Part 21

CLASS B.--Copper and bronze celts from various localities, having flat concave sides, and a rectangular cross section, showing a gradual enlargement of the cutting edge.--Figs. 7 to 12, copper celts from Ireland, _in my collection_, showing a gradual enlargement of the cutting edge.--Figs. 13, 14, 15, ditto, _ditto_, of bronze, the sides more concave, and the cutting edge more expanded.--Fig. 16, bronze celt, of similar form, from Denmark (Madsen, _Afbildninger af Danske Oldsager og Mindesmærker_, Copenhagen, 1872, Heft iii, Fig. 1).--Fig. 17, copper celt from Steinfurt, in the collection of Professor Dieffenbach, at Friedberg, Lindenschmit, _Die Alterthümer unserer heidnischen Vorzeit_ (Mainz, 1864 ff.), Plate 3.--Fig. 18, ditto of copper, found near Mainz, Museum of Mainz, _Lindenschmit_, Plate 3.--Fig. 19, the same form of bronze, from near Mainz, _Lindenschmit_.--Fig. 20, the same form of bronze from Italy, _British Museum_.[215]--Figs. 21, 22, 23, the same form of copper from Hungary, _Keller_, p. 219, Plate lxviii.--Figs. 24, 25, 26, similar forms of bronze, with rectangular holes, from the Island of Thermia, Greek Archipelago, _British Museum_.

CLASS C.--Bronze celts of the same outline as Class B, but having a cross ridge or stop on both faces, to prevent the blade from burying itself in the handle.--Figs. 27, 28, bronze celts from Ireland, _in my collection_; this form is common to the British Isles.

CLASS D.[216]--Bronze celts, having four longitudinal ridges or flanges, one on each edge, but no cross stop. The flanges are for the purpose of fixing the blade in a bent handle; they exhibit a gradual development of the flange, and an expansion of the cutting edge, which latter takes a semicircular, and in some cases nearly a circular form.--Figs. 29, 30, from Ireland, _in my collection_, showing front view and section.--Fig. 31, from Versailles, _in my collection_, with section.--Fig. 32, from France; with side view; see _Matériaux pour l’Histoire de l’Homme_.--Fig. 33, from Loyette, Department of Isère, from _Horae Ferales_, front view.--Fig. 34, from the South of France, _British Museum_, the blade very circular.--Fig. 35, from Alps [Aps?], in Ardèche, _British Museum_, the circular form of the blade still more developed. This form appears peculiar to the neighbourhood of the Rhone, _Horae Ferales_.--Fig. 36, from France; with side view; _Matériaux_.--Fig. 37, from Denmark, _British Museum_, of copper; this form is rarely found in copper; with section.--Fig. 38, from Denmark, of bronze, from _Madsen_, Heft iii.--Fig. 39, from Denmark, with semicircular blade, _Madsen_, Heft iii.--Fig. 40, from Hessen, now in the collection at Hanover, _Lindenschmit_, Heft i, Taf. iii.--Fig. 41, from near Baltringen, _Lindenschmit_.--Fig. 42, from Neinheiligen, in Thuringia, _British Museum_; with section.--Fig. 43, from the Terramara Beds, Castione, Switzerland; with section; _Keller_, Plate lix.--Fig. 44, from Unter Uhldingen; with section; _Keller_, Plate xxix.--Fig. 45, from the Terramara Beds, Castione; with section; _Keller_, Plate lix.--Fig. 46, from the Terramara Beds, Castione; with section; _Keller_, Plate lix.--Fig. 47, from Hallstatt, in Austria, von Sacken, _Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt in Oberösterreich und dessen Alterthümer_ (Vienna, 1868), Taf. vii; with side view.--Fig. 48, ditto, _ditto_, found with the body of a child.--Fig. 49, ditto, the shaft of bronze, and the blade of iron, from Hallstatt.--Fig. 50, the same form in iron, also from Hallstatt, _in Mr. John Evans’ collection_.--Figs. 51 and 52, similar forms, in bronze, from Italy, _British Museum_.--Fig. 53, the same form, from Telsch, Vilna, Russia, _British Museum_; with two sections.

CLASS E.--Bronze celts having both the cross stop and the longitudinal flanges. In the earliest form, the cross stop and flanges are raised upon the faces of the blade, as in Class D. In the more improved form, the upper part of the shaft of the blade is hollowed so as to answer the same purpose and economize the metal. Figs. 54-8, from Ireland; Fig. 54, with rudimentary stop and flanges, _in my collection_. Figs. 55 and 56, ditto, with rudimentary stop, the flanges more developed; _in my collection_. Fig. 57, showing a development of both stop and flange, ditto, _ditto_. Fig. 58, showing the stop and flange further developed, and the metal of the upper part of the blade slightly sunk, ditto, _ditto_. Fig. 59, a further development of the same, the metal of the upper part of the shaft of the blade reduced to a minimum.--Fig. 60, the same form as Fig. 54, from Denmark, _Madsen_, Heft iii.--Fig. 61, from near Mainz, _Lindenschmit_, Taf. iii.--Fig. 62, from the Museum at Wiesbaden, _Lindenschmit_, Taf. iii.--Fig. 63, from Altona, in Courland; this form has some affinity to Class G, but is introduced here on account of the expansion of the blade.--Figs. 64, 65, and 66, from Italy, _in the British Museum_, the metal of the shaft slightly sunk to produce a stop.--Fig. 67, from Fiesole, Italy, the metal part of the shaft further reduced.--Fig. 68, from Baron von Stackelberg’s collection, _in the British Museum_, also described in Klemm, _Werkzeuge und Waffen_, p. 103, Fig. 180; said to be from Greece, but its close resemblance to those from Italy is remarkable.

