CHAPTER VIII

THE FISH OF THE DEEP SEA

Of all the groups of animals that constitute the deep-sea fauna, the fish show the greatest number of peculiarly abysmal characters. Being much more highly differentiated than the invertebrates, they possess more organs liable to undergo modifications of colour, size, and structure, and consequently we are able to point to a great many more features characteristic of deep-sea fish than we can do in any other group of animals.

The first point that calls for remark in the consideration of the fish fauna of the deep sea is the almost entire absence of ancient and primitive types. The Elasmobranchii, including the Sharks, Rays, and Chimæra, constituting the order that from anatomical embryological grounds is always regarded by naturalists as the most primitive order of this class, is represented in very deep water by only one species. _Raia hyperborea_ and _Chimæra monstrosa_, it is true, just enter into the abysmal zone, but _Chimæra affinis_ is the only Elasmobranch that extends to depths of over 1,000 fathoms.

The Ganoidei too, the order that in palæozoic and mesozoic times was so rich in genera and species, is entirely absent from the abysmal zone, not a single representative having been found at any time by any of the deep-sea expeditions.

The Dipnoi, that remarkable order including the three fresh-water genera, _Ceratodus_ from Australia, _Lepidosiren_ from Brazil, and _Protopterus_ from West Africa, has no representative and no ally in the deep waters of the ocean.

The fishes of the deep sea, in fact, with only one or two exceptions, all belong to the Order Teleostei, the most modern and most highly differentiated order of the class, the families that are most fully represented being the Macruridæ and then the Ophidiidæ and Gadidæ, and the Berycidæ.

At the limits of the katantic and abysmal zones, a large number of families of Teleosteans entirely disappear, and as we approach the deepest parts of the ocean, the number of fish that are found is considerably reduced. As Dr. Günther very wisely remarks, ‘this diminution in the number may be due to the difficulty of capturing fishes at great depths, a difficulty which increases in proportion to the depths at which the dredge is worked. But it must also be regarded as evidence of the actually diminished variety of fishes.’

It may be interesting to the reader to give Dr. Günther’s table of the number of species found at different depths, as it shows, among other things, the marked change that occurs in the character of the fauna in passing from the katantic to the abysmal zone.

Between 100–300 fathoms, 232 species Between 300–500 fathoms, 142 species Between 500–700 fathoms, 76 species Between 700–1,500 fathoms, 56 species Between 1,500–2,000 fathoms, 24 species Between 2,000–2,900 fathoms, 23 species

As regards the general character presented by the deep-sea fishes, I have already pointed out in the chapter dealing with the general characters of the deep-sea fauna, the peculiarities in the size of the eyes, the colours and markings of the body, and the texture of the bones and muscles. There are, however, a few more characters of which mention must be made.

Notwithstanding the fact that all the abysmal fishes are carnivorous and must consequently be capable—in the great number of cases—of rapid and vigorous movement, the muscles of the trunk and tail are usually thin, and the fascicles loosely connected with one another.

Deep-sea fish are not characterised by an absence of the swimming bladder. This organ occurs just as frequently and in the same families as in the shallow-water fauna, but we do not know whether it possesses any special peculiarities or not, as it is usually so ruptured and destroyed by the change of pressure it undergoes in being brought to the surface, that it is impossible to make any thoroughly accurate investigation of its anatomy and relations.

The extraordinary development of glands in the skin which secrete mucus, and the presence in many forms of very highly specialised organs for emitting phosphorescent light, are characters of the deep-sea fish fauna, to which I have referred in a previous chapter.

As with the Tunicates, some of the Crustacea and other groups, the fish of the abysmal zone show curious modifications of the respiratory system. The gill laminæ of these animals are not only reduced in number, but appear to be short and shrunken. It is possible, of course, that during life they may end in fine delicate points which are broken off or ruptured during their capture, but still the horny rods that support them are shorter than they are in shallow-water forms, and the general evidence of their structure tends to show that they have undergone profound modifications in the change to the conditions of deep-sea life.

An extremely common and almost general character of deep-sea fishes is the black coloration of some of the body cavities; this is limited to the pharynx in many of the fishes that live about the hundred fathoms limit, but the colour is more intense and spread all over the oral, branchial, and peritoneal cavities in typical deep-sea forms. It may seem very difficult at first to account for this remarkable development of black pigment in parts of the body that are not usually, and, in some cases, cannot at any time be exposed to view. It is obvious that it cannot be functional as a hiding colour, either in offence or defence. But it is quite possible that it is due to some modification of the function of excretion. It is well known that in many cases of disease or injury to the kidneys in vertebrates, the colour of the skin is affected, and every one recognises now the fact that in many invertebrates the colour of the skin is greatly dependent upon the function of the secretion of the urates.

