty to the pound, are perfect alike in execution and workmanship.

With respect to the _Air-cane_, though a more recent invention, it is only necessary to say, that it has all the disadvantages of the air-gun, with much weaker power, and a greater liability to get out of order. It is a mere toy, and, certainly, a very dangerous one.

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Formerly, poachers were in the habit of using air-guns to destroy pheasants in the preserves. The instrument made no noise, and the operator preferred the boisterous, rainy night, when the moon was nearly at the full; the wet did not in the least affect the discharge of this implement, and the keepers knew a common gun could not be effectually employed in such tempestuous weather; besides, the report caused immediate alarm, and frequent detection. Vast numbers of pheasants were carried off, before this practice was discovered.

The late Mr. Tyssen was partial to an air-gun for shooting rooks, rabbits, &c., and was using one at Donyland Park, in Essex, when the screw of the valve gave way, as the servant was pumping the air into it; the copper ball fortunately took such a direction, that no one was hurt; but, in passing through the trees, it cut off some considerable branches. This accident staggered his confidence in the security of their principle, and from the best informed persons he consulted upon the subject, he was convinced there was no certainty of their being safe, and he wisely relinquished the air-gun, with all its asserted superlative properties.—_Daniel._

AIRY, _a._ Composed of air; relating to the air; high in air; light as air; gay, sprightly, full of mirth, lively.

ALCOHOL, _s._ A highly rectified spirit of wine.

ALKALI, _s._ Any substance which combines with an acid, and produces a salt.

_Alkalies_ form one of the classes of saline bodies, and are of three kinds: the _vegetable alkali_—kali, or potash,—the _mineral alkali_—soda, or natron,—and the _volatile alkali_, or ammonia. _Alkalies_ are distinguished by their changing blue vegetable colours to a green, and yellow to orange; by combining rapidly with acids, and forming with them neutral salts—and by rendering oils miscible with water. _Vegetable_ and _mineral alkalies_, not being evaporable, except in a high degree of heat, are termed _fixed_: and _ammonia_, being evaporable in a low temperature, obtains the name of _volatile alkali_.—_White._

ALKALINE, _a._ That which has the qualities of alkali.

ALLSPICE, _s._ Jamaica pepper, a powerful cordial and carminative; the dose from two to three or four drachms. Mr. Bracey Clarke, in a book he has published on flatulent or spasmodic colic, or gripes, strongly recommends a tincture of allspice in proof spirit, as an effectual remedy for that disorder. The dose about 4 to 6 oz. in water.

ALLURE, _v._ To entice to any thing.

ALOES, _s._ A precious wood used in the east for perfumes, of which the best sort is of higher price than gold; a tree which grows in hot countries; a medicinal juice extracted from the common aloes tree.

Aloes is the inspissated juice of a plant of the same name, and is an effectual purgative for horses. It is intensely bitter, and strong and unpleasant to the smell.

Socotrine aloes is grown in the island Socotra, and is safer in its operation than the other kinds. It is of a dark reddish or brown colour, opaque, and less disagreeable to smell than the others. It formerly sold at a high price, and was therefore liable to adulteration. Barbadoes aloes is a coarser medicine, liable to produce griping, and other unpleasant effects; but it is a safe and efficacious purgative. It is darker coloured, less brittle, and of a stronger and more disagreeable smell—more active than the Socotrine; and considered more certain in its operation. Every kind of aloes is liable to produce bad consequences if given too largely, or if the horse be treated improperly while under its effect. There is a peculiarity in the horse’s intestines which renders them more liable to be injured by purgatives than those of other domestic animals, and therefore cathartic medicines should be prepared by persons of judgment and experience.

Cape aloes is rather transparent, very brittle, easily powdered, in this state of a bright yellow colour; the odour arising from it is not so strong as the Barbadoes, but stronger and less agreeable than the Socotrine. This kind is sold at a much lower price than the others, but is so weak and uncertain in its effect, that it is seldom employed in veterinary medicine. The dose of Socotrine aloes is from five to nine, Barbadoes from four to six, and Cape from six to ten drachms.

Aloes operates more speedily when united with soap, or any of the fixed alkalies. In old books cream of tartar is prescribed with aloes, under the supposition that it prevented griping, but soap is preferable.

Aloes is sometimes given as an alterative in doses of one or two drachms. It is also an ingredient in Friar’s balsam, and compound tincture of myrrh; preparations much used by farriers.—_White._

ALPINE SPANIEL (_Canis Alpinus_), _s._

The spaniel of St. Bernard exceeds all others of the same tribe in size and beauty. He generally reaches two feet in height at the shoulders, and is upwards of five feet from the nose to the tip of the tail. His coat is much more curled than that of either the springer or the cocker, and his hair is very closely set, with short woolly fur at the roots; his feet like those of all the dogs of cold climates, are protected from the possibility of being cut by the frost, by being covered with a thick fur, which, besides, enables him to climb those almost inaccessible ridges of ice which are so numerous on the Great St. Bernard. There is a peculiarity about the corners of the eyes of this dog which is attributed to the snow, and the high Alpine regions which he inhabits.

In point of intelligence, the Alpine spaniel may be reckoned at least equal to any of the species; and he has the greatest aptitude for learning anything to which he may be trained. He is peculiarly adapted to those stormy regions, the Swiss Alps; and Providence, in the wisdom of its arrangements, seems to have placed him where he was to be most serviceable to mankind.

These dogs are kept by the monks of the monasteries of the Swiss Alps for the express purpose of searching, during heavy snow storms, for travellers who may have fallen into cavities or pits, in which situation, without timely assistance, they would soon be starved or frozen to death. The practice is to send them out in pairs, and being perfectly conversant with the nature of their employment, they traverse a great extent of the adjoining country. By marks in the snow, but principally from the scent formed from the breath of persons so situated exhaling through the drift, they discover the pit that contains the buried traveller; in which case they instantly return and give the alarm, when assistance being procured, these sagacious animals lead the benevolent monks to the relief of the unfortunate individual.

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The following anecdote appears to be well authenticated:—In crossing the mountain St. Gothard, near Airola, the Chevalier Gaspard de Brandenberg and his servant were buried by an avalanche; his dog, who escaped the heap of snow, did not quit the place where he had lost his master: this was fortunately not far from the convent; the animal howled, ran to the convent frequently, and then returned; struck by his perseverance, the next morning the people from the house followed him; he led them directly to the spot, scratched the snow, and after thirty-six hours passed beneath it, the Chevalier and his domestic were taken out safe, hearing distinctly, during their confinement, the howling of the dog, and the discourse of their deliverers. Sensible that to the sagacity and fondness of this creature he owed his life, the gentleman ordered by his will, that he should be represented on his tomb with his dog; and at Zug, in the church of St. Oswald, where he was buried in 1728, they still show the monument, and the effigy of the gentleman, with the dog lying at his feet.—_Brown_—_Daniel._

ALTERATIVES, _s._ Gentle medicines which act gradually upon the constitution.

Those commonly employed are nitre, antimony, sulphur, resin, and Æthiop’s mineral, exhibited in combination. _Laxative Alteratives_ are substituted for purgatives: _diuretic_ are recommended for reducing or preventing swellings of the leg; and _diaphoretic_ to increase insensible perspiration, and assist the coating of the horse.

ALUM, _s._ A saline body, composed of sulphuric acid, alumine, and potash.

It is used internally as an astringent, in diarrhœa, diabetes, &c., and externally as a remedy for grease. When burnt it is efficacious in cleansing ulcers, and for this purpose usually combined with red precipitate.

Alum is produced by placing a quantity of crude alum in an iron ladle, and keeping it over a slow fire until the watery particles are evaporated, and the mass becomes a light and pulverisable substance.

ALUMINOUS, _a._ Relating to alum, or consisting of alum.

AMAUROSIS, _s._ A dimness of sight, not from any visible defect in the eye, but from some distemperature in the inner parts, occasioning the representations of flies and dust floating before the eyes.