CLASS F.--The same form as Class E, but having the flanges bent by hammering over the stop; the flanges appear to have been cast upright, as in Class E, and to have been bent over the cleft handle after hafting; by this means the necessity for binding the blade on with thongs was obviated. This class forms a transition to the socket type.--Figs. 69, 70, 71, from Ireland, _in my collection_.--Fig. 72, from the Royal Irish Academy collection, having a loop on the side. See _Catalogue R. I. A._, ‘Bronze,’ page 379. The introduction of the loop appears to be synchronous with the abandonment of the binding, the overlapping flanges answering that purpose by enclosing the bent portion of the handle, and requiring only that it should be fastened by the loop to prevent its falling off the end of the handle.--Fig. 73, from Denmark, _in my collection_.--Figs. 74, 75, from Denmark, _Madsen_, Heft iii.--Fig. 76, from the Museum at Hanover, _Lindenschmit_.--Fig. 77, from the Museum at Munich, _Lindenschmit_, Taf. iv.--Fig. 78, from Möringen, Switzerland, _Keller_, Plate xli.--Fig. 79, from Nidau-Steinberg, Switzerland, _Keller_, Plate xxxv.--Fig. 80, from Hallstatt; _Von Sacken_.--Fig. 81, from Italy, _British Museum_.

CLASS G.--The pocket type. The bent portion of the handle in this ease was retained in its place by pockets cast on each side of the shaft of the blade; it seems doubtful whether this, or Class F, is to be regarded as the nearest approach to the socket type. In Class F the overlapping was produced by hammering the metal; but Class G is a further advance in the casting process.--Figs. 82 and 83, from Ireland, _in my collection_; the latter with loop; the pockets or pouches to receive the points of the bent handle are shown in the sections.--Fig. 84, from France; see _Matériaux pour l’Histoire de l’Homme_.--Fig. 85, found twelve leagues south of Oviedo, Spain, _in the collection of the Society of Antiquaries_.--Fig. 86, from Andalusia, Spain, _British Museum_.--Fig. 87, from Denmark, _Madsen_, Heft iii.--Fig. 88, from the collection at Munich, _Lindenschmit_.--Fig. 89, from the collection at Hanover, _Lindenschmit_.--Fig. 89 _a_, an iron celt of the same form, still in use by the Kalmucs, Siberia, _Prehistoric Times_, p. 26.

CLASS H.--The socket type. In some of the specimens of Class G, as for example Figs. 82 and 83, the metal portion of the shaft of the blade dividing the two pouches is reduced to a minimum. The next step was to do away with it altogether and enlarge the sides of the pouches so as to form a single socket. By this means the bent handle no longer required to be cleft to receive the blade, but was inserted whole into the socket, producing greater firmness, each blow of the axe serving to fix it more securely to its handle. The loops, seen only occasionally on Classes F and G, are almost invariably present in Class H.--Figs. 90, 91, 92, 93, 94. Socket celts of bronze, from Ireland and England, _in my collection_; the form with square sides is very uncommon in Ireland; in Fig. 92 a representation of the overlapping flange of Class F is cast on the surface of the socket.--Fig. 94_a_, a socket celt of wrought iron with loop, from Merionethshire, _British Museum_; _Archaeologia Cambrensis_, vol. i, third series, p. 250.--Figs. 95 and 96, the same forms from France. See _Matériaux, &c._ The square-sided celt is common in the north of France.--Fig. 97, from Alemquez, Portugal; _Coll. Société des Archit. Portugais_.--Fig. 98, from Denmark, _in my collection_.--Figs. 99, 100, Denmark, _Madsen_, Heft i.--Fig. 100 _a_, an iron socket celt, from the moss of Nydam, in Slesvik, of the iron period; Engelhardt, _Denmark in the Early Iron Age_ (1866), Pl. xv; believed, from the Roman coins found with it, to be of the third century A.D.[217]--Fig. 101, from the collection at Hanover, _Lindenschmit_.--Fig. 102, from the Museum at Mainz, _Lindenschmit_.--Fig. 103, socket celt of iron, from Golssen, _Klemm_, Fig. 195.--Fig. 104, socket celt of iron, from Thuringia, _Klemm_, Fig. 194.--Fig. 105, of bronze, from Unter Uhldingen, Switzerland; _Keller_, Pl. xxix.--Fig. 106, of iron, found near Marin, Switzerland, the socket formed by beating over the blade on one side only; the socket is not quite completed; see _Keller_, Pl. lxxi.--Fig. 107, the same form of iron, found near Marin; the socket is closed and completed all round, _Keller_, Pl. lxxi. These specimens in iron may be regarded as connecting links between Classes F and H. Viewing the occurrence of iron celts of this form, it appears not impossible that the introduction of the socket type and the sudden abolition of the central division may have been suggested by the use of the more malleable metal, by means of which the fabricator acquired the art of forming a socket by bending over the metal on one side; the inutility of the central division would thus become apparent.--Fig. 108, bronze socket celt with loop, from Hallstatt, _Von Sacken_.--Fig. 109, exactly the same form in iron, from Hallstatt; a portion of the wooden handle is still shown in this specimen.--Figs. 110 and 111, bronze socket celts, from Italy, of a variety peculiar to that country, _British Museum_.--Fig. 112, socket celt of copper, from Hungary, believed by the author to be the only known specimen of pure copper; _Keller_, Pl. lxxviii.--Fig. 113, bronze socket celt, from Hungary, _British Museum_.--Fig. 114, bronze socket celt, with two loops, from Kertch, _British Museum_.--Fig. 115, bronze socket celt, from the province of Viatka, Russia. See _Matériaux, &c._--Fig. 116, bronze socket celt with two loops, from the Ural, Russia.--Fig. 117, mode of hafting, Classes A, B, and C.--Fig. 118, mode of hafting, Classes D, E, F, and G.--Fig. 119, mode of hafting, Class H.

In a paper lately read to the Society of Antiquaries by Dr. Thurnam,[218] he has drawn attention to the fact that none but celts of the most primitive type, viz. those belonging to Classes B, C, D, and the most rudimentary form of Class E, have been found in the British tumuli. Scarcely a single instance of the more developed palstave or of the socketed celt has as yet been discovered; the only exceptions being a bronze socket celt found in a tumulus on Plumpton Plain, near Lewes, and a diminutive bronze socket celt found in a tumulus at Arras in the Yorkshire wolds. These Arras barrows are known, however, to belong to the iron age; having produced, amongst other articles composed of that metal, the iron tire of the wheel, and trappings of a war chariot. We learn from this that the discoveries in the tumuli confirm in point of time the order of development inferred from a consideration of the implements themselves.

* * * * *

From the foregoing detailed description of Plate XVIII we are enabled to draw the following conclusions, viz.:--(1) That in each of the divisions of Europe therein represented, traces of the development of the celt, from its simplest to its most complex form, have been discovered; the earliest forms being in imitation of those of stone, and being not unfrequently constructed of pure copper. Where some of the connecting links are wanting in the table there is reason to suppose the absence of those links may be the result of imperfect information, and does not necessarily imply a flaw in the continuity of development. (2) That, notwithstanding the simultaneous development which appears to have taken place in different countries, we may nevertheless observe slight differences in the details of construction, which are sufficient to give a distinctive character to the celts of each separate region. Thus, for instance, the celts from Ireland are, as a general rule, shorter and less elegant in form than those found on the Continent. Class C, consisting of stop celts without wings, though common in Great Britain and Ireland, is, so far as I have been able to ascertain, unknown on the Continent. On the other hand, Class D, having wings without stops, is rare in Ireland, but common in France, Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland. The development of this class of celt into a nearly circular edge, as represented in Figs. 34 and 35, is peculiar to the south of France, though traces of it are observable in the celts from Germany, Fig. 40. Class E, having both stop and flange, is found in a more rudimentary stage in Ireland than elsewhere. The palstaves of this form, having shoulders on the side of the blade, are peculiar to Italy and Switzerland, Figs. 66, 67, and 68. Class F, with overlapping wings, is but slightly developed in Ireland, but is fully so in Italy, Germany, and at Hallstatt. Class G, the double pocket variety, has its head quarters in the north-west of France, but is also known in Ireland, Denmark, Spain, and Germany; it is, in so far as I have been able to ascertain, unknown in Italy. Class H, the socket type, varies greatly in different countries; the square form, Figs. 93, 94, 95, 96, 100, and 102, is exceedingly rare in Ireland, but common in France. The socket celts from Italy, Figs. 110 and 111, are of peculiar type, and evidently derive their form from the winged palstave of the same country, Fig. 67. Socket celts of iron have been found at Hallstatt, and in Switzerland, Denmark, Germany, and North Wales. The representation of the overlapping wings, cast on the surface of the socket celt, Figs. 92 and 101, is common in England and Germany, but exceedingly rare in Ireland. The double-looped socket celt, Figs. 97, 114, and 116, appears to be especially characteristic of the Eastern provinces of Russia and Siberia, though found occasionally elsewhere.

In attempting to account for the varieties, