Chapter 13
THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLÁM.
1. MUHARRAM.--Muharram, the name of the first month of the Muhammadan year, has now become the name by which are known the days of mourning spent by the Shía'hs in commemoration of the martyrdoms of 'Alí and of his two sons Hasan and Husain. The historical events thus referred to have been already described in the third chapter, so that it is only necessary now to give an account of the ceremonies connected with the Muharram. They differ in different countries. The following is a description of an Indian Muharram.
Some days previous to the feast, the 'Áshúr Khána (literally, ten-day house) is prepared. As soon as the new moon appears, the people gather together in the various 'Áshúr Khánas, and offer a Fátiha over some sherbet or some sugar in the name of Husain. The Fátiha concludes thus: "O God, grant the reward of this to the soul of Husain." The sherbet and sugar are then given to the poor. Then they mark a spot for the Alláwa, or hole for the bonfire which is to be lit. Every night during the festival these fires are kindled, and the people, both old and young, fence across the fire with swords or sticks, and jump about calling out: "'Alí! Noble Husain! Noble Husain! Dulha! Dulha! Bridegroom! Bridegroom! Friend! &c." These words they repeat hundreds of times.
In some parts of the country they erect an Imám Bára (Imám-house). This is often a substantial building, frequently used afterwards as a mausoleum for the founder and his family. In South India the 'Áshúr Khána only is known. This is generally a temporary structure, or {238} some large hall fitted up for the occasion. Sometimes the walls are draped with black cloth, bordered with texts of the Qurán written in a large and elegant style. The place is brilliantly illuminated. On one side stands the Tázíahs or Tábúts--structures made of bamboos covered with tinsel and profusely ornamented. They are intended to represent the mausoleum erected on the plains of Karbalá over the remains of Husain. Sometimes the Tázíah is constructed to represent the Prophet's tomb at Madína. Large sums of money are spent on these Tázíahs, which when lighted up have a very elegant appearance. At the back of the Tázíahs are laid the several articles similar to those supposed to have been used by Husain at Karbalá,--a turban of gold, a rich sword, a shield, a bow and arrow. The Mimbar, or pulpit is so placed that the speaker can face Mecca. The 'Alams, or standards, which are commonly made of copper and brass, though occasionally of gold or of silver, are placed against the walls. The usual standard is that of a hand placed on a pole. This is emblematic of the five members who compose the family of the Prophet, and is the special standard of the Shía'hs. These standards have many different names, such as--the standard of the palm of 'Alí, the Lady Fátima's standard, the standard of the Horse-shoe, to represent the shoe of Husain's swift horse, and others too numerous to mention. Mirrors, chandeliers and coloured lanterns add lustre to the scene.
Every evening large crowds of people assemble in these 'Áshúr Khánas. In the centre, on a slightly raised platform a band of singers chant the Marsiya, an elegiac poem in honour of the martyred Husain. It is a monotonous performance lasting about an hour; but it has a wonderful effect on the audience, who, seated on the ground, listen patiently and attentively. At each pause the hearers beat their breasts, and say Husain! Husain! Real or stimulated grief often finds expression in groans and tears, though the more violent expression of the anguish felt is reserved for a later ceremony.
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This over, the Wáqi'a Khán (literally, narrator of events) ascends the Mimbar, or pulpit, and seats himself on the top, or on a lower step. He proceeds to relate the historical facts, adding many curious stories gathered from the vast heap of Traditions which have cast such a halo of glory around the martyr. Sometimes he becomes very excited, and the audience is stirred up to great enthusiasm. The following account is that of an eye-witness who passed an evening in an 'Áshúr Khána. "The first Wáqi'a Khán was a Persian who delivered a very eloquent oration in his own tongue. It was calm but effective. He was succeeded by an eloquent old gentleman who spoke rapidly in Hindustani at the top of his voice, then rose up, ran down the steps, and casting off his turban rushed in and out amongst the audience, vociferating vigorously all the while. The effect was marvellous, old and venerable men wept like little children, whilst from the adjoining Zanána was heard the bitter weeping of the women who, though not exposed to view, could hear all that was said. After a while, the assembly rose and formed two lines facing each other. A boy then chanted a few words and the whole assembly began, slowly at first, to sway their bodies to and fro, calling out 'Alí! 'Alí! Husain! Husain! Each one then began to beat his breast vigorously. The excitement at last became intense and the men in the rows looked like so many wild creatures."
In some cases blood has been known to flow from the breast, so severe is the self-inflicted beating. This continues till they are well-nigh exhausted, when the whole company goes away to repeat the performance over again in some other 'Áshúr Khána. A devout person will visit several each evening. During the day some pious Shía'hs recite the Qurán.
During this season women who can read, visit the Zanánas and chant Marsiyas to the ladies of the Harem, by whom this season of Muharram is celebrated with great earnestness.
For the first six days, nothing else takes place, but on the {240} seventh day the 'Alam-i-Qásím is taken out in public procession. This is to represent the marriage of Qásím, the son of Hasan, to the favourite daughter of Husain, just before the death of the latter. The event is now commemorated by the bearing of Qásím's standard in procession. It is usually borne by a man on horseback. If it is carried by a man on foot, he reels about like a drunken man to show his grief. The crowd shout out: Bridegroom! Bridegroom! After perambulating the principal thoroughfares, the people bring the standard back to its own 'Áshúr Khána. As the standard which represents Qásím is supposed to be a martyr, it is then laid down, covered over, and treated as a corpse. Lamentation is made over it as for one dead. Sherbet is then produced, and a Fátiha is said, after which the standard is again set up in its own place.
The Neza, a lance or spear, with a lime on the top, to recall to remembrance the fact that Yezíd caused Husain's head to be thus carried about, is taken in procession from one place to another. The Na'l Sáhib (literally, Mr. Horse-shoe) is the representation of a horse shoe, and is meant to remind the people of the swift horse of Husain. Vows are frequently made to this standard. Thus a woman may say to it: "Should I through your favour be blessed with offspring, I shall make it run in your procession." If she attains her wish, the child when seven or eight years old has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run after the Na'l Sáhib.
If two 'Alams, or standards, meet, they embrace each other, that is they are made to touch. Fátiha is then said and the respective processions pass on their way. The Buráq, supposed to be a fac-simile of the horse sent by Gabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven (Ante. p. 159) is also taken out.
On the evening before the tenth day, which according to the Muslim mode of computing time is the tenth night, the whole of the Tázías and the 'Alams are taken out in {241} procession. It is a scene of great confusion, for men and boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run about. It is the carnival of the Musalmán year.
On the following day, the 'Áshúrá, they kindle the fires in the Alláwas, and say a Fátiha in each 'Áshúr Khána. After this the 'Alams and the Tázías are taken away to a large open spot near water, which represents the plain of Karbalá. Another Fátiha is said, the ornaments and decorations are taken off the Tázías, the frameworks of which are then cast into the water.[249] Sometimes they are reserved for use the following year. The water reminds the people of the parching thirst which Husain felt before his death. Only the 'Alams, not the Buráqs nor the Na'l Sáhibs, are immersed. The people then burn incense, recite the Marsiyas, return home and say Fátiha over the 'Alams, Buráqs, &c. On the evening of the 12th, they sit up all night reading the Qurán, reciting Marsiyas and verses in the praise of Husain. On the 13th day, a quantity of food is cooked which, when a Fátiha has been said over it, is distributed to the poor. Some very pious Shía'hs celebrate the fortieth day after the first of Muharram. It is on this day, according to some accounts, that the head and body of Husain were reunited. It is known as the 'Íd-i-sar wa tan (head and body feast).
The Sunnís do not, except as spectators, take any part in the Muharram ceremonies. Indeed, where the ruling power is not strong, there is often much ill-feeling aroused by the enthusiasm excited for all that concerns 'Alí and his family. The three first Khalífs are often well abused, and that no Sunní can bear with patience. The breach between the Sunní and the Shía'h is very wide, and the annual recurrence of the Muharram feast tends to keep alive the distinction.
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The tenth day--the 'Áshúrá is, however, a Sunnat feast and, as such, is observed by all Sunnís. It is considered to be a most excellent day, for on it God is said to have created Adam and Eve, His throne, heaven, hell, the seat of judgment, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life and death.
The Sunnís about three o'clock in the afternoon of this day prepare sherbet and khichrí--a dish composed of boiled rice and pulse mixed with clarified butter and spices. A Fátiha in the name of Husain and of those who were martyred with him is then said. The food is disposed of as usual in such cases. A Namáz of some nafl rak'ats is said and sometimes a Du'á is added. On this day also they go to the burial grounds and place flowers on, and say Fátiha over the graves of their friends.
Indian Musalmáns have copied in their feast many Hindu ceremonies. The procession of the Tázías, and the casting of them into the water is very similar to the procession at the Hindu feast of the Durga Puja,[250] when on the tenth day the Hindus cast the idol Durga, the wife of Siva, into the Ganges. The oblations offered at different shrines are similar to those offered by the Hindus, such as rice, clarified butter and flowers.
The Muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a country, in which an allegorical and idolatrous religion predominated, addressing itself to the senses and the imaginations rather than to the understanding and the heart; consequently the Musalmán festivals have borrowed from it a variety of pagan rites, and a pompous and splendid ceremonial. While this has done much to add to the superstition of the Musalmáns in India, it has no doubt softened their intolerant spirit. Though the Sunnís consider the Shía'h observances as impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. The fact that the British Government punishes all who break {243} the peace may have something to do with this. Still the Sunní and the Shía'h in India live on much better terms, and have more respect for each other than the Turk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some Musalmán poets, indeed, are both Sunnís and Shía'hs. Thus Wálí, begins his poem with a brief encomium on the four first Khalífs, and then bestows an eulogy on 'Alí and his sons Hasan and Husain whom he calls "Imáms of the world."
The following is a prayer used in a Fátiha for 'Alí:--
I pray, "That God may deign for the sake of that pure soul, the ornament of the book of nature, the first of mortals after the Prophet, the star of mortals, the most precious jewel of the jewel-box of virtue, the lord of the high and the low, he who occupies a distinguished place on the bridge of eternity, the mihráb[251] of the faith, he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law, the ship of the sea of religion, the sun of the firmament of glory, the power of the arm of the Prophet, he who has merited access to the tabernacle of the Divine Unity, the most profound of all religious people, the resplendent brightness of the marvels of God, the father of victory, the Imám of the gate of heaven, the cup-bearer of the water of Kausar, he who has merited the praise of Muhammad, he who is the best of men, the holy martyr, the chief of Believers, the Imám of the Faithful, 'Alí, son of Abu Tálib, 'Alí the victorious lion of the Most High. I pray that God for the sake of this holy Khalíf may favourably hear the vows which I offer to Him."
The following prayer occurs in a Fátiha said for Hasan and Husain:--
I pray, "That the eternal God may deign to accept the vows which I make for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave Imáms, the martyrs well-beloved by God, the innocent victims of wickedness, the blessed Abu Muhammad Al-Hasan and Abu 'Abd-Alláh Al-Husain, and for the twelve Imáms, and the fourteen[252] pure ones, and for the seventy-two martyrs of the plain of Karbalá."
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2. AKHIR-I-CHÁR SHAMBA.--This feast is held on the last Wednesday of the month Safar. It is kept in commemoration of the fact, that, as on this day, the Prophet experienced some mitigation of the disorder which in the next month terminated his life. Sweet cakes are prepared, and Fátihas in the name of the Prophet are said over them; but the most extraordinary custom is the drinking of the seven Saláms. A plantain, or a mango tree leaf, or a piece of paper is taken to a Mullá, or a religious teacher, who writes seven short sentences from the Qurán upon it. The writing whilst still wet is washed off, and the mixture drunk by the person for whom it was written. Peace and happiness are thus ensured for the future. The seven Saláms are: (1) "Peace! shall be the word on the part of a merciful Lord." (Súra xxxvi. 58). (2) "Peace be on Noah throughout the worlds." (Súra xxxvii. 77). (3) "Peace be on Abraham." (Súra xxxvii. 109). (4) "Peace be on Moses and Aaron." (Súra xxxvii. 120). (5) "Peace be on Elias." (Súra xxxvii. 130). (6) "Peace be on you, ye have been good; enter into Paradise." (Súra xxxix. 73). (7) "It is peace till the breaking of the morn." (Súra xcvii. 5). The Shía'hs consider this an unlucky day. They call it "Chár Shamba-i-Súrí."--The "Wednesday of the Trumpet;" that is, of the trumpet of the last day. The Sunnís, on the other hand, rejoice in the day, and esteem it an excellent and auspicious season.
3. BÁRÁ WAFÁT.--This feast is held on the twelfth day of the month Rabí'-ul-Awwal. The name is derived from bárá, twelve and wafát, death, because many suppose that on this day the Prophet died. According to a well-known Muslim writer "the terrific intelligence, circulating throughout the world, produced universal consternation, and all hastened to offer to God their vows and prayers for the repose of the Prophet's soul." Others, however, maintain that he died on the second of the month and, as there is some doubt on the subject, many persons make a Fátiha {245} every day, from the first to the twelfth of the month inclusive. Those who keep the feast as Bárá Wafát observe the ceremony called Sandal on the previous evening, and the 'Urs, that is, the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth. The Sandal consists in making a perfumed embrocation from sandal wood. This is then placed into a vessel and carried in procession to the 'Íd-gáh,[253] or to the place where Fátiha will be said. It is then distributed to the people. It is a sort of public notice on the eve of a Feast day, or of a Saint's day, that on the morrow the usual prayers and offerings will be made in such and such a place. On the morning of the twelfth, the Qurán is read in the Mosque, or in private houses: then food is cooked and Fátihas are said.
Some persons possess a Qadam-i-Rasúl, or footstep of the Prophet. This is a stone with the impression of a footstep on it. It is a sacred thing and on this day the place in which it is kept is elegantly decorated. When a company has assembled, some persons appointed for the purpose, repeat the story of the birth, miracles and death of the Prophet. Portions of the Qurán are read and the Darúd is said.[254]
In Madras, and in some other parts, it is more customary to keep this day, not as the anniversary of the death of the Prophet, but as the "'Jashn-i-milád-i-Sharíf," the "Feast of the noble birth." The practical duties are the same. Instead of the Qadam-i-Rasúl, the Ásár-i-Sharíf is exhibited. This is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of the Prophet's beard and moustache. It is said to possess {246} the miraculous property of growing again when a portion is broken off. On this day it is put into rose water which those present then drink and rub on their eyes. Great virtue is attached to this proceeding. In the Ásár Khána, or house in which this hair is kept Fátihas, Darúds, &c., are repeated.
The observance of this festival is neither wájib nor sunnat, but mustahab. It is generally kept, and it is a very rare thing to meet a person who does not believe in the miraculous growth of the Ásár-i-Sharíf.
4. SHAB BARÁT.--This feast, the name of which signifies the "night of the record," is held on the fourteenth day of the month Sh'abán. The 'Arfa, or vigil is kept on the preceding day.[255] It is commonly but erroneously called Shab-i-Barát.
The word Barát signifies a book or record. It is said that God on this night registers in the Barát all the actions men are to perform during the ensuing year. On the thirteenth day food is prepared for the poor and a Fátiha for the benefit of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over it. When all in the house are assembled, the Súrat-ul-Fátiha is read once, the Súrat-ul-Iklás (112) three times, the Áyat-ul-Kursí once, and then the Darúd. After this a prayer is offered, in which God is asked to transfer the reward of this Service, and of the charity shown in the gift of food to the poor, to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of this family. This petition is offered in the name of the Prophet. The men then go to the Mosque and after the Namáz-i-'Ishá they repeat a number of nafl rak'ats. This over, the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín is read three times. It must be done with the niyyat, intention. The first time, the intention is that the worshipper may have a long life; the second time, that his means of subsistence may be increased; the third time, that he may be protected from evil. {247} The Súra-i-Dukhán (144) is then read with the same intentions. Any other portions may then be read. After this those present rise, and go to the various cemeteries. On the way they purchase flowers which are afterwards strewn on the graves. A Fátiha is then said. If the worshipper has no relatives or friends buried there, prayer is offered for the benefit of the Arwáh-i-Qubúr, the souls of those there buried. The very pious spend the whole night in going from one cemetery to another.
These observances are neither farz, nor sunnat, but nawáfil, (sing. nafl), works of supererogation. Still though they are bid'at, yet they are esteemed good and so are called bid'at-i-Hasana, or "excellent innovation." The general merry-making of the fourteenth day has no religious signification. The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes night of Islám. Large sums of money are spent on fireworks, of which more are let off on this feast than at any other.
The following prayer occurs in the Fátiha: "O our God, by the merits of the Apostleship of Muhammad, grant that the lamps which are lit up on this holy night may be for the dead a pledge of the light eternal, which we pray Thee to shed on them. O God, admit them, we beseech Thee, unto the abode of eternal felicity."
5. RAMAZÁN AND 'ÍD-UL-FITR--It is one of the five pillars of the practical religious duties to fast during the thirty days of the month Ramazán. The subject of fasting has been fully treated of in the preceding chapter; and so it is only necessary now to describe the other ceremonies connected with the religious observance of this month.
From the earliest days of Islám this month has been held in the greatest esteem by Muslims, for it was in this month that Muhammad used to retire for meditation, year after year, to the cave of Hira, situated on a low hill some few miles distant from Mecca. In the second year of the Hijra, or flight from Mecca, it was ordained that the month of Ramazán should be kept as a fast. "As to the month {248} Ramazán, in which the Qurán was sent down to be man's guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of that illumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." (Súra ii. 181).
The Muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast the 'Ashúrá, the tenth of Muharram. This fast was probably connected with the Jewish fast on the tenth day of the seventh month. "Also on the tenth day of this seventh month there shall be a day of atonement: it shall be an holy convocation unto you; and ye shall afflict your souls, &c." (Leviticus xxiii. 27). Now, when Muhammad first went to Madína he had great hopes of winning over the Jews to his side; but when he failed he took every opportunity of making Islám differ as much as possible from Judaism. This was the reason why the Qibla was changed (Ante. p. 60), and that in the second year of his residence at Madína the fast of Ramazán was appointed. The reasons assigned by learned Muslims for the selection of this month, are that in Ramazán God gave to the previous prophets the revelations connected with their names, and that in this month the Qurán was sent down from the Secret Tablet in the seventh heaven to the first or lowest, and that on the Laylut-ul-Qadr, or 'night of power' the first revelation was made to Muhammad. "Verily we have caused it (Qurán) to descend on the 'night of power.' And who shall teach thee what the night of power is? The night of power excelleth a thousand nights." (Súra xcvii. 1-3). To illustrate the sacredness of this month the Prophet used to say that in it "the gates of Paradise are open, and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg." "Only those who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heaven called Rayyán." Those who keep the fast "will be pardoned all their past venial sins."[256]
In making the fast one for the day, and none for the night, {249} Muhammad doubtless had reference to the verse: "God wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort." (Súra ii. 181).
The special ceremonies connected with the Ramazán are the Taráwíh Namáz and 'Itikáf (retirement). The Taráwíh prayers have been described already (p. 205). Each night in Ramazán one-thirtieth part (sípára) of the Qurán is recited in the Mosque. The duty of performing the 'Itikáf is a Sunnat-ul-maukadda, a very strict duty. The Mu'takif, one who makes 'Itikáf, must remain apart in a Mosque used for public services, and there meditate. Bukhárí says that the Prophet made 'Itikáf the last ten days of each Ramazán, and that the practice was continued by his wives after his death. Usually a man should thus sit and meditate one of the days between the twentieth and the thirtieth of Ramazán. If his meditation is disturbed by any illegal interruption, another day should be devoted to it; but Imám Muhammad says: "The least legal time is one hour." Some theologians hold that 'Itikáf is farz-i-kifáya, that is, if one person of a community does it the obligation does not rest on the others. If, however, a person makes a vow in Ramazán, then 'Itikáf is considered wájib. 'Itikáf can be performed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazán, but then it is only mustahab, a work of supererogation. All the sects except the Sháfa'ítes hold that the Mu'takif must fast. He should also make the nizzat, or intention, of performing what he is about to do. The Mu'takif must not go out of the Mosque except for obviously necessary purposes, and for making the legal wazú and ghusl (purifications). At night he may eat, drink and sleep in the Mosque: acts quite unlawful at other times. He may speak with others on religious matters, and if a man of business, he may give orders with regard to the purchase and sale of merchandize, but on no account must any goods be brought to him. It is highly meritorious for him to read the Qurán in an audible voice. By such an act he becomes {250} a man of penetration, whose words are as powerful as a sharp sword.[257]
When the thirty days have passed the fast is broken. This act is called Iftár, and the first day on which food is taken is called the 'Íd-ul-Fitr--the 'Feast of the breaking of the fast.' On that day the Sadqa, or alms are given before the Namáz is said in the Mosque. The Sadqa of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr is confined to Muslims: no other persons receive it. If any one neglects to give these alms before the Namáz is said, he will not merit so great a reward as he otherwise would. The reason assigned for this is that, unless they are given early in the day, the poor cannot refresh themselves before coming to the Mosque for the Namáz. The Sadqa are given for the good of one's own soul, for that of young children, slaves male and female--Muslim or Infidel; but not for the spiritual benefit of one's wife or elder children.
In South India, the Sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient rice to feed one person. When this has been done the people go to the Mosque saying, 'God is great! God is great!' The Namáz is like that of a Friday, except that only two rak'ats are said, and the Khutba which is said after the Namáz is sunnat; whereas the Friday Khutba is said before the farz rak'ats, and is itself of farz obligation. After hearing the sermon, the people disperse, visit each other and thoroughly enjoy themselves.
A very usual form of the Khutba of the 'Íd-ul-Fitr which is preached in Arabic is as follows:--
SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UL-FITR.
In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.
"Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of praise. It {251} is of His grace and favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: 'I will give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent blessings to those who fast. God is great! God is great! Holy is He who certainly sent the Qurán to our Prophet in the month of Ramazán, and who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great! and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we give to His Unity will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to Paradise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men. From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his family, so long as the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a curse to the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the sadqa.[258] O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wájib duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent. Your duty in Ramazán was to say the Taráwíh prayers, to make supplication to God, to sit and meditate ('Itikáf) and to read the Qurán. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazán gain the mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God has declared that Ramazán is a noble month, for is not one of its nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a thousand months? On that night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its clearest proof is the Qurán, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is God who says in the Qurán: "This word of God comes down in the month of Ramazán." This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and wrong. O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your God and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other days on which to fast so that no days be lost, and say: "God is great!" and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Qurán. Every verse of it is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, the {252} Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, the Clement."[259]
"The assemblies of the ladies on this 'Íd are marked by all the amusements and indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state. Some receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing honour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dress. The Zanána rings with festive songs and loud music, the cheerful meeting of friends, the distribution of presents to dependents, and remembrances to the poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy day of 'Íd, when the good lady of the Mansion sits in state to receive presents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others."[260]
6. The Baqr-'Íd.--This is the most important Feast in the whole year. It is also known as the 'Íd-i-Qurbán, and as the 'Íd-ul-Azhá, commonly called the Íd-uz-Zuhá, the feast of sacrifice. In Turkey and in Egypt it is called Bairám. Its origin was as follows: A few months after the Hijra, or flight from Mecca, Muhammad, dwelling in Madína, observed that the Jews kept, on the tenth day of the seventh month, the great fast of the Atonement. A Tradition records that the Prophet asked them why they kept this fast. He was informed that it was a memorial of the deliverance of Moses and the children of Israel from the hands of Pharaoh. "We have a greater right in Moses than they," said Muhammad, so he fasted with the Jews and commanded his followers to fast also. This was at the period of his mission when Muhammad was friendly with the Jews of Madína, who occasionally came to hear him preach. The Prophet also occasionally attended the synagogue. Then came the change of the Qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca, for the Jews were not so ready to change their {253} creed as Muhammad had at first hoped. In the second year of the Hijra, Muhammad and his followers did not participate in the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the feast of the Baqr-'Íd. The idolatrous Arabs had been in the habit of making an annual pilgrimage to Mecca at this season of the year. The offering of animals in sacrifice formed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage. That portion--the sacrifice of animals--Muhammad adopted in the feast which now, at Madína, he substituted for the Jewish fast. This was well calculated to attract the attention of the Meccans and to gain the goodwill of the Arabs. Muhammad could not then make the pilgrimage to Mecca, for as yet there was a hostile feeling between the inhabitants of the two cities; but on the tenth day of the month Zu'l-Hajja, at the very time when the Arabs at Mecca were engaged in sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth from his house at Madína, and assembling his followers instituted the Íd-uz-Zuhá or Baqr-'Íd. Two young kids were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said: "O Lord! I sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness to Thy unity and to my mission. O Lord! this is for Muhammad and for the family of Muhammad."
Great merit is obtained by all who keep this feast. 'Áyesha relates how the Prophet once said: "Man hath not done anything on the 'Íd-ul-Azhá more pleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will come on the day of resurrection with its horns, hair and hoofs, and will make the scale of his good actions very heavy. Verily its blood reached the acceptance of God before it falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful in it."
Musalmáns say that the Patriarch Abraham was ordered to sacrifice Ishmael, and that he made several ineffectual attempts to cut the throat of his son. Ishmael then said to his father: "It is through pity and compassion for me that you allow the knife to miss: blindfold yourself and then sacrifice me." Abraham acted upon this advice, {254} blindfolded himself, drew his knife, repeated the Bismilláh, and, as he thought, cut the throat of his son; but, behold, in the meantime Gabriel had substituted a sheep for the lad. This event is commemorated in this feast.
On the day before the feast, the Arfa, or vigil, is kept. Food of various kinds is prepared, over which a Fátiha is offered, first, in the name of the Prophet; secondly, in the names of deceased relatives, and of others for whom a blessing is desired, or from whom some favor is expected. The food is then sent as a present to friends.
On the morning of the feast day, the devout Muslims proceed to the 'Íd-gáh or, if there is no 'Íd-gáh, to the principal Mosque, repeating on the way the Takbír "God is Great!" and "There is no other God save the one true God, God is great, praise be to God." At the time of making wazú, the worshipper should say: "O God, make this (_i.e._ the sacrifice I shall offer to-day) an atonement for my sin, and purify my religion and take evil away from me."
The Service at the 'Íd-gáh, or in the Mosque consists of two farz rak'ats, as in the Salát-ul-Juma (p. 201), after the Khutba is delivered. It will, however, be seen from the following sermon that it is mustahab to say four more rak'ats.
SERMON ON THE 'ÍD-UZ-ZUHÁ.
In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.
Alláhu Akbar! God is Great. There is no God but God. God is Great! God is Great and worthy of all praise. He is Holy. Day and night we should praise Him. He is without partner, without equal. All praise be to Him. Holy is He, Who makes the rich generous, Who provides the sacrifice for the wise. He is Great, without an equal. All praise be to Him. Listen! I testify that there is no God but God. He is alone, without partner. This testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as brilliant as the glorious feast day. Muhammad is His servant who delivered His message. On Muhammad, and on his family, and on his Companions may the peace of God rest. On you who are present, O congregation of Muslimín, may the {255} mercy of God for ever rest. O servants of God! our first duty is to fear God and to be kind. God has said: "I will be with those who fear Me and are kind."
Know O servants of God! that to rejoice on the feast day is the sign and mark of the pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of such in Paradise (Dár-ul-Qarár), especially on the day of resurrection will they obtain dignity and honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It is no time for amusements and negligence. This is the day on which to utter the praises of God. (Tasbíh.) Read the Kalíma, the Takbír and the Tamhíd. This is a high festival season and the feast of sacrifice. Read now the Takbír-ut-Tashríq. God is great! God is great! There is no God but God! God is great! God is great! All praise be to Him! From the morning of the 'Arfa, after every farz rak'at it is good (mustahab) for a person to repeat the Takbír-ut-Tashríq. The woman before whom is a man as Imám, and the traveller whose Imám is a permanent resident (Muqím) should also repeat this Takbír. It should be said at each Namáz until the Salát-ul-'Asr of the Feast day (10th). Some, however, say that it should be recited every day till the afternoon ('Asr) of the thirteenth day, as these are the days of the Tashríq (p. 231).[261] If the Imám forgets to recite, let not the worshipper forget. Know, O believers, that every free man who is a Sáhib-i-Nisáb (_i.e._ worth Rs. 52) should offer sacrifice on this day, provided that this sum is exclusive of his horse, his clothes, his tools, and his household goods and slaves. It is wájib for every one to offer sacrifice for himself, but it is not a wájib order that he should do it for his children.[262] A goat, a ram or a cow should be offered in sacrifice for every seven persons. The victim must not be one-eyed, blind, lame or very thin.
If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry you across the Sirát. O Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom be the mercy and peace of God, "Sacrifice the victim with your own hands, this was the Sunnat of Ibráhím, on whom be peace."
In the Kitáb-uz-zád-ut-Taqwá, it is said that on the 'Íd-ul-Fitr and the 'Íd-uz-Zuhá, four nafl rak'ats should be said after the farz Namáz {256} of the 'Íd. In the first rak'at after the Súrat-ul-Fátiha recite the Súrat-ul-A'lá (Súra lxxvii); in the second, the Súrat-ush-Shams (Súra xci); in the third, the Súrat-uz-Zuhá (Súra xciii); in the fourth, the Súrat-ul-Ikhlás (cxii).
O Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon the sins of fifty years which are past and of fifty years to come. The reading of these Súras are equal as an act of merit to the reading of all the books God has sent by His prophets.
May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who act according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the last day. To all such there will be no fear in the day of resurrection; no sorrow in the examination at the day of judgment. The best of all books is the Qurán. O believers! May God give to us, and to you a blessing for ever by the grace of the Noble Qurán. May its verses be our guide, and may its wise mention of God direct us aright. I desire that God may pardon all believers, male and female, the Muslimín and the Muslimát. O believers, also seek for pardon. Truly God is the Forgiver, the Merciful, the Eternal King, the Compassionate, the Clement. O believers, the Khutba is over. Let all desire that on Muhammad Mustafá the mercy and peace of God may rest.
The worshippers then return to their respective homes and offer up the sacrifice,[263] for it is a wájib order that every Muslim should keep this feast, and sacrifice an animal for himself. He need not fear though he has to incur debt for the purchase of an animal, for it is said that God will in some way help him to pay the debt. If a camel is sacrificed, it should be one not less than five years of age, if a cow or sheep it should at least be in its second year, though the third year is better; if a goat it must not be less than six months old. All of these animals must be without a blemish, or defect of any kind. It is a sunnat order that the head of the household should himself slay the victim. If, however, from any cause, he cannot do so, he may call in a butcher; but in that case he must place his hand upon that of the butcher when the operation is performed. If the {257} victim is a camel, it must be placed with the head towards Mecca. Its front legs being bandaged together the sacrificer must stand on the right hand side of the victim, and plunge the knife into its throat with such force that the animal may fall at once. Any other mode of slaying it is unlawful. Other animals must be slain in the same way. Just before slaying the victim the following verse of the Qurán should be repeated: "Say! my prayers, and my worship, and my life and my death are unto God, the Lord of the worlds. He hath no associate. This am I commanded, and I am the first of the Muslims." (Súra vi. 163). The operator also adds: "O God, from Thee, and to Thee (I do this), in the name of God, God is Great!" Then having slain the victim he says: "O God accept this for me." The first meal taken should be prepared from the flesh of the animal just slaughtered, after which the members of the family, the neighbours, and the poor should receive some portions.
It is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one animal for each member of the family; but as that would involve an expenditure few could bear, it is allowable to sacrifice one victim for the household. In extreme cases men may combine together and make one sacrifice do for the whole, but the number of persons so combining must not exceed seventy. Some authorities limit the number to seven. This feast is strictly observed by all Muslims wherever they may be.
The Baqr-'Íd and the 'Íd-ul-Fitr constitute the 'Ídain, the two great Feasts of Islám. A country in which Musalmáns could not observe them both would at once become Dár-ul-Harb, or House of Enmity, in which it would be the bounden duty of every Muslim to join in a Jíhád, against the Infidel rulers of the land.
This completes the principal Feasts of the Muslim year.
Among other practices borrowed from the Hindus must be placed the pilgrimage made by Indian Musalmáns to the {258} shrines of Saints, the ceremonies connected with them and the festivals instituted in their honour. Properly speaking, the Sunnís have but two festivals--the Baqr-'Íd and the 'Íd-ul-Fitr, but many others are now observed. Of these I have described several. It only remains to notice a few of the festival days which are peculiar to India. The title of Pír given to a Musalmán devotee is equivalent to the term Guru amongst the Hindus. A man who seeks to be a 'religious' takes a Pír as a spiritual guide. "Follow," says the poet Walí, "the footsteps of thy Pír, like a shadow." After death these Pírs are venerated as Walís or Saints. The Pírs when alive, are frequently resorted to for a ta'wíz, or charm, and the aid of their prayers is often invoked. The sepulchre of a Walí is called a Dargáh, shrine; Mazár, place of pilgrimage; Rauza, garden. The professional reciter of the Qurán, and the Namáz at such places is called a Rauza Khán. As a rule, processions are made to the shrines, and flowers, sweetmeats and food over which a Fátiha has been said are offered. Usually the Fátiha is _for_ the Saint, not _to_ the Saint. It is considered a very meritorious act to give land for the erection of such shrines and to endow them. An account of many of these Saints is given in the Bara Masa by Jawán and the Áráyish-i-Mahfil by Afsos. The following selection will give an idea of the customs prevalent:--
1. FESTIVAL OF MADÁR.--Sayyid Badr-ud-dín Kutb-ul-Madár is said to have descended from the Imám Husain. He was born at Aleppo about A.D. 1050, and received from Muhammad permission to "hold his breath" (Habs-i-dam). Thus he was able to live to a good old age. He is said to have had 1,442 sons, and to have died when upwards of 300 years old. More rational people explain the number of his sons by saying they were his spiritual children. The length of his life is explained by saying that as each man has to make a certain number of inspirations, the less frequently he does it the longer he will live. Jawán in his account of {259} the festival states: "The tomb of Madár is at Makanpúr, a place about forty miles from Cawnpore." On the seventeenth of the month Jamádí-ul-Awwal an immense crowd fills the village which is illuminated at night. Fires are lighted, around which Fakírs dance, and through which they leap calling out "Dam Madár, Dam Madár," (breath of Madár.) An order of Fakírs, called Madária, look to this Saint as their patron. In distant places where this feast is kept they set up an Alam, or standard in honour of the Saint, and perform ceremonies common to such days. The nights are spent in celebrating his praises, &c.
2. FESTIVAL OF MU'ÍN-UD-DÍN CHISTÍ.[264]--The tomb of this Saint is in Ajmír. He was a Syed descended from Husain, the son of 'Alí, and was born in Sajistán about the year 537 A.H. His father died when he was about fifteen years old. Soon after this he fell in with a famous Fakír, Ibráhím Qandúzí, through whose influence he began to seek the Taríqat, or mystical road to the knowledge of God. When he was twenty years of age he received further instruction from the famous 'Abd-ul-Qádir Jílání. After the conquest of Hindustan by Shaháb-ud-dín Ghorí, Mu'ín-ud-dín retired to Ajmír, where he died in the odour of sanctity 636 A.H. Pilgrimages to this tomb have been and are very popular. Emperors and people vied with each other in doing honour to the memory of this saint. Even Akbar, sceptic though he was as regards orthodox Islám, made a pilgrimage to this shrine, and offered vows that he might have a son who would live to manhood. Hindus also visit this tomb and presents from rich men of this class are not unusual.
3. FESTIVAL OF SÁLÁR MAS'ÚD GHÁZÍ.--There is some doubt as to the nationality of this Saint. Some say he was a Husainí Syed, others that he was a Pathán, and a martyr. His tomb is situated in Oude. Afsos thus describes the {260} pilgrimage. "Once a year great crowds of people gather from all parts. They carry red lances, and beat thousands of tambourines. The 'Urs is held on the first Sunday of the month Jíth (May-June). The people believe that this was his wedding day, because it is said that he had on wedding garments when he was killed. This belief once led a certain oilman, a resident of Radúlí, to send a bedstead, chair, and other marriage presents to the shrine at this time. The custom is still kept up by the descendants of the oilman. The common people fasten ropes to the branches of the trees in the neighbourhood, and swing, some by the hands and some by the heels, and assume various disguises. They thus hope to obtain what they desire." The Hindus venerate this Saint very highly. The Musalmáns look upon him as a most sacred person, for he slew many idolatrous Hindus, and so earned the title of Ghází, the warrior: the Hindus consider that it was only by the power of God that he could do so many acts of prowess.