In horses, this disease is caused by a pressure of blood upon the nerve of the eye; and in the earlier stages may be relieved by bleeding, but when of long standing it is incurable.

AMBLE, _v._ To move upon an amble, to pace; to move easily; to walk daintily.

AMBLE, _s._ An easy pace.

AMBLER, _s._ A pacer.

AMBURY, _s._ A bloody wart on a horse’s body.

The removal of amburies, or warts, is commonly effected by a tight ligature of silk; but, in every case, no matter where the wart may be, the use of the knife is preferable. Some farriers touch them with arsenic, mixed with a little soft soap; but this is a dangerous method, and often produces a serious degree of inflammation and sloughing.

Farriers generally endeavour to get rid of wens by blistering, but this never answers; and sometimes they use arsenic and soap; but this is not only very dangerous, but generally ineffectual also. The knife is the safest, most expeditious, and most effectual remedy for wens, and every kind of encysted tumour. When a considerable artery is opened in cutting out a wen, the bleeding may be stopped by tying it, by means of a tenaculum or a crooked needle, or the bleeding vessel may be laid hold of by a pair of forceps and tied.

AMERICAN GAME, _s._

The woodcocks are, in all respects, like those in England, except that they are only about three-fifths of the size. They breed here, and are in such numbers, that some men kill twenty brace or more in a day. Their haunts are in marshy places or woods. The shooting of them lasts from the 4th of July, till the hardish frosts come. Here are five months of this sort, and pheasants and partridges are shot from September to April.

The snipes are called English snipes, which they resemble in all respects, and are found in great abundance in the usual haunts of snipes.

The grouse is precisely like the Scotch grouse. There is only here and there a place where they are found; but they are, in those places, killed in vast quantities, in the fall of the year.

As to the wild ducks and other water-fowl, which are come at by lying in wait, and killed most frequently swimming or sitting, they are slaughtered in whole flocks. An American counts the cost of powder and shot. If he is deliberate in everything else, this habit will hardly forsake him in the act of shooting. When the sentimental flesh-eaters hear the report of his gun, they may begin to pull out their white handkerchiefs, for death follows the pull of his trigger, with perhaps even more certainty than it used to follow the lancet of Dr. Rush.

The plover is a fine bird, and is found in great numbers upon the plains and in the cultivated fields of the islands. Plovers are very shy and wary, but they have ingenious enemies to deal with. A waggon or carriage of some sort is made use of to approach them, and then they are easily killed.

Rabbits are very abundant in some places. They are killed by shooting, for all here is done with gun—no reliance is placed upon a dog.—_Cobbett._

AMES-ACE, _s._ Two aces thrown at the same time on two dice.

AMMONIA, _s._ A volatile alkali, produced from bones or sal ammoniac, and other mineral substances. _Carbonate of ammonia_, a stimulant and cordial. _Drop ammoniac_, as an expectorant, is given successfully in doses of two, three, and four drachms.

AMPHIBIOUS, _a._ That which can live in two elements.

ANAS, _s._ The generic name of the duck tribe.

The Duck, a genus thus characterised. Bill middle size, strong, straight, more or less depressed, covered with a thin skin, often more raised than broad at the base, which is either furnished with a fleshy substance or quite smooth, always depressed towards the point, which is rounded, blunt, and clawed, margins of the two mandibles toothed with plates, of either a flat or a conical form. Nostrils almost at the surface of the bill, at some distance from the base, somewhat oval, half closed by the flat membrane which lines the nostril. Legs short, feathered to the knees, drawn back towards the belly; three toes before, wholly webbed; hind toe free, articulated higher up on the flank, without a membrane, or having only the rudiments thereof. Wings of middle size; the first quill either as long as the second or rather shorter.

Temminck divides the genus into four sections. 1. The Goose; 2. The Swan; 3. The Duck. A. Ducks having the hind claw naked. B. Ducks having the hind claw covered with a loose membrane.

This genus, in which ornithologists have included all the Swans, Geese, and Ducks, amounts, according to the latest enumeration, to ninety-eight species, and about fourteen varieties; thirty-three of the former, and one of the latter, are accounted British birds.