It would at least be interesting to know if this dark coloration of the mucous membranes is in any way correlated with any modification of the structure or function of the kidneys. At present we have no recorded observations on this point, but it is to be hoped that, when we have a sufficient number of specimens brought home from the deep water, a systematic investigation of this subject will be made.

Lastly, it should be pointed out that our knowledge of the abysmal fauna has not, at present, brought to light any evidence that the fish are of an extraordinarily large size. In many groups of animals, as I have frequently pointed out in the last few chapters, the large and gigantic species or specimens are only found in the abyss. This may also be the case with fishes, but we have no evidence that it is so. The only methods that have been used at present for the investigation of the fauna living on or near the floor of the deep oceans, are not of a kind to lead to the capture of really large fish. That they may exist is highly probable, but all that we know at present is, that the fish with which we are acquainted living at great depths are not in any way remarkable for their great size.

Of the only two Elasmobranchs, one, namely _Raia hyperborea_, has been found in water extending from 400 to 608 fathoms in depth. Only four specimens have yet been taken, one by the Norwegian expedition off Spitzbergen and three by the ‘Knight Errant’ off the northern coasts of Scotland. It is interesting to find that this, the only deep-sea species of the Rays, shows some striking peculiarities. ‘The teeth are remarkably slender,’ says Günther, ‘small, irregularly and widely set, different from those of other British Rays. In young specimens at any rate those of the male do not differ from those of the female. The mucous membrane behind the upper jaw forms a pad with a lobulated surface. The mucous cavities of the head are extremely wide, and finally the accessory copulatory organs have a spongy appearance, and are flexible, the cartilage by which they are supported being a simple slender rod.’

The other Elasmobranch, that extends into very deep water, is _Chimæra affinis_, a species which can hardly be distinguished from the better known _Chimæra monstrosa_, a fish that itself very frequently wanders within the limits of the abysmal zone.

Among the Teleostei, the family Berycidæ has several representatives in the deep water. They are small fish rarely exceeding four inches in length, with large heavy heads, with functional but small eyes, and an abundant supply of large mucous glands on the skin.

_Melamphaes beanii_, belonging to this family, has been captured at the enormous depth of 2,949 fathoms.

_Bathydraco antarcticus_, belonging to the family Trachinidæ, from a depth of 1,260 fathoms, is an example of a true abysmal fish possessing very large eyes.

The Pediculati, the family of the anglers, is represented at depths of over 2,000 fathoms by the interesting form _Melanocetus Murrayi_. The eyes are very small indeed, the mouth huge and armed with long uneven rasp-like teeth. At the end of the fishing-rod tentacle hanging over the mouth, there is an organ that has been supposed to be capable of emitting a phosphorescent light. This curious modification of the red worm-like bait of the common shallow-water angler into a will-o-the-wisp lantern attracting little fishes to their destruction in the deadly jaws of the _Melanocetus_ is one of the most interesting adaptations that have been brought to light by our study of the deep-sea fauna.

Several species of the family Lycodidæ occur in the abysmal zone, but they do not possess any features that call for special mention in this place.

The family Ophidiidæ contributes very largely to the fish fauna of the abyss. Some of the deep-water genera, such as _Neobythites_, have a wide bathymetrical distribution extending from 100 fathoms to depths of over 2,000 fathoms, but others, such as _Bathyonus_, _Typhonus_, and _Aphyonus_, only occur in depths of over 1,000 fathoms.

The body is usually elongate and slender, ending in a pointed tail, the head large and heavy, and the eyes, in the genera confined to the abysmal zone, usually so far degenerated that they are not visible at all from the outside.

The Macruridæ form a family that contributes very largely to the deep-sea fauna; no fewer than twenty-six different species are known to occur within the limits of the abysmal zone. Not only do the Macruridæ contribute a large number of different species, but they probably occur, in some districts at any rate, in vast numbers.

During the voyage of the ‘Talisman,’ for example, the French naturalists caught in one haul of the dredge off the coast of Morocco in 500 fathoms of water no fewer than 134 fish, of which number 95 belonged to the family Macruridæ.

They are usually small fish, measuring from a few inches to two feet in length, with a body terminating in a long compressed tapering tail and covered with spiny, keeled, or striated scales.

The Pleuronectidæ or flat fish are not, as a rule, found in the abysmal zone; one species, however, _Pleuronectes cynoglossus_, was found by the American ship ‘Blake’ to extend into 732 fathoms of water.