4. FESTIVAL OF THE BÍRA OR OF KHÁJA KHIZR.--Of this Saint, M. Garcin de Tassy says: "Khája Khizr is a personage respecting whom the opinions of orientals vary. Many consider him the same as Phineas, the grandson of Aaron; others that he is the prophet Elias; and lastly, the Turks confound him with St. George. In order to reconcile these conflicting opinions, some allege that the same soul has animated three different persons. Whatever be the fact, Khizr, according to the Musalmáns, discovered the source of the Water of Life of which he is the guardian. He is believed to be very clever in divination, and to be the patron of waters. As such a festival is held in his honour." Jawán describes it thus: "In the month of Bhádún (August-September) all whose wishes have been fulfilled, make it a point of duty to set afloat the boat (náú) in honour of Khája Khizr, and to make according to their means offerings of milk and bruised grain to the holy personage. On every Friday, and in some places on every Thursday, in the month {261} in question, the devotees having prepared the bíra carry it at night to the bank of the river, with many ceremonies. There great and small, having lighted lamps and tapers, make their respective oblations, whilst a number of swimmers together jointly push the bíra into the middle of the river." Sometimes a number of small bíras, made of clay, are also launched, and as each carries a lamp the general effect is striking. It is said that the Musalmán natives of the Maldive Islands annually launch a small vessel laden with perfumes, gum, and odoriferous flowers, and leave it to the mercy of the winds and waves as an offering to the god of the sea. There can be no doubt that this god of the sea is Khizr, the patron of the waters.
The following prayer is recited in the Fátiha of Khizr: "To obtain purity of heart, and the benediction of Him who hears the vows of mortals, and who alone can keep from them all evils, I rest upon the merits of Khája Khizr, the great prophet Elias."
5. THE FEAST OF PÍR DASTGÍR SÁHIB.--This is held on the eleventh day of the month of Rabí'-us-Sání. The Sunnis hold this Saint in great reverence. He has no less than ninety-nine names. His tomb is at Baghdád. On the tenth of the month the ceremony called Sandal (p. 245) is performed, followed on the next day by the 'Urs, when the Maulad, or the account of the circumstances connected with the birth of the saint is read; Qasá,id, or elegiac poems are recited; the Darúd is repeated and Fátihas are said. The Qurán is also read through. Vows are frequently made to this Saint and in time of any special visitation, such as cholera, a flag is carried about in honour of this Pír by some of his devotees to whom presents of food, &c, are offered. Fátiha is then said over them. He is said to appear to his followers during their sleep and to give them directions. Ja'far Sharíf, the compiler of the Qánún-i-Islám speaking, on this point relates his own experience thus: "The author speaks from personal experience, for at the time of need, when he {262} was oppressed in mind concerning things which he desired, he used to repeat constantly the ninety-nine names of the Pír and vow before the Holy God, imploring His assistance by the soul of Dastgír; and through the mercy of the Almighty, his Excellency Ghaus-ul-A'zam (Dastgír) presented himself in his sleep, and relieved him of his perplexities and vouchsafed his behests."
Syed Ahmad Kabír Rafáí, the founder of the Rafái Darwíshes was a nephew of this Saint.
6. FESTIVAL OF QÁDIR WALÍ SÁHIB.--This is the great saint of Southern India. The 'Urs is celebrated on the tenth day of Jamádí-us-Sání. The shrine is at Nagore, a town situated four miles north of Negapatam. The sandal and other ceremonies are similar to those described already. He is the patron saint of sailors, who in times of difficulty vow that, if they reach the shore in safety, they will offer a Fátiha in the name of Qádir Walí. The common people have a profound faith in the power of the saint to work miracles. The story of the following one is frequently related: "A vessel springing a leak was about to founder, when the Captain made a vow that should Qádir Walí stop the leak, he would offer in his name the value of the cargo. At that time the saint was being shaved, but being miraculously acquainted with the perilous position of the Captain he cast away the looking-glass which he held in his hand. This glass attached itself to the hole in the bottom of the ship which then came safely to land. The Captain, in due course, presented his offering to the saint who requested him to return the glass to the barber. The Captain was astonished at this request and enquired what glass was meant. He was then directed to look at the bottom of his ship. He did so, and discovered how the saint had saved the ship."
The festival affords a curious illustration of the way in which Hindu influences have acted on Islám, and how even Hindus pay regard to Muslim Saints. Qádir Walí is said to {263} have been a Fakír who lived on the charity of both Hindus and Musalmáns. Indeed both parties claim him as belonging to their respective religions, which may be accounted for by the fact that in his preaching to mixed audiences he suited his addresses to both classes of his hearers. After his death a small Mosque was erected on or near his tomb. The fame of the Walí gradually grew, and a Hindu Rajah made a vow that if he were blessed with the birth of a son, he would enlarge and beautify the Mosque. His wish was fulfilled, and the present elegant structure is the result. So famous has the shrine of the Saint now become that the Musalmáns there say: "First Mecca, then Nagore." The same reason which induced the Hindu Rajah to make a votive offering years ago, still influences large numbers of people. On Thursday evenings, the commencement of the Muhammadan Sabbath, many Hindu women resort to the shrine of the Saint. On the closing night of the Annual Feast, Tábúts are taken in procession from Negapatam, and rich presents are sent from the Tanjore Palace to the Nagore Mosque. Thus is the Hindu connection still kept up with the festival of this Musalmán Saint.
There are many other Walís and Pírs to whose tombs pilgrimages are made, and in memory of whom many superstitious observances are still kept up; but all such pilgrimages to a Dargáh (shrine) are no necessary part of Islám. In all parts of the country there are the shrines of Saints who have a local reputation and whose annual festivals are more or less observed. Still it is not necessary for me to give a further account of these. This brings me to the close of my subject.
In the preceding chapters, I have endeavoured to set forth the main features of the Faith of Islám, and the religious duties it enjoins. I might now go on to show its relation to Judaism and Christianity, the elements it has drawn from them, and the distortions it has made in the borrowing, as well as the protest it raised against much that was {264} corrupt in the Christianity with which it came in contact. I might also enlarge upon its moral and social effects, and the character it produces in the individual and the state. But these subjects would lead me far beyond my present scope. I prefer to content myself with giving a representation of the Faith of Islám from its own authorities, and with leaving my readers to make comparisons and draw inferences for themselves.
THE END.
{265}
* * * * *
INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS.
A.
Aiyám-i-Bíz, 214 Aiyám-ut-Tashríq, 231 'Alam, 238 Al-A'ráf, 167 Al-Barzakh, 168 Al-Mahdí, 80 Akhir-Chár Shambah, 244 'Amm, 48 Amr-i-Takwíti, 176 Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, 150 Ásár-i-Sharíf, 245 Asháb, 7 'Áshúrá, 241 'Áshúr Khána, 237 Asmá-i-Husná, 133 Attahíyát, 197 Auliya, 152 Áyat, 54 Áyat-ul-Kursí, 212 Azád, 95 Azán, 193
B.
Bárá Wafát, 244 Baqáb-i-Qausain, 158 Baqr-'íd, 252 bid'at, 14 Buráq, 241
D.
Dá,írí, 81 Dalálat, 53 Dalíl-i-qata'í, 187 Dalíl-i-zani, 187 Darwíshes, 94 Dargáh, 258 Du'á, 197
F.
Faná, 93 Farú', 120 Farz, 187 Farz-í-'ain, 208 Farz-i-kifáya, 207 Fatrah, 3 Fitrat, 187 Fuqihá, 33
G.
Ghair-i-Mahdí, 81 Ghusl, 190 Gunáh-i-kabíra, 154 Gunáh-i-saghíra, 154 {266}
H.
Hadís-i-Ahád, 70 Hadís-i-Hasan, 71 Hadís-i-Mua'llaq, 72 Hadís-i-Mursal, 72 Hadís-i-Mutawátír, 70 Hadís-i-Sahíh, 71 Hadís-i-Z'aíf, 71 Hadd, 179 Háfiz, 42 Haft Sifát, 118 Hajj, 223 Hajr-ul-Aswad, 226 Hál, 93 Haqíqat, 52, 93 Harám, 188 Hárút, 142 Hasal Khazaf, 230
I.
Ibádhiyah, 76 Ibárat, 53 Iblís, 140 'Íd-gáh, 245 'Íd-ul-Fitr, 247 Iftár, 250 Ihlál, 224 Ihrám, 224 Ijmá', 16 Ijmá'-i-Ummat, 17 Ijtihád, 17, 26, 32 Ijtihád fi'l-Masá,íl, 34 Ijtihád fi'l-Mazhab, 34 Ijtihád fi'l-Sharí', 34 Ilhám, 37 Ilká, 40 'Ilm-i-usúl, 41 Imám, 75 Imám Abu Hanífa, 19 Imám Ibn Málik, 20 Imám As-Sháfa'í, 21 Imám Ibn Hanbal, 22 Imámat, 75 Imám Bára, 237 Imán-i-mufassal, 116 Imán-i-mujmal, 116 Istidlál, 53 Ishárat, 53 Ishrák fi'l-'ibádat, 108 Ishrák fi'l-adab, 109 Isnád, 67 'Itikáf, 249 Iqámat, 194 Iqtizá, 54 I'tibár-ul-Amsál, 27
J.
Jabríans, 132 Jahannum, 172 Jámí'-i-Tirmizí, 86 Jamrat-ul-Akahah, 230 Jannat, 171 Jashn-i-milád-i-sharíf, 245 Jinn, 145 Juz, 56
K.
K'aba, 227 Kalám, 135 {267} Kalima, 54, 116 Karámians, 163 Kasb, 130 Kausar, 171 Kináyah, 52 Kirám-ul-Kátibín, 141 Kitmán, 91 Khafí, 50 Khárigites, 76 Kháss, 48 Kharq-i-'ádat, 157 Khulafá-i-Ráshidín, 66 Khutba, 201
L.
Labbaik, 225 Lahad, 211 Lailat-ul-Qadr, 2
M.
Mahmúdiah, 83 Majáz, 52 Majzúb, 95 Maukadda', 200 Makrúh, 188 Mansúkh, 59 Maqám-i-Mahmúd, 169 Marsiya, 238 Márút, 142 Mihráb, 243 Mimbar, 239 Míqát, 225 Mízán, 165 Mua'qqibát, 141 Muawwal, 48 Mu,azzin, 193 Mubáh, 188 Mufassir, 33, 50 Mufsid, 188 Muhaddis, 67 Mujassimians, 131 Mu'jizát, 157 Mujmal, 51 Mujtahid, 17 Mukham, 50 Munkir, 145 Murshid, 92 Mutashábih, 52 Musallí, 193 Mushábihites, 131 Mus-haf, 147 Muharram, 237 Muskhil, 51 Mustahab, 188 Mu'takif, 249 Mustarik, 48 Muta'h, 84 Mutazilites, 125
N.
Nabí, 153 Nafkhatain-i-Súr, 161 Nafl, 199 Nakír, 145 Namáz, 193 Nass, 50 Násikh, 59 Nisáb, 218 Niyyat, 194 Núr-i-Muhammadí, 77 {268}
Q.
Qadam-i-Rasúl, 245 Qadríans, 174 Qazá, 214 Qíám, 194 Qíás, 27, 28 Qirá,at, 43 Qárí, 43
R.
Rak'at, 195 Ramazán, 247 Ramí-ul-Jamár, 230 Rasúl, 153 Rauza Khán, 258 Roza, 213 Roza-i-nazr, 214 Roza-i-kafára, 214 Rúh-ul-Ámín, 4 Rukú', 56 Rúz-i-Tarwiáh, 229
S.
Sadqa, 250 Sahá,íf-i-A'mál, 165 Sahíh-i-Bukhárí, 67 Sahíh-i-Muslim, 68 S'ai, 229 Salát, 193 Salát-ul-'Asr, 200 Salát-ul-Fajr, 200 Salát-ul-'Ishá, 200 Salát-ul-Ishráq, 200 Salát-ul-Istisqá, 206 Salát-ul-Istikhára, 213 Salát-ul-Janáza, 207 Salát-ul-Juma', 200 Salát-ul-Khauf, 204 Salát-ul-Khusúf, 206 Salát-ul-Kusúf, 205 Salát-ul-Maghrib, 200 Salát-ul-Musáfir, 204 Salát-ut-Taráwíh, 206 Salát-ul-Tahajjud, 200 Salát-uz-Zuhá, 200 Salát-uz-Zuhr, 200 Sálik, 92 Saríh, 52 Shafá'at-i-ba-izn, 108 Shafá'at-i-muhabbat, 107 Shafá'at-i-wajahat, 107 Shirk, 105 Shirk-ul-'Ádat, 109 Shirk-ul-ibádat, 108 Shirk-ul-'ilm, 107 Shirk-ut-tasarruf, 107 Sifát-i-Salbiah, 123 Sifát-i-Sabútiah, 123 Sihah-Sittah, 67 Sípára, 56 Sirát, 166 Sufíism, 87-101 Sunan-i-Abu Dáúd, 68 Sunan-i-Nasáí, 68 Sunan-i-Májah, 69 Sunnat, 10 Súra, 55
T.
Ta'awwuz, 195 {269} Taba-i-Tábi'ín, 7 Tábi'ín, 7 Tábút, 238 Tahárat, 189 Tahríf, 149 Takbír, 193 Takía, 84 Talbíyah, 225 Talqín, 212 Tasbíh, 195 Tashahhud, 188 Tasmía', 195 Tasmíyah, 195 Tatáír-i-Sahá,íf, 163 Tauhíd, 106 Tauqífi, 132 Tawáf, 227 Tawáf-ul-Widá', 231 Tayammum, 190 Tázíah, 238
U.
Usúl, 120 'Umráh, 231
W.
Wahhábís, 101 Wahí, 37 Wajd, 93 Wájib, 187 Wájib-ul-Wajúd, 132 Wáqi'a Khán, 239 Wazú, 189 Witr, 198
Z.
Zakát, 218-222 Záhir, 49 Ziárat, 233
* * * * *
NOTES
[1] There is an excellent one by Neil B. E. Baillie. The question of Jihád is fully discussed in Dr. Hunter's _Our Indian Musalmáns_.
[2] "Let none touch it but the purified." (Súra lvi. 78.)
[3] "It was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his to bring down the whole Korán at once to the lowest heaven only, and not to the earth, as a bungling prophet would have done; for if the whole had been published at once, innumerable objections might have been made, which it would have been very hard, if not impossible for him to solve; but as he pretended to receive it by parcels, as God saw proper that they should be published for the conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure way to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from any difficulty which might occur." (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section III.)
[4] Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 77.
[5] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. p. 195.
[6] "The grandeur of the Qurán consists, its contents apart, in its diction. We cannot explain the peculiarly dignified, impressive, sonorous nature of Semitic sound and parlance; its sesquipedalia verba with their crowd of affixes and prefixes, each of them affirming its own position, whilst consciously bearing upon and influencing the central root--which they envelope like a garment of many folds, or as chosen courtiers move around the anointed person of the king." Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 122.
[7] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 194.
[8] Those who were in constant intercourse with the prophet are called Asháb (Companions); their disciples are named Tábi'ín (Followers); their disciples are known as Taba-i-Tábi'ín (Followers of the Followers)."
[9] "Thus, after the usual distribution of the spoils taken on the field of Cadesia (A.H. 14) the residue was divided among those who knew most of the Corán." Muir, vol. i. p. 5.
[10] Muavia.
[11] The twelve Imáms.
[12] Al-Mahdí is still supposed to be alive.
[13] These are called (1) Sunnat-i-Fi'lí; that which Muhammad himself did. (2) Sunnat-i-Qaulí, that which he said should be practised. (3) Sunnat-i-Taqrírí, that which was done in his presence and which he did not forbid.
[14] Risála-i-Berkeví.
[15] The great Wahhábí preacher Muhammad Ismá'íl, of whom some account will be given later on, says in the Takwiat-ul-Imán:--"The best of all ways is to have for principles the words (holy writings) of God and _of His Apostle_; to hold them alone as precedents, and not to allow our own opinion to be exercised."
[16] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 195.
[17] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 16.
[18] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 285.
[19] "Les docteurs de la loi sont unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation de conformer ses actions à ce qui est indiqué dans les traditions attribuées au Prophète," Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 465.
[20] In June 1827, A.D., Sultán Mahmud issued a manifesto protesting against interference in the affairs of the Ottomán Empire, "the affairs of which are conducted upon the principles of _sacred legislation_, and all the regulations of which are strictly connected with the principles of religion." These principles still remain in force, for the famous Fatvá given by the Council of the 'Ulamá, in July 1879, anent Khair-ud-dín's proposed reforms, speaks of "the unalterable principles of the Sheri," or Law.
[21] "The respect which modern Muslims pay to their Prophet is almost idolatrous. The Imám Ibn Hanbal would not even eat water-melons because although he knew the Prophet ate them, he could not learn whether he ate them with or without the rind, or whether he broke, bit or cut them: and he forbade a woman, who questioned him as to the propriety of the act, to spin by the light of torches passing in the streets by night, because the Prophet had not mentioned that it was lawful to do so." Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 354.
[22] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 1009.
[23] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 469.
[24] Journal Asiatique 4me série, tom. xii.
[25] Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs, p. 29.
[26] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 594.
[27] Ibid., p. 546.
[28] Ibid., vol. ii. p. 548.
[29] In South India, the Muhammadan money-changer resorts to a curious piece of casuistry to reconcile the practice of his profession with the faith he holds. It is wrong to gain money by money as a direct agency. Suppose, then, for example, that the charge for changing a shilling is one farthing. It is unlawful for the money-changer to give four three-penny pieces for one shilling plus one farthing, for then he will have sinned against the laws anent usury by gaining money (one farthing) by money; but if he gives three three-penny pieces plus two pence three farthings in copper the transaction will be lawful, as his profit of one farthing is then gained by selling as merchandize certain pieces of silver and copper for one shilling, and not by exactly changing the shilling.
Again, pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful; and so, when British rupees were first circulated in India, good Muslims doubted whether they could use them, but after a long consultation the 'Ulamá declared that, as the eye of His Majesty was so small as not to be clearly visible, the use of such coins was legal. This kind of casuistry is very common and very demoralizing; but it shows how rigid the law is.
[30] "Authority becomes sacred because sanctioned by heaven. Despotism, being the first form of consolidated political authority, is thus rendered unchangeable and identical in fact with Government at large." "Supreme Government has four stages: (1) where the absolute Prince (Muhammad) is among them concentrating in his own person the four cardinal virtues, and this we call the reign of wisdom; (2) where the Prince appears no longer, neither do these virtues centre in any single person: but are found in four (Abu Bakr, Omar, Osmán and 'Alí), who govern in concert with each other, as if they were one, and this we call the reign of the pious; (3) where none of these is to be found any longer, but a chief (Khalíf) arises with a knowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones, and with judgment enough to apply and explain them, and this we call the reign of the Sunnat; (4) Where these latter qualities, again, are not to be met with in a single person, but only in a variety who govern in concert; and this we call the reign of the Sunnat-followers.--Akhlák-i-Jalálí, pp. 374. 378.
[31] Life of Muhammad, by Syed Amír 'Alí, p. 289.
[32] The Muslim 'Ulamá are certainly much fettered by their religion in the pursuit of some of the paths of learning; and superstition sometimes decides a point which has been controverted for centuries. Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 269.
[33] The Goth might ravage Italy, but the Goth came forth purified from the flames which he himself had kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but the music of the Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and wooed him into less churlish habits. Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out their ferocity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven to extinguish. Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, was touched and softened in his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains; but the Turk--wherever his scymitar reached--degraded, defiled, and defamed; blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until, when all had gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for two hundred years into hopeless decrepitude. Lieut.-Col. W. F. Butler, C.B., in _Good Words_ for September 1880.
[34] "The Muslim everywhere, after a brilliant passage of prosperity, seems to stagnate and wither, because there is nothing in his system or his belief which lifts him above the level of a servant, and on that level man's life in the long run must not only stagnate but decay. The Christian, on the other hand, seems everywhere in the last extremity to bid disorganization and decay defiance, and to find, Antæus-like, in the earth which he touches, the spring of a new and fruitful progress. For there is that in his belief, his traditions, and in the silent influences which pervade the very atmosphere around him, which is ever moving him, often in ways that he knows not, to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself with the power which the Gospel proposes as the prize of his Christian calling. The submissive servant of Allah is the highest type of Moslem perfection; the Christian ideal is the Christ-like son."--_British Quarterly, No._ cxxx.
[35] A Mukallif is one who is subject to the Law. A Ghair-i-Mukallif is one not so subject, such as a minor, an idiot, &c. The term Mukallif is thus equivalent to a consistent Muslim, one who takes trouble (taklíf) in his religious duties.
[36] Commentators on the Qurán.
[37] The Traditionists.
[38] Plural of Faqíh, a theologian.
[39] I have given the dates of their death.
[40] Osborn's Islám under the Khalífs p. 72.
[41] Dabistán, p. 214.
[42] pp. 508-510.
[43] "It (the Qurán) is simply an instruction for all mankind" (Súra xii. 104).
[44] Zawábit-al-Qurán, pp. 110, 111.
[45] The opinion of Von Hammer, quoted by Sir W. Muir, in his life of Muhammad (vol. i. page 27) seems to be correct, "We may hold the Qurán to be as surely Muhammad's words as the Muhammadans hold it to be the Word of God."
[46] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. iii. p. 16.
[47] "Were we to examine the Qurán by the rules of rhetoric and criticism as they are taught in Muslim schools, we should be obliged to acknowledge that it is the perfection of thought and expression; an inevitable result as the Muslims drew their principles of rhetoric from that very book."--Baron M. de Slane, in the introduction to Ibu Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary.
[48] There are many Traditions which refer to this fact. Omar Ibn al Khattáb said; "I accorded with my cherisher (_i.e._, God) in three things. One is that I said, 'O messenger of God! if we were to say our prayers in Abraham's place it would be better.' Then a revelation came down 'Take the place of Abraham for a place of prayer.' The second is, that I said, 'O messenger of God! good and bad people come to your house; and I do not see that it is fitting; therefore, if you order your women to be shut up it will be better.' Then the revelation for doing so came down. The third is, that his Majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his drinking honey; and he had vowed never to drink it more. Then I said to his Majesty's wives, 'Should the Prophet divorce you, God will give him better in exchange.' Then a revelation, came down agreeing with what I said."
'Áyesha said:--"I was reflecting on those women who had given themselves to the Prophet, and said 'What! does a woman give herself away?' Then the revelation descended:, 'Thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wilt of them, and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom thou wilt, and whomsoever thou shalt long for of those thou shalt have before neglected: and this shall be no crime in thee.' (Súra xxxiii. 51). I said; 'I see nothing in which your God doth not hasten to please you: whatsoever you wish He doeth.'"
[49] Les Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 459.
[50] This includes even the orthography, for:--"La génération suivante, je veux dire les Tábis (Tába'ín), adopta l'orthographe des Compagnons du Prophète et se fit un mérite de ne point s'écarter des formes adoptées par ceux qui, après Mahommed, étaient les plus excellent des hommes et qui avaient recu de lui les révélations célestes, soit par écrit, soit de vive voix." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 397.
[51] This interpretation God made known to the Prophet, who communicated it to the Companions, hence all orthodox opinion must be in strict accordance with theirs. They were the sole depositaries of the inspired commentary given by Muhammad. There is now no room for, as there is no need of, any other.
[52] Speaking on this very subject Ibn Khaldoun says:--"Rien de tout cela n'a pu se connaître que par des indications provenant des Compagnons et de leurs disciples." Vol. ii. p. 460.
[53] Ibn Khaldoun says that Zamakchori, (a theologian of good repute for learning in the sixth century A.H.), remarked on these letters as follows:--They indicate that the style of the Qurán is carried to such a degree of excellence, that it defies every attempt to imitate it; for this book which has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of letters. All men know them all alike, but this power disappears when, in order to express their ideas, they want to use these same letters combined."
On this curious passage Baron de Slane remarks that the author is not very clear, and that the Turkish translator of Ibn Khaldoun gives the sense of the passage as:--"God has placed these letters in several Súras as a sort of defiance; as if He had said:--'Voilà les éléments dont se compose le Coran; prenez-les et faites-eu un livre qui l'égale par le style.'" Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 68.
[54] The last verse revealed at Mecca was, "This day have I perfected your religion for you, and have filled up the measure of my favours upon you; and it is my pleasure that Islám be your religion; but whoso without wilful leanings to wrong shall be forced by hunger to transgress, to him, verily, will God be indulgent, merciful." (Súra v. 5). Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 206.
[55] The arrangement made by Professor Th. Nöldeke in his "Geschichte des Quráns" is considered by Stanley Lane Poole to be the best. Rodwell's English version of the Qurán is, with some exceptions, an example of this order.
[56] On ordinary occasions any verses may be chosen. The 112th Súra is the one generally repeated.
[57] Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 216.
[58] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 131.
[59] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268. See note on this in chapter 4. Section 'Prophets.'
[60] Niáz Namáh, by Maulavi Safdar 'Ali, p. 250.
[61] Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii, p. 679.
[62] "He ranked as a high authority in the Traditions and was well versed in all the sciences connected with them." Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii. p. 680.
[63] The Káfi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A.H. 329. The Man-lá-yastah-zirah-al-Faqíh, by Shaikh 'Alí, A.H. 381. The Tahzíb and the Istibsár by Shaikh Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A.H. 466. The Nahaj-ul-Balághat by Sayyud Razí A.H. 406.
[64] If the Isnád is good, internal improbability carries with it little weight against the genuineness of a Tradition. There is a saying current to this effect:--"A relation made by Sháfa'í on the authority of Málik, and by him on the authority of Nafi, and by him on the authority of Ibn Omar, is really the golden chain."
[65] Núr-ul-Hidáyah, p. 5.
[66] A full account of these will be found in the preface to the Núr-ul-Hidáyah, the Urdu translation of the Sharh-i-Waqáyah.
[67] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 123.
[68] Kisas-ul-Anbiya,--"Lives of the Prophets."
[69] Hyát-un-Nafís.
[70] The Shía'hs in claiming freedom from sin for the infallible Imáms are more logical than the Romanists, thus:--
"If we are to believe in the inerrability of a person, or a body of persons, because it is, forsooth, necessary for the full preservation of the truth, we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to be needful for the perfect attainment of that end. Now, the conservation of all spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect. It requires the faultless action of the perceiving power of the spirit. That is to say, it requires the exclusion of sin; and the man or body that is to be infallible, must also be a sinless organ. It is necessary that the tainting, blinding, distorting power of sin should be shut out from the spiritual eye of the infallible judge." Gladstone's _Gleanings_, vol. iii. p. 260.
[71] It is a common Musalmán belief that the body of a prophet casts no shadow. A similar idea regarding necromancers was widely spread over Northern Europe. It is alluded to by Scott in the "Lay of the Last Minstrel," where speaking of the father of the Ladye, who in Padua, "had learned the art that none might name," he says:--
"His form no darkening shadow traced Upon the sunny wall."
It is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for magical honours were in danger of being caught by the devil. Now if the devil could only catch the shadow, and the man escaped, though so nearly captured, he became a great magician. This is evidently a legend to explain a previous belief. Muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were prevalent in the Universities of Southern Europe, and Salamanca and Padua were the universities, in which it was supposed that the greatest proficiency in magic was obtained. The superstition has evidently some connection with the Musalmán belief regarding the shadows of prophets.
[72] The Sunnís esteem and respect the Imáms, as Ahl-i-Beit--men of the House, (of the Prophet); but do not give them precedence over the duly appointed Khalífs.
[73] The names are 'Alí, Hasan, Husain, Zain-ul-'Abid-dín, Muhammad Báqr, Ja'far Sádiq, Musa Kázim, 'Alí Músa Razá, Muhammad Taqí, Muhammad Naqí, Hasan 'Askarí, Abu 'l-Qásim (or Imám Mahdí).
[74] Rauzat-ul-Aimmah by Sayyid 'Izzat 'Alí.
[75] For a good account of this movement see, Osborn's Islám under the Arabs, pp. 168-184.
[76] Islám under the Khalífs, p. 139.
[77] Miskát-ul-Musábih.
[78] Hujjat-ullah-ul-Balaghah.
[79] Nothing shows this more plainly than the Fatvá pronounced by the Council of the 'Ulamá in July 1879 anent Khaír-ud-din's proposed reform, which would have placed the Sultán in the position of a constitutional sovereign. This was declared to be directly contrary to the Law. Thus:-- "The law of the Sheri does not authorize the Khalíf to place beside him a power superior to his own. The Khalíf ought to reign alone and govern as master. The Vakils (Ministers) should never possess any authority beyond that of representatives, always dependent and submissive. It would consequently be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the Sheri, which should be the guide of _all_ the actions of the Khalíf, to transfer the supreme power of the Khalíf to one Vakil." This, the latest and most important decision of the jurists of Islám, is quite in accordance with all that has been said about Muhammadan Law. It proves as clearly as possible that so long as the Sultán rules as Khalíf, he must oppose any attempt to set up a constitutional Government. There is absolutely no hope of reform.
[80] It is instructive to compare the words of the Christian poet with the Súfí idea of absorption into the Divine Being.
"That each who seems a separate whole Should move his rounds, and fusing all The skirts of self again, should fall Remerging in the general soul,
Is faith as vague as all unsweet: Eternal form shall still divide The eternal soul from all beside; And I shall know him when we meet." Tennyson's "In Memoriam."
[81] "Le spiritualisme des Sofis, quoiqu'il soit le contraire du matérialisme, lui est en réalité identique. Mais si leur doctrine n'est pas plus raisonnable, elle est du moins plus élevee et plus poétique." Poésie Philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin De Tassy, p. 2.
[82] Kaf--a chain of mountains supposed to encircle the earth.
[83] 'Anka--the Phoenix.
[84] "Ils pensent que la Bible et le Coran ont été seulement écrits pour l'homme qui se contente de l'apparence des choses, qui s'occupe de l'extérieur, pour le _záhir parast_, comme ils le nomment, et non pour le sofi qui sonde le fond des choses." La Poésie Philosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 13.
[85] The word Darvísh, or Darwísh, is of Persian origin. It is derived from 'dar,' a door, and 'wíz' the root of the verb 'awíkhtan,' to hang; hence the idea of hanging about doors, or begging. The 'z' is changed into 'sh' and the word becomes 'Darwísh.' Some Musalmáns, however, do not like this idea of holy men being called by a name which implies the habit of begging, and so they propose another derivation. They derive it from "dur," a pearl, and "wísh," like; and so a durwísh is one 'like a pearl.' The wísh is from wásh, a lengthened form of wash, an affix of common use to express similitude; or the long vowel in wásh may by a figure of speech, called Imála, be changed into the í of wísh. I think the first derivation the more probable. A good Persian dictionary, the Ghíás-ul-Lugbát, gives both derivations.
[86] For a very interesting account of this religious ceremony, see Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism, Chapter 51.
[87] La Poésie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 7.
[88] Súfí doctrines of the Moollá Sháh by Tawakkul Beg. Journal Asiatique 6me Série, tom. 13.
[89] "That Omar in his impiety was false to his better nature we may readily admit, while, at the same time, we may find some excuse for his errors, if we remember the state of the world at that time. His clear strong sense revolted from the prevailing mysticism where all the earnest spirits of his age found their refuge, and his honest independence was equally shocked by the hypocrites who aped their fervour and enthusiasm; and at that dark hour of man's history whither, out of Islám, was the thoughtful Muhammadan to repair? No missionary's step, bringing good tidings, had appeared on the mountains of Persia; the few Christians who might cross his path in his native land, would only seem to him idolaters." Speaking, too, of Sa'di's life the reviewer says: "almost the only point of contact with Christendom is his slavery under the Crusaders at Tripoli. The same isolation runs through all the golden period of Persian Literature"--_Calcutta Review_, No. lix.
[90] The following are the names of the Wahhábí chiefs:--Muhammad-Ibn-Saud, died A.D. 1765; 'Abd-ul-Azíz, assassinated, 1803; Saud-Ibn-'Abd-ul-Azíz, died 1814; 'Abd-Ulláh-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818; Turki, assassinated 1830; Fayzul, died 1866; 'Abd-Ulláh, still living. Hughes Notes, p. 221.
[91] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. ii. p. 10.
[92] According to the latest Census Report there are 4,000 in the Madras Presidency, where the total Musalmán population is about 2,000,000.
[93] Mudárij-un-Nabuwat, p. 149.
[94] Palgrave's Arabia vol. i. p. 369.
[95] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372.
[96] Ibid, p. 372.
[97] Muhammad Ismá'íl concludes his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Imán, with the prayer--"O Lord teach us by Thy grace, the meaning of the terms Bid'at and Sunnat, and the Law of the Prophet. Make us pure Sunnís and strictly submissive to the Sunnat." This is a clear and distinct proof that Wahhábís do not reject Tradition as a basis of the Faith. It also shows their horror of innovation, and reveals the little hope there is of any real progress through their influence.
[98] "Mr. Finlay, the clever but partial author of "The Byzantine Empire," has declared in a sweeping way 'that there is no greater delusion than to speak of the unity of the Christian Church.' However this may be, I can affirm the perfect applicability of this sentence to Islám in the East. In no part of the world is there more of secret division, aversion, misbelief (taking Muhammadanism as our standard), and unbelief than in those very lands which to a superficial survey, seem absolutely identified in the one common creed of the Qurán and its author."--Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 10.
[99] Strictly speaking, this chapter should be entitled the 'Faith of Islám,' as the subject of it is technically called Imán, or faith. The Kalima, or creed is, in the strict sense, the expression of belief in one God, and in Muhammad as His apostle. I here use the word creed in the usual sense of a body of dogmas.
[100] Iqrárun bil-lisáni wa tasdíqun bil janáni.
[101] Amantu billáhi kama hua bismáíhi wa sifátíhi wa qabiltu jamí'a ahkámihi.
[102] Amantu billáhi wa maláíkatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihi wal-youm-íl-ákhiri wal-qadri khairihi wa sharrihi min alláhi ta'álá wal-ba'si ba'd al-mouti.
[103] He speaks of it thus: "l'ouvrage élémentaire de la religion Musulmane le plus estimé et le plus répandu en Turquie," p. 154.
[104] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 27.
[105] The above statements form the substance of several pages in the "Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun," in which also occurs the following: "Cela n'est pas toutefois un motif pour déprécier notre intelligence et nos facultés perceptives: l'intelligence est une balance parfaitement juste: elle nous fournit des résultats certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne doit pas employer cette balance pour peser les choses qui se rattachent à l'unité de Dieu, à la vie future, à la nature du prophétisme, au véritable caractère des attributs divine et à tout ce qui est au delà de sa porteé. Vouloir le faire, ce serait une absurdité." Vol. iii. p. 45.
[106] "Telle fut la règle suivie par les anciens musulmans à l'égard des verses motachabeh; ils l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du même genre qui se présentent dans la Sonna, parce qu'elles proviennent de la même source que celles du Coran." Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 67.
This passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source and origin of the Qurán and the Sunnat.
[107] Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. p. 565.
[108] "The Musulmán Authors distinguish between the earlier and later Mutakallimán. The former (of whom we here treat) were occupied with purely religious questions; the latter, who arose after the introduction of the Greek philosophy amongst Muslims, embraced many philosophic notions, though they tried to make them fit in with their religious opinions." Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, p. 320.
[109] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250.
[110] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 250.
[111] Dabistán, p. 218.
[112] Ibn Khallikan, vol. iii, p. 343.
[113] "C'etait l'époque de la plus grande splendeur extérieure de l'empire des Arabes, où leur pouvoir, et en même temps leur culture intellectuelle et littáraire, atteignirent leur point culminant." Journal Asiatique 4me Série, Tome xii. p. 104.
[114] To understand the bearing of all the discussions that then took place, the reader should have some acquaintance with the history of the Khalífs, and of the rise and progress of Muslim philosophy. The former can be found in Osborn's "Khalífs of Baghdád." A short review of the latter will be found in a note at the end of this chapter.
[115] Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii p. 669.
[116] Ibid, p. 228.
[117] Ibn Khaldoun says: "L'établissement des preuves (fondées sur la raison) fut adopté par les (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujet de leur traités, mais il ne fut pas, comme chez les philosophes, une tentative pour arriver à la découverte de la vérité et pour obtenir, au moyen de la démonstration, la connaissance de ce qui était ignoré jusqu' alors. Les scolastiques recherchaient des preuves intellectuelles dans le but de confirmer la vérité des dogmes, de justifier les opinions des premiers Musalmans et de repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les novateurs avaient émises." Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 169.
[118] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 63
[119] "Most excellent titles has God: by these call ye on Him and stand aloof from those who pervert His titles." (Súra vii. 179.)
[120] "The Mujassimians, or Corporealists not only admitted a resemblance between God and created beings, but declared God to be corporeal." Sale's Preliminary discourse, Section viii. para. 3.
[121] Ibn Khallikan, vol. iv. p. 394.
[122] "The Freethinkers (Mutazilites) left no traces of themselves except in the controversial treatises which they had written. These were destroyed, and with their destruction the last vestiges of the conflict between Free-thought and the spirit of Islám were obliterated." Osborn's Khalífs of Baghdád, p. 148.
[123] Súra xxxix, 68, 69.
[124] L'Islamisme d'après le Coran, p. 135.
[125] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 112.
[126] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 187.
[127] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 58.
[128] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 19.
[129] "From the beginning of history the Caucasus is to civilized nations, both Greek and Oriental, the boundary of geographical knowledge--indeed, the boundary of the world itself."--Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat, p. 48.
[130] See also Súra xxxviii. 89.
[131] Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 140.
[132] Thus the famous Persian poet Sa'dí says in the Bustán, "Yetímí kih nákardah Qurán darust, kutub khána-i-chand millat bashust."--"The Perfect one who, ere the whole of Gabriel's book he reads, has blotted out the library of all the peoples' creeds."
[133] Sharh-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 147. Mansukh shud tiláwatan wa Kitábatan, _i.e._ abrogated both as regards reading and writing--entirely abrogated. Also Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 64. Dín-i-wai Násikh-i-jami'-i-adián ast.--"His religion abrogates all religions."
[134] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268. This Commentary is written in Urdu, but the author has made a translation for the benefit of the English reader. The passage referred to reads thus in English: "Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken, and we do not believe that the Zuboor (Book of Psalms) abrogated the Taureit (Pentateuch); that the Taureit in turn gave way to the Injeel (New Testament) and that the New Testament was suppressed by the Holy Korán. We hold no such doctrine, and if any ignorant Muhammadan should assert to the contrary, he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and articles of his faith." The learned Syed here assumes the rôle of a liberal Musalmán, but the English translation is different from his Urdu text which, literally translated, is as follows:--"Now it should be considered that those who imagine it to be part of the creed of Muslims that the Taurát by the coming of the Zabúr, and the Zabúr by the coming of the Injíl, and the Injíl by the coming of the Qurán are abrogated _on account of the idea that there is any defect in them_ are utterly mistaken, &c."
The clause which I have italicised is entirely omitted in the English text; but it alters the import of the whole passage. To his co-religionists the Syed says in effect: "The books _are abrogated_ but not because they were imperfect." Now, as no Muslim would believe that a divine book was defective, the Syed is simply asserting the fact of the abrogation of the previous Scriptures and to the orthodox is orthodox. The leader of an apparently liberal section of Indian Musalmáns is, in this instance, at least, as conservative as the most bigoted.
[135] Syed Ahmad's Commentary on the Holy Bible, vol. i. p. 22.
[136] Ibid, p. 31.
[137] There are many other such passages. They are given in detail, with the interpretation of approved commentators, in a small S. P. C. K. publication--The Korán--by Sir W. Muir.
[138] Commentary on the Holy Bible, by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. pp. 64-95.
[139] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59.
[140] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 59.
[141] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 65.
[142] Prolégomènes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. pp. 196-205.
[143] "That the "Auliya" are distinguished above ordinary mortals is maintained on the authority of:--"Are not the friends (Auliya) of God, those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief." (Súra x. 63.)
[144] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 125.
[145] Sirát-ul-Islám, p. 18.
[146] This is an orthodox blow at the Shía'h practices in the month of Muharram. Shía'hs consider this a good act.
[147] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 18.
[148] It is said Adam's sin was a mere slip but it brought good to the world. Had he remained in Paradise the world would not have been peopled; and the word of God "I have not created men and jinns, except for worship," would not have been fulfilled.
[149] That is, according to the commentator Beidawí,--"Thy remissness in propagating Islám."
[150] Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 332.
[151] On the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power. Thus the Quraish said: "By no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a fountain to gush forth for us from the earth; or, till thou have a garden of palm-trees and grapes, and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst; or thou make the heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, in pieces; or thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say: Am I more than a man, an Apostle?" (Súra xvii. 92-95). Former prophets, Muhammad used to say, were sent to their own sect, but he was sent for all. Their miracles were confined to their own times. The Qurán the great miracle of Islám, was for all ages. He needed no other sign than this.
[152] "Have We not opened thine heart for thee." (Súra xciv. 1). Tradition relates that when young, two angels cut open his breast, and took out a black drop; many other marvels are also connected with this event.
[153] Sharh-i-Aqáíd-i-Jámí.
[154] Tafsír-i-Husainí. p. 362
[155] For a graphic account of these events see "Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch," pp. 99-112.
[156] "All that Muhammadans must believe respecting the Mi'ráj is that the Prophet saw himself, in a vision, transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, and that in such a vision he really beheld some of the greatest signs of his Lord." Essays by Syed Ahmad, Essay vi. p. 34. This, though a legitimate, is not, however, an orthodox opinion; which is, that he who denies an actual bodily migration from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Káfir, (infidel) as he denies the statement of a 'nass' or plain text of the Qurán. He who denies the ascension to heaven, and the wonderful account of the night's proceedings preserved in the Traditions is a "fásiq," (sinner), though he remains a Muslim.
[157] Some commentators make no distinction between the first and second blast, as only two are distinctly mentioned in the Qurán.
[158] Sharh-i-'Aqáíd-i-Jámí, p. 183.
[159] According to Búkhárí and to Muslim, this perspiration will flow to a distance of seventy yards from, and reach up to the lobe of the ears of those who perspire.
[160] "That is, they will know the inhabitants of Paradise by their whiteness, and the people of Hell by the blackness of their faces."
[161] For some curious opinions with regard to the state of the soul there see Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv., p. 55.
[162] Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 47.
[163] Tafsír-i-Husainí, vol. i. p. 397.
[164] Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 25.
[165] Miskát-ul-Musábíh, book xxiii. ch. 12.
[166] "Although some Muhammadans, whose understandings are too refined to admit such gross conceptions, look on their Prophet's description as parabolical, and are willing to receive them in an allegorical or spiritual acceptation, yet the general and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is to be strictly believed in the obvious and literal acceptance." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv. p. 73.
[167] This, the Lauh-ul-Mahfúz, is referred to in Súra lxxxv. 22, as that on which the Qurán is written. In Súra xxxvi. 11, the actions of men are said to be written in "the clear book of our decrees." This is called the Imám-ul-Mubín, the clear prototype.
[168] "The Prophet of God said that Adam and Moses (in the world of Spirits) maintained a debate before God, and Adam got the better of Moses, who said, "Thou art that Adam, whom God created and breathed into thee His own Spirit, and made the angels bow down before thee, and placed thee in Paradise; after which, thou threwest man upon the earth, from the fault which thou didst commit.' Adam replied, 'Thou art that Moses, whom God selected for His prophecy and to converse with, and He gave thee twelve tables, in which are explained everything, and he made thee His confidant and the bearer of His secrets; then how long was the Bible written before I was created?' Moses said, 'Forty years.' Then said Adam, 'Didst thou see in the Bible that Adam disobeyed God?' 'Yes.' 'Dost thou reproach me on a matter, which God wrote in the Bible forty years before creating me?'"
[169] Ibn Kah, commenting on the verse, "When thy Lord brought forth their descendants from the reins of the sons of Adam and took them to witness against themselves, 'Am I not,' said He, 'your Lord,' They said: 'yes, we witness it.'" (Súra vii. 171), goes on to say: "God formed all the prophets and saints into one class, and the martyrs into another. The pious men, also, were separated into one, and the wicked into another. One class was formed of the obedient servants, while the unbelievers, _viz_., the Jews, the Christians, the Majians, the Hindus, &c., were likewise divided into several parties; next, they were shaped into forms, that is, into the shape in which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each one." This passage is quoted with approval by the Wahhábí author of the Takwiyat-ul-Imán.
[170] The orthodox Commentator 'Abbás says: "This verse refers to the decree, _e.g._ 'He whom God wills to believe certainly will do so, and whom He wills to be an infidel will be one,' and not at all to man's free will." Tafsír-Hisainí, vol. ii. page 9.
[171] Mélanges de Philosophe Juive et Arabe par S. Munk. p. 458.
[172] Thus the poet Faizí says: "Before thou and I were thought of, our free will was taken from our hands; be without cares, for the Maker of both worlds settled our affairs long before we were made."
[173] The punishment of death is sometimes decreed for lesser offences. In the latter part of the year 1879, one of the Turkish 'Ulamá, named Ahmad, was condemned to death for having assisted Dr. Koelle, an English clergyman residing in Constantinople, in the translation of the Book of Common Prayer, and a tract on 'Christ the Word of God.' Owing to the urgent representations of the British Ambassador the Khojah's life was spared, but he was banished to the island of Chio. The Porte promised to maintain his family whilst he was absent. It need scarcely be said that nothing of the kind has been done.
[174] Journal Asiatique 4me Série, tome 17, p. 582
[175] This is the Sháfa'íte form which the Hanifites consider wrong.
[176] Kingsley's Alexandria and her Schools, p. 160.
[177] Les Prairies D'or, tome sixième, p. 368.
[178] Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 315.
[179] For a statement of the Ash'arían doctrines see pp. 130-131.
[180] Strictly speaking, one should not speak of Arab but of Muslim philosophy, for curiously enough only one famous Philosopher, Al-Kendi, was an Arab.
[181] Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 429.
[182] "Aprés lui, nous ne trouvons plus chez les Arabes aucun philosophe véritablement digne de ce nom." Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 458.
[183] Muslim rule in Spain is often referred to as an instance of the height of culture and the liberality of sentiment which may exist in a Muhammadan state. I have shown that the culture was not due to the teaching of the Arab Prophet and his Companions, and with regard to the liberality it is well to remember the words of G. H. Lewes. He says: "The Arabs, though they conquered Spain, were too weak in numbers to hold that country in subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to the opinion and customs of the people." History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 36.
[184] "There never was any Arabian science, strictly speaking. In the first place, all the Philosophy and Science of the Muhammadans was Greek, Jewish, and Persian.... It really designates a reaction against Islámism, which arose in the distant parts of the Empire, in Samarcand, Bokhara, Morocco, and Cordova. The Arabian language having become the language of the Empire, this Philosophy is written in that language; but the ideas are not Arabian; the spirit is not Arabian." History of Philosophy, by G. H. Lewes, vol. ii. p. 34.
[185] The Persian term for this is Namáz, a word in commoner use in India than Sulát. Both terms will henceforth be employed.
[186] There is a Tradition to the effect that "the whole body of him who says the name of God when making wazú will be clean; whereas, if he says it not, only the part washed will be pure."
[187] Before commencing the wazú, say: "I am going to purify myself from all bodily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy act of duty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most High. In the name of God, the Great and Mighty. Praise be to God who has given us grace to be Muslims. Islám is a truth and infidelity a falsehood."
When cleaning the teeth say: "Vouchsafe O God, as I clean my teeth, to purify me from my faults and accept my homage. O Lord, may the purity of my teeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the day of judgment."
When washing the nostrils say: "O my God, if I am pleasing in Thy sight, perfume me with the odours of Paradise."
When washing the right hand say: "O my God, on the day of judgment, place the book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my account with favour."
When washing the left hand, say: "O my God, place not at the resurrection the book of my actions in my left hand." Similar prayers are said at each act.
[188] From the account which follows it will be seen that the term Namáz expresses what we term a 'Service.' The word for prayer in the ordinary sense is 'Du'á.'
[189] It is taken from the Sirát-un-Naját, pp. 30-33.
[190] As the use of bells is unlawful a man is employed to call the people to prayers.
[191] "God is Great."
[192] The followers of Imám As-Sháfa'í and the women of all sects place the hands upon the breast. The feet should be about four inches apart; women stand with the feet close together.
[193] The second rak'at begins here: all that precedes is only repeated at the first rak'at.
[194] A fixed portion is said in each rak'at during the nights of Ramazán, which portion is then called a rukú'. (Ante. p. 57.)
[195] In a mosque the Imám says the first sentences alone; the people the second.
[196] Women in the Sijda keep all the limbs of the body close together, and put both feet at right angles to the body. If their face is Qibla-wards it is sufficient.
[197] Here the Shía'hs say:--"I rise and sit by the power of God."
[198] This is said at the close of every two rak'ats.
[199] The Shía'hs stop here and omit the rest.
[200] The Shía'hs omit the Du'á and say: "Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be on us and on God's righteous servants."
[201] The Fatvá, or decree, will be found in a note at the end of this chapter.
[202] I am indebted to Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism for this excellent table.
[203] The Musallí may say five or three witr rak'ats instead of seven.
[204] Núr-ul-Hidáayat, p. 155.
[205] In countries under Muslim rule he holds a wooden sword reversed.
[206] One who says, "Alláhu Akbar--God is Great."
[207] A reference to his presence with Muhammad in the cave (ghár) when they fled from Mecca to Madína. See Súra ix. 40.
[208] Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 153.
[209] Sirát-un-Naját, p. 40.
[210] Qíám is one of the positions in a Namáz and is here used by synecdoche for it. In Mecca the Salát-ut-Taráwíh is called with reference to this Tradition the Salát-ul-Qíámíah.
[211] Núr-ul-Hidáyat, p. 141.
[212] That is, a non-Muslim who is allowed to reside in a Musalmán State on payment of a special tax.
[213] The Sháfa'ítes raise the hands at the recital of each of the four Takbírs; the other sects do so only at the first.
[214] If the deceased was a child or a mad person, they say:--
"O God, make him (or her, as the case may be) a guide for us, and make him a cause of our gaining a future reward. O God, save him and make him an intercessor for us."
[215] The Imám makes the Niyyat in his mind that the Salám may be on his guardian angels, and on the worshippers who are behind him; each worshipper makes the Niyyat that the Salám may be on his guardian angels, on his fellow worshippers and on the Imám.
[216] _i.e._, the deceased's.
[217] Death, resurrection, judgment; &c.
[218] This contradicts verse 254 of this Súra. Muslims explain it thus. We accept all prophets and as regards _faith_ in them make no difference, though as regards _dignity_ we recognize the distinction indicated in the 254th verse.
[219] That is, the Jews and Christians, on whom, it is said by the Muslim Commentators, many strict ceremonial observances were incumbent. The word often used to express the idea of the burdensome nature of ceremonial observance is taklilíf, trouble. Practically, Muslims are not free from these "loads," a fact which finds expression in the word used for a pious man--a mukhallif, one who has to take trouble in the way of performing religious duties.
[220] In Madras, a branch of the pomegranate tree is usually stuck in.
[221] The name of the mother is here inserted. The mother's name is chosen in preference to that of the father, as there can be no doubt as to the maternity of the child. For the same reason it is said that at the Last Day each man will be summoned as such an one, son of such a mother. This simple fact reveals a sad state of morals, or, at least, a disbelief in the virtue of women.
[222] The idea is that the reward of this act is transferred to the person on whose behalf it is made.
[223] Súra ii. 256.
[224] There are others who maintain that this is a _mukham_ statement and cannot therefore be abrogated. They hold that it must be restricted to the aged and to persons who have chronic diseases. Tafsír-i-Husainí, p. 30. Tafsír-i-Faiz-ul-Karím, p. 120.
[225] Burton says that, when in the disguise of a Musalmán doctor he was in Cairo making preparations for the Hajj, he had but one patient who would break his fast to save his life. All the others refused though death should be the consequence.
[226] "The former are called Zakát, either because they increase a man's store by drawing down a blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtue of liberality, or because they purify the remaining part of one's substance from pollution and the soul from the filth of avarice; the latter are called Sadqa because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship of God." Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv.
[227] That is food or money sufficient to provide one meal for a poor person.
[228] The technical term is 5 wasq. A wasq is equal to 60 sá', and a sá' is equal to 8 ratal. A ratal is equal to 1 lb; so a wasq, a load for one camel, is about 480 lb.
[229] Mosques are usually endowed. The property thus set apart is called waqf. This supports the various officials connected with a Mosque.
[230] The two famous disciples of Imám Abu Hanífa, Abu Yúsuf and Muhammad.
[231] This ceremony is called Al-Ihrám (_i.e._, making unlawful), because now various actions and pursuits must be abstained from. The ceremony of doffing the pilgrim's garb is called Al-Ihlál (_i.e._, making lawful), for now the pilgrim returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in the world.
[232] This statement of names is taken from the Núr-ul-Hidáyat p. 211, and that of the distance from Hughes' Notes on Islám; but Burton speaks of Al Zaribah, a place 47 miles distant from Mecca as a Míqát. It was there that he assumed the Ihrám. The explanation probably is that a Hájí must not approach nearer to Mecca without the Ihrám than the places named in the text. The farther from Mecca it is assumed, provided that it be during one of the two months preceding Zu'l-Hajja, the more meritorious is the act.
[233] Talbíyah means the repetition of "Labbaik," a phrase equivalent to "I am here." The Talbíyah can be said in any language, though Arabic is preferred. It usually is as follows: "Labbaik, Alláhumma, Labbaik! Lá Sharíka laka, Labbaik! Inna-l-hamda wa-n-ní'amata laka, w'-al-mulk! Lá Sharíka laka, Labbaik!
[234] "The object of these minute details is that the "Truce of God" may be kept." The five noxious creatures, however, may be slain, _viz._, a crow, a kite, a scorpion, a rat and a biting dog." (Burton).
[235] The Musjid-ul-Harám is the large Mosque in Mecca. The K'aba (cube) is a square stone building in the centre. This is also called the Qibla. The Hajr-ul-Aswad is the black stone fixed in the corner of the K'aba.
[236] It is said to have been rebuilt ten times. A full description will be found in Burton's Pilgrimage to Madína and Mecca, vol. iii. ch. 26. It is far too long to quote, and it cannot be condensed. The following extract is of some interest, as it states why the 'Ulama consider the K'aba so sacred a place. They quote the verse: 'Verily the first house built for mankind (to worship in) is that in Beccah (Mecca)--Blessed and a salvation to human beings. Therein are manifest signs, even the standing-place of Abraham, and he who entereth is safe.' (Súra iii. 90). The word 'therein' is said to mean Mecca, and the "manifest signs" the K'aba, which contains such marvels as the footprints on Abraham's platform, and is the spiritual safeguard of all who enter it. In addition, other "signs" are the preservation of the black stone, the miracles put forth to defend the House, the terrible death of the sacrilegious, and the fact that in the Flood the big fish did not eat the little fish in the Harám. Invalids recover their health by rubbing themselves against the Kiswat (the covering of the K'aba), and the black stone. One hundred thousand mercies descend on it every day, &c. Portions of the Kiswat are highly valued as markers for the Qurán. Waistcoats made of it are supposed to render the combatant invulnerable in battle.
[237] The whole seven are one Usbú'.
[238] The Maqám-i-Ibráhím is a small building, supported, by six pillars about eight feet high, four of which are surrounded from top to bottom by a fine iron railing, while the space between the two hinder pillars is left open; within the railing is a frame about five feet square, said to contain the sacred stone on which Abraham sat when he built the K'aba.
[239] In the first rak'at, the chapter usually recited is Súra cix; in the second, Súra cxii.
[240] "Many find this inconvenient and so pass on to 'Arifát during the afternoon of the eighth day" (Burton).
[241] The following legend is current about 'Arifát. "When our parents forfeited heaven by eating wheat, which deprived them of their primeval purity, they were cast down upon earth. The serpent descended at Ispahán, the peacock at Cabul, Satan at Bilbays, Eve upon 'Arifát and Adam at Ceylon. The latter determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to which the earth owes its present mottled appearance. Wherever he placed his foot--which was large--a town arose; between the strides will always be country. Wandering for many years he came to the Mountain of mercy, where our common mother was continually calling upon his name, and their recognition gave the place the name of 'Arifát. They lived here till death took place." (Burton).
[242] The Sháfa'í rules allow a traveller any time when on a journey of a night and day to reduce the five Namáz to three by joining some. The Hanafí code allows the shortened form only on this day.
[243] "The Shaitan-ul-Kabír is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry about eight feet high, by two and a half broad, placed against a rough wall of stones." (Burton).
[244] Most of the ceremonies connected with the Hajj, the Ihrám, the shaving of the head, the going to Safá and Marwah, the throwing of the stones, the circuit of the K'aba, the kissing of the black stone, and the sacrifice were all pagan ceremonies performed by the idolatrous Arabs. Muhammad by his time-serving policy, adopted to gain the Meccans to his side, has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably have been extinct long ago. Safá and Marwah were hills held in superstitious reverence by the Meccans. The early Muslims had some doubt about retaining them as sacred places: then came the revelation to the Prophet, "Safá and Marwah are among the monuments of God, whosoever then maketh a pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it, shall not be to blame if he go round about them both." (Súra ii. 153).
[245] These are the letters contained in words which direct the reader when to pause. Thus toí stands for mutlaq (slight pause), qif (pause), jím for já,íz (freedom to pause, or not to pause), lá for no (no pause), mím for la'zim (necessary to pause), (.) is a full stop.
[246] Persian was the foreign language with which the early Muslims were brought most into contact; but the objection applies equally to any other language.
[247] A concession of no practical value, as any one with the power of speech could learn these words in a very short time.
[248] This is because by so doing it would seem to ascribe to it similarity to human compositions.
[249] During the first ten days they are supposed to contain the bodies of the martyrs, but now being empty the Tázías become mere ordinary frames and can be destroyed, Qánún-i-Islám, p. 146.
[250] This feast is known in South India as the Dassara. The idol is thrown into a tank.
[251] The Mihráb is a niche in a wall which indicates the position of Mecca. The face is always turned to it when prayers are said; so that the expression in the prayer means that 'Alí is to be the object toward which the faithful look.
[252] The twelve Imáms, Muhammad and Fátima.
[253] The 'Íd-gáh is usually built outside of the town, and consists of a long wall of masonry with two minarets and a large raised open court. There is a Mihráb in the wall: but no proper mimbar or pulpit, three raised steps doing duty for it. Sometimes, however, a Mosque is used as an 'Íd-gáh.
[254] Tradition records that the Prophet, after the battle of Ohud, was one day ascending a hill in a rage. The heat of his passion was such that the mountain softened into the consistence of wax and retained, some say eighteen; others, forty impressions of his feet. When rebuked by Gabriel for his anger the Prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke. Gabriel told him to look around. The Prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on the stones was astonished. His anger instantly ceased. Qánún-i-Islám, p. 152.
[255] The Baqr-'Íd is the only other feast that has an 'Arfa.
[256] Mishkát-ul-Musábih, Book vii. ch. 1.
[257] That is, his blessing or his curse takes effect. Qánún-i-Islám p. 170.
[258] This is a warning to those who may have omitted this duty.
[259] Khutbahá-i-Muhtarjam, p. 104.
[260] "Observations on the Musalmáns of India." Mrs. Mír Husan 'Alí, p. 192."
[261] The opinion of the various Traditionists on this point is given in the Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61.
[262] Still it is mustahab, or a meritorious act so to do. It is also said that, if a minor is possessed of property, his father or his guardian may purchase at his expense an animal and sacrifice it. The child may then eat as much as it can. The remainder of the meat must be exchanged for something which the child can use, such as clothes, shoes, &c. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 60.
[263] According to the Imáms Sháfa'í and Málik no one must offer up the sacrifice until the Imám who has officiated at the previous Namáz has slain his victim. Núr-ul-Hidáyah, vol. iv. p. 61.
[264] Áráyish-i-Mahfil p. 144.
* * * * *
Corrections made to printed original.
Page 29 "It is moreover the unanimous opinion" - 'moveover' in original.
Page 33 "the Imám-i-A'zam or great Imám" - Imám-í-'Azam in original, corrected by Errata.
Page 40 "This is technically called Ilká" - Ilka in original, corrected by Errata.
Page 91 "Sa'dí in the Bustán says" - Bustun in original, corrected by Errata.
Page 92 "the famous Maulána Jelál-ud-dín Rúmí" - Maolána in original, corrected by Errata.
Page 93 "It is Faná--extinction." - Fana in original, corrected by Errata.
Page 188 "a still lower class of action which are mubáh." - mubah in original, corrected by Errata.
Page 190 "(12) the whole head must be rubbed once" - '(13)' in original.
Page 192 "A man one day came to the Prophet" - 'come' in original.
Page 218 "Islám, Hurriat (freedom) and Nisáb (stock)." - Húrriat in original, corrected by Errata.
Note 133 "Also Takmíl-ul-Imán, p. 64." - Tamíl-ul-Imán in original, corrected by Errata.