The families Sternoptychidæ and Scopelidæ are of particular interest to us, as almost all the genera they contain belong either to the pelagic or abysmal zones, and lend support to the view enunciated by Moseley, that the deep-sea fauna has, partly at any rate, been derived from the fauna of the pelagic zone. They are nearly all small slender fish with delicate and frequently semi-transparent bodies, large gaping mouths armed with numerous long irregular teeth, and frequently provided upon the head and sides of the trunk with rows of eye-like phosphorescent organs.

These families, and others that have still to be referred to, belong to the group of Teleostei that is called Physostomi, the name referring to the open communication that usually exists in all these families between the swimming bladder and the alimentary canal. It is a remarkable fact that in none of the deep-sea representatives has this open communication been discovered. It is true that many specimens are, when examined, so lacerated by the diminution in pressure as to render anatomical study a matter of difficulty, but still a fair number of uninjured well-preserved specimens have now been examined and the duct has not been found.

Of the family Sternoptychidæ, _Gonostoma microdon_ has a most remarkable distribution. It has been found at numerous stations in both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans at depths ranging from 500 to nearly 3,000 fathoms of water.

The Scopelidæ are represented by some very extraordinary types. The genus _Bathypterois_, for example, occurring in depths ranging from 500 to 2,500 fathoms, is characterised by the development of enormously long pectoral fins to serve probably as organs of touch. ‘The rays of the pectoral fin,’ says Dr. Günther, ‘are much elongated. The ventral fins abdominal, with the outer rays prolonged, eight-rayed.... Gill rakers long.’ They are further characterised by the absence of any true phosphorescent organs and the smallness of their eyes.

There can be little doubt, I think, that in these fishes the sense of touch or taste to a great extent takes the place of the sense of sight in other Scopelids. Not being provided with well-developed eyes or phosphorescent organs to attract their prey, the pectoral fins and the outer rays of the pelvic fins have become elongated and provided with special sense organs for searching for their food in the fine mud of the floor of the ocean.

These long pectoral rays must have a very curious appearance in the living fish. Mr. Murray observes: ‘When taken from the trawl they were always dead, and the long pectoral rays were erected like an arch over the head, requiring considerable pressure to make them lie along the side of the body; when erected they resembled the Pennatulids like Umbellula.’ Filhol considers that when the fish is progressing through the obscurity of the abyss it probably carries these organs directed forward, seeking with them in the mud for any worms or other animals upon which it preys, or receiving through them warning of the approach of an enemy from whom it is necessary to make an immediate escape. One of the most remarkable of the deep-sea fish is closely related to Bathypterois, namely _Ipnops Murrayi_, living in depths of over 1,000 fathoms. It is about five inches long, of a yellowish brown colour, with an elongated subcylindrical body covered with large thin deciduous scales. There are no phosphorescent organs of the ordinary type met with in the Scopelidæ, but upon the upper surface of the head there is found a pair of organs somewhat resembling the ordinary eyes of fishes but devoid of retina and optic nerve, that, from the researches of Moseley, seem to be undoubtedly organs for emitting light. ‘The organs are paired expanses, completely symmetrical in outline, placed on either side of the median line of the upper flattened surface of the head of the fish, extending from a line a little posterior to the nasal capsules nearly to a point above the posterior extremity of the cranial cavity.’ They are covered by the upper walls of the skull, which is extremely thin and completely transparent in the region lying over them. ‘They are membranous structures 0·4 mm. in thickness marked by hexagonal areas about 0·04 mm. in diameter. When their surface is viewed by reflected light the appearance is that of a number of glistening white isolated short columns standing up in relief from its basal membrane.’ Each hexagonal column is composed of a number of transparent rods disposed side by side at right angles to the outer surface of the organ, with their bases applied against the concave surface of a large hexagonal pigment cell, one of which forms the basis of each hexagonal column. It is still very doubtful what are the true homologies of this extraordinary phosphorescent organ, but Moseley was of opinion that, ‘on the whole, it seems not unlikely that the remarkable head organs of Ipnops may be regarded as highly specialised and enormously enlarged representatives of the phosphorescent organs on the heads of such allied Scopelidæ as _Scopelus rafinesquii_ and _Scopelus metopoclampus_. It may be conceived that in _Ipnops_ the supra-nasal and sub-ocular phosphorescent organs of these species on either side have united and become one with the result of the total obliteration of the eye.’

Most of the species of the genus _Scopelus_ are undoubtedly pelagic in habit, descending during the day to depths of semi-darkness but rising at night to the surface waters. It is not certain how many of the known species occasionally or habitually dwell in very deep water, but there seems to be no doubt that two species at least—_S. macrolepidotus_ and _S. glacialis_—belong to the abysmal zone. Both of these species were found in dredges that had been at work in depths of over 1,000 fathoms and showed signs when examined of having been brought from the abyss.

The Stomiatidæ are almost entirely confined to water from 450 to nearly 2,000 fathoms in depth. They may be distinguished from the Scopelidæ by the long hyoid barbel close to the symphysis of the lower jaw, but like many of the genera of that family they have wide gaping mouths armed with a profusion of vicious looking teeth and a series of luminous spots on the sides of the head and body. (_See_ Frontispiece.)

In _Eustomias obscurus_, found in depths of over 1,000 fathoms in the Atlantic by the ‘Talisman,’ the barbel is provided with a terminal swelling, shaped like a dumb-bell, which may be capable of emitting a phosphorescent light and serve the animal as a lure for the attraction of its prey. The genus _Malacosteus_, too, presents us with some of the most remarkable forms that are found in the abysmal zone. The mouth is of enormous size and the integuments of the abdomen present very definite longitudinal folds, leaving no doubt that this fish is able, like several others living in deep water, to swallow prey of an enormous size.

But a perfectly unique structure in this fish ‘is a thin cylindrical muscular band which connects the back part of the mandibular symphysis with the hyoid bone. It is probably the homologue of a muscular band which, in other Stomiatids, stretches on each side from the mandible to the side of the hyoid, the two bands coalescing into an unpaired one in _Malacosteus_. It is, in the present state of preservation, much elongated, like a barbel, but during life it is notably contractile, and serves to give to the extremity of the mandible the requisite power of resistance when the fish has seized its prey, as without such a contrivance so long and slender a bone would yield to the force of its struggling victim.’

Belonging to the family of the Salmons we find one genus _Bathylagus_ that is undoubtedly an abysmal form. Although there may be some doubt as to the exact depth at which the specimens were captured, the thinness of the bones, the enormous size of the eyes, and other bathybial characters prove that they must live in very deep water. Closely allied to the salmon and the herrings is the family of the Alepocephalidæ, a family that contributes several forms to the fauna of the deep sea, but they do not possess any characters that call for special comment. Their vertical distribution varies between 345 and 2,150 fathoms.

The family Halosauridæ contains five species all confined to the abysmal zone. They have long bodies tapering to a finely pointed tail, and the head is provided with a snout that projects considerably in front of the mouth.

Of the family of the Eels there are several representatives in the deep sea. They are characterised by a combination of true eel characters with special modifications due to a bathybial existence. ‘To enable them to seize upon prey more powerful than themselves certain organs have undergone a degree of specialisation, as is observed in bathybial members of other families with a similar mode of life; the jaws are exceedingly elongate and the whole gape, the pharynx and stomach capable of enormous distension.’ The head is very large, the eye very small and the tail long and tapering (fig. 22).

The lessons we learn from the study of the fishes of the deep sea are particularly instructive. It would take far more space than can be afforded here to fully illustrate all of the points that seem clear to us, but I hope I have said sufficient to show that the fish fauna is made up of genera and species belonging to several widely separate families of the Teleostei; that some of them show, in a very marked way, what may be looked upon as peculiarly bathybial characters, whilst others are but slightly modified from their shallow-water representatives. These facts by themselves lend support to the view that the fauna of the deep sea has been derived from the fauna of shallower water by successive migrations at different periods of the world’s history. Those that exhibit in a most marked degree the special bathybial characters are probably those whose immigration took place long ago, whilst those more closely related to shallow-water forms are, comparatively speaking, recent importations. The occurrence of Scopelidæ and Sternoptychidæ in deep water suggests, as Moseley pointed out many years ago, that the fauna is partly derived from the pelagic plankton. But while these points may seem clear to us, there are others that still require much more investigation and consideration. The whole question of the function and use of the phosphorescent organs, the mucous glands, the barbels and elongated fin rays, the mode of life, the deposition of ova and their development, afford problems which in the present state of our knowledge must remain unsolved. Let us hope that in the future there may be a new stimulus given to deep-sea research, and these problems may be again seriously studied and eventually solved.

INDEX

Actiniaria, 36, 93

—— two remarkable genera of, 15

_Aegir_, 15

Agassiz, A.,

—— on colour of Cœlentera, 65

—— on Echinoidea, 101, 103

Agassiz, L., on board the ‘Hassler,’ 12

‘Albatross,’ American vessel, 15

Alcyonaria, 95

—— phosphorescence of, 81

Amphipoda, 124

Anemones

—— of deep water, 36, 92

—— two remarkable genera of, 15

Annelida, 117

Ascidia compositæ, 146

—— salpiformes, 147

—— simplices, 142

Asteroidea, 104

Barriers of temperature, 32

_Bathynomus_, 129

Beddard, F. E., on Isopoda, 127

Benthos, 53

Berycidæ, 154

‘Blake,’ American vessel, 12

Blue mud, 42

Brachiopoda, 115

Brachyura, 138

_Brisinga_, 9, 105

Buchanan’s experiment, 19

Carpenter, P. H., on Crinoidea, 100

_Cephalodiscus_, 113

Cephalopoda, 120

‘Challenger,’ H.M.S., voyage of, 12

Cirripedia, 130

Cœlentera,

—— colour of, 65

—— of deep sea, 91

Colour

—— of the deep-sea fauna, 59, 66

—— of the deep-sea fish, 60

Copepoda, 124

Corals, 94

Crinoidea, 99

Crustacea, 123

—— colour of, 63

Darkness of the abyss, 22

Diatom ooze, 39

Dipnoi, 149

Echinoderma, 99

—— colour of, 64

Echinoidea, 101

Eels, 165

Elasipoda, 106

Elasmobranchii, 148, 153

Eryonidæ, 135

Eyes of abysmal animals, 67

—— of deep-sea crustacea, 72 —— of deep-sea fish, 69

—— of deep-sea mollusca, 71

—— of _Genityllis_, 118

—— of _Neobythites_, 69

—— of _Serolis_, 73

_Fenja_, 15

‘Fish Hawk,’ American vessel, 12

Fol and Sarasin’s experiments, 25

Foraminifera, 90

Forbes, on the probable existence of a deep-sea fauna, 2

—— on zones of distribution, 49

Ganoidei, 149

Gasteropoda, 119

Gephyrea, 116

Gills of deep-sea fish, 151

Globerigina ooze, discovery of, 5

—— distribution and composition of, 37

Green mud, 42

Gunn, Dr., on the eyes of _Genityllis_, 118

Günther, Dr., on deep-sea fish, 150

Hall, Marshall, 12

Halosauridæ, 164

‘Hassler,’ American ship, 12

Herdman, on Ascidians, 143, 146

Hermit crabs, 139

Hoek, Dr., on Cirripedia, 132

—— on Pycnogonida, 140

Holothuridea, 106

Hoyle, on Cephalopoda, 120

Hydroids, 92

‘Investigator,’ H.M.S., 16

_Ipnops Murrayi_, colour of, 60, 61

_Ipnops Murrayi_, phosphorescent organs of, 160

Isopoda, 127

Katantic sub-zone, 50

‘Knight Errant,’ H.M.S., 12

Lamellibranchia, 119

‘Lightning,’ H.M.S., 8, 9

Lime, scarcity of, in bones of bathybial fish, 83

—— in shells of mollusca, 83

Littoral sub-zone, 49

Lycodidæ, 155

Macrura, 135

Macruridæ, 156

Madreporaria, 94

Medusæ, 91

Mollusca, 119

—— colour of, 62

Moore, Capt., 94

Moseley, H. N., on colour of Cœlentera, 65

—— on phosphorescent organs of _Ipnops_, 160

—— on the darkness of the abyss, 22

—— on the phosphorescence of Alcyonarians, 25

Murray, on _Bathypterois_, 159

Nekton, 53

Neritic zone, 48

‘Norma,’ Mr. Hall’s yacht, 12

Norske Nord-havns expedition, 7, 15

Ophidiidæ, 156

Ostracoda, 123

Packard, on the illumination of the abyss, 23

Pediculati, 155

Pelagic zone, 47

Pennatulidæ, 96

_Phoronis_, 111

Phosphorescence of Alcyonarians, 81 — of deep-sea Crustacea, 80 — of Echinoderma, 81

Phosphorescent light in the abyss, 24 — organs of deep-sea fish, 77

Pigment in mucous membranes of deep-sea fish, 84, 152

Plankton, 52

Pleuronectidæ, 157

Polar currents, 30, 33

Polychæta, 118

‘Porcupine,’ H.M.S., 8, 9

Porifera, 91

Pourtales, Count, 10

Pressure in the abyss, 19

Protozoa, 88

Pteropod ooze, 39

Pycnogonida, 139

Radiolaria, 89

Radiolarian ooze, 39

Red mud, 37 — — off the Brazilian coasts, 42

_Rhabdopleura_, 111

Ross, Sir James, on the fauna of the deep sea, 3

Salmonidæ, 163

Sargasso sub-zone, 48

Sars, 6, 9, — on Amphipoda, 125 — on _Brisinga_, 105

Schizopoda, 133

Scopelidæ, 158

_Serolis_, 127

Siphonophora, 92

Size of deep-sea animals, 85 — of fish, 153

Smith, Mr., on Lamellibranchia, 119

Spatangoids, 101

Sponges, 91

Stebbing, Rev. T. R., on Amphipoda, 125

Sternoptychidæ, 158

Stomatopoda, 133

Stomiatidæ, 162

‘Talisman,’ French vessel, 12

Teleostei, 149, 154

Temperature of the abyss, 28

Thomson, Sir Wyville, on _Pourtalesia_, 10 — on _Thaumastocheles_, 137 — on the darkness of the abyss, 22 — on the phosphorescence of the sea, 26

Thoracostraca, 133

‘Travailleur,’ French vessel, 12

‘Triton,’ H.M.S., 12

Tunicata, 140

Vegetable life, absence of, 42

Verrill, on the illumination of the abyss, 23

‘Vittor Pessani,’ Italian vessel, 12

‘Vöringin,’ Norwegian vessel, 14

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“The home about which Dr. Abbott rambles is clearly the haunt of fowl and fish, of animal and insect life; and it is of the habits and nature of these that he discourses pleasantly in this book. Summer and winter, morning and evening, he has been in the open air all the time on the alert for some new revelation of instinct, or feeling, or character on the part of his neighbor creatures. Most that he sees and hears he reports agreeably to us, as it was no doubt delightful to himself. Books like this, which are free from all the technicalities of science, but yet lack little that has scientific value, are well suited to the reading of the young. Their atmosphere is a healthy one for boys in particular to breathe.”—_Boston Transcript._

_DAYS OUT OF DOORS._ By CHARLES C. ABBOTT. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

“‘Days out of Doors’ is a series of sketches of animal life by Charles C. Abbott, a naturalist whose graceful writings have entertained and instructed the public before now. The essays and narratives in this book are grouped in twelve chapters, named after the months of the year. Under ‘January’ the author talks of squirrels, muskrats, water-snakes, and the predatory animals that withstand the rigor of winter; under ‘February’ of frogs and herons, crows and blackbirds; under ‘March’ of gulls and fishes and foxy sparrows; and so on appropriately, instructively, and divertingly through the whole twelve.”—_New York Sun._

_THE PLAYTIME NATURALIST._ By Dr. J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., editor of “Science Gossip.” With 366 Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

“The work contains abundant evidence of the author’s knowledge and enthusiasm, and any boy who may read it carefully is sure to find something to attract him. The style is clear and lively, and there are many good illustrations.”—_Nature._

_THE ORIGIN OF FLORAL STRUCTURES through Insects and other Agencies._ By the Rev. GEORGE HENSLOW, Professor of Botany, Queen’s College. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $1.75.

“Much has been written on the structure of flowers, and it might seem almost superfluous to attempt to say anything more on the subject, but it is only within the last few years that a new literature has sprung up, in which the authors have described their observations and given their interpretations of the uses of floral mechanisms, more especially in connection with the processes of fertilization.”—_From Introduction._

_THE GARDEN’S STORY; or, Pleasures and Trials of an Amateur Gardener._ By GEORGE H. ELLWANGER. With Head and Tail Pieces by Rhead. 12mo. Cloth, extra, $1.50.

“Mr. Ellwanger’s instinct rarely errs in matters of taste. He writes out of the fullness of experimental knowledge, but his knowledge differs from that of many a trained cultivator in that his skill in garden practice is guided by a refined æsthetic sensibility, and his appreciation of what is beautiful in nature is healthy, hearty, and catholic. His record of the garden year, as we have said, begins with the earliest violet, and it follows the season through until the witch-hazel is blossoming on the border of the wintry woods.... This little book can not fail to give pleasure to all who take a genuine interest in rural life.”—_New York Tribune._

_THE ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED PLANTS._ By ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.

“Though a fact familiar to botanists, it is not generally known how great is the uncertainty as to the origin of many of the most important cultivated plants.... In endeavoring to unravel the matter, a knowledge of botany, of geography, of geology, of history, and of philosophy is required. By a combination of testimony derived from these sources M. de Candolle has been enabled to determine the botanical origin and geographical source of the large proportion of species he deals with.”—_The Athenæum._

_THE FOLK-LORE OF PLANTS._ By T. F. THISELTON DYER, M.A. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

“A handsome and deeply interesting volume.... In all respects the book is excellent. Its arrangement is simple and intelligible, its style bright and alluring.... To all who seek an introduction to one of the most attractive branches of folk-lore, this delightful volume may be warmly commended.”—_Notes and Queries._

_FLOWERS AND THEIR PEDIGREES._ By GRANT ALLEN, author of “Vignettes of Nature,” etc. Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

“No writer treats scientific subjects with so much ease and charm of style as Mr. Grant Allen. The study is a delightful one, and the book is fascinating to any one who has either love for flowers or curiosity about them.”—_Hartford Courant._

“Any one with even a smattering of botanical knowledge, and with either a heart or mind, must be charmed with this collection of essays.”—_Chicago Evening Journal._

_THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF PLANTS._ By Sir J. WILLIAM DAWSON, F.R.S. Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.75.

“The object of this work is to give, in a connected form, a summary of the development of the vegetable kingdom in geological time. To the geologist and botanist the subject is one of importance with reference to their special pursuits, and one on which it has not been easy to find any convenient manual of information. It is hoped that its treatment in the present volume will also be found sufficiently simple and popular to be attractive to the general reader.”—_From the Preface._

_THE ICE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA, and its Bearings upon the Antiquity of Man._ By G. FREDERICK WRIGHT, D. D., LL. D. With 152 Maps and Illustrations. Third edition, containing Appendix on the “Probable Cause of Glaciation,” by WARREN UPHAM, F.G.S.A., and Supplementary Notes. 8vo. 625 pages, and complete Index. Cloth, $5.00.

“Prof. Wright’s work is great enough to be called monumental. There is not a page that is not instructive and suggestive. It is sure to make a reputation abroad as well as at home for its distinguished author, as one of the most active and intelligent of the living students of natural science and the special department of glacial action.”—_Philadelphia Bulletin._

_THE GREAT ICE AGE, and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man._ By JAMES GEIKIE, F.R.S.E., of H. M. Geological Survey of Scotland. With Maps and Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $2.50.

A systematic account of the Glacial epoch in England and Scotland, with special reference to its changes of climate.

_THE CAUSE OF AN ICE AGE._ By Sir ROBERT BALL, LL. D., F.R.S., Royal Astronomer of Ireland, author of “Starland.” The first volume in the MODERN SCIENCE SERIES, edited by Sir JOHN LUBBOCK. 12mo. Cloth, $1.00.

“An exceedingly bright and interesting discussion of some of the marvelous physical revolutions of which our earth has been the scene. Of the various ages traced and located by scientists, none is more interesting or can be more so than the Ice age, and never have its phenomena been more clearly and graphically described, or its causes more definitely located, than in this thrillingly interesting volume.”—_Boston Traveller._

_TOWN GEOLOGY._ By the Rev. CHARLES KINGSLEY, F.L.S., F.G.S., Canon of Chester. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50.

“I have tried rather to teach the method of geology than its facts; to furnish the student with a key to all geology; rough indeed and rudimentary, but sure and sound enough, I trust, to help him to unlock most geological problems which may meet him in any quarter of the globe.”—_From the Preface._

_AN AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL RAILWAY GUIDE._ Giving the Geological Formation along the Railroads, with Altitude above Tide-water, Notes on Interesting Places on the Routes, and a Description of each of the Formations. By JAMES MACFARLANE, Ph. D., and more than Seventy-five Geologists. Second edition, 426 pp., 8vo. Cloth, $2.50.

“The idea is an original one.... Mr. Macfarlane has produced a very convenient and serviceable hand-book, available alike to the practical geologist, to the student of that science, and to the intelligent traveler who would like to know the country through which he is passing.”—_Boston Evening Transcript._

WORKS BY ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY (MRS. FISHER).

_THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE._ With 74 Illustrations. Cloth, gilt, $1.50.

“Deserves to take a permanent place in the literature of youth.”—_London Times._

“So interesting that, having once opened the book, we do not know how to leave off reading.”—_Saturday Review._

_THROUGH MAGIC GLASSES and other Lectures._ A Sequel to “The Fairy-Land of Science.” Cloth, $1.50.

_CONTENTS._

THE MAGICIAN’S CHAMBER BY MOONLIGHT. MAGIC GLASSES AND HOW TO USE THEM. FAIRY RINGS AND HOW THEY ARE MADE. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF LICHENS AND MOSSES. THE HISTORY OF A LAVA-STREAM. AN HOUR WITH THE SUN. AN EVENING WITH THE STARS. LITTLE BEINGS FROM A MINIATURE OCEAN. THE DARTMOOR PONIES. THE MAGICIAN’S DREAM OF ANCIENT DAYS.

_LIFE AND HER CHILDREN: Glimpses of Animal Life from the Amœba to the Insects._ With over 100 Illustrations. Cloth, gilt, $1.50.

“The work forms a charming introduction to the study of zoölogy—the science of living things—which, we trust, will find its way into many hands.”—_Nature._

_WINNERS IN LIFE’S RACE; or, The Great Backboned Family._ With numerous Illustrations. Cloth, gilt, $1.50.

“We can conceive no better gift-book than this volume. Miss Buckley has spared no pains to incorporate in her book the latest results of scientific research. The illustrations in the book deserve the highest praise—they are numerous, accurate, and striking.”—_Spectator._

_A SHORT HISTORY OF NATURAL SCIENCE; and of the Progress of Discovery from the Time of the Greeks to the Present Time._ New edition, revised and rearranged. With 77 Illustrations. Cloth, $2.00.

“The work, though mainly intended for children and young persons, may be most advantageously read by many persons of riper age, and may serve to implant in their minds a fuller and clearer conception of ‘the promises, the achievements, and claims of science.’”—_Journal of Science._

_MORAL TEACHINGS OF SCIENCE._ Cloth, 75 cents.

“The book is intended for readers who would not take up an elaborate philosophical work—those who, feeling puzzled and adrift in the present chaos of opinion, may welcome even a partial solution, from a scientific point of view, of the difficulties which oppress their minds.”—_From the Preface._

Recent Volumes of the International Scientific Series.

_A HISTORY OF CRUSTACEA._ By Rev. THOMAS R. R. STEBBING, M.A., author of “The Challenger Amphipoda,” etc. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.

“Mr. Stebbing’s account of ‘Recent Malacostraca’ (soft-shelled animals) is practically complete, and is based upon the solid foundations of science. The astonishing development of knowledge in this branch of natural history is due to the extension of marine research, the perfecting of the microscope, and the general diffusion of information regarding what has been ascertained concerning the origin of species.... This volume is fully illustrated, and contains useful references to important authorities. It is an able and meritorious survey of recent crustacea.”—_Philadelphia Ledger._

“In all respects an admirable piece of work.”—_The Churchman._

“One of the most valuable and entertaining volumes in the series.... The author is master of an engaging style, and offers words of cheer and counsel to the beginner who may be dismayed by the bewildering riches of the crustacean world. Every branch of the subject treated is presented in the most interesting and significant light.”—_London Saturday Review._

_HANDBOOK OF GREEK AND LATIN PALÆOGRAPHY._ By EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, D.C.L., Principal Librarian of the British Museum. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00.

“Mr. Thompson, as principal librarian of the British Museum, has of course had very exceptional advantages for preparing his book.... Probably all teachers of the classics, as well as specialists in palæography, will find something of value in this systematic treatise upon a rather unusual and difficult study.”—_Review of Reviews._

“A well-arranged manual from the hands of a competent authority.... Of the nineteen chapters contained in the volume, seven deal with preliminary topics, as the history of the Greek and the Latin alphabets, writing materials, the forms of books, punctuation, measurement of lines, shorthand, abbreviations, and contractions; five are devoted to Greek palæography, seven to Latin.”—_The Critic._

“Covering as this volume does such a vast period of time, from the beginning of the alphabet and the ways of writing down to the seventeenth century, the wonder is how, within three hundred and thirty-three pages, so much that is of practical usefulness has been brought together.”—_New York Times._

_MAN AND THE GLACIAL PERIOD._ By G. FREDERICK WRIGHT, D.D., LL.D., author of “The Ice Age in North America,” “Logic of Christian Evidences,” etc. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth, $1.75.

“The author is himself an independent student and thinker whose competence and authority are undisputed.”—_New York Sun._

“It may be described in a word as the best summary of scientific conclusions concerning the question of man’s antiquity as affected by his known relations to geological time.”—_Philadelphia Press._

“The earlier chapters describing glacial action, and the traces of it in North America—especially the defining of its limits, such as the terminal moraine of the great movement itself—are of great interest and value. The maps and diagrams are of much assistance in enabling the reader to grasp the vast extent of the movement.”—_London Spectator._

New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

1. P. 70, changed “japonicus” to “M. japonicus”. 2. P. 150, changed “fibres” to “fishes”.

.Moved advertising between half-title & Frontispiece to between the index and the other advertising.

3. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. 4. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. 5. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. 6. Enclosed bold font in =equals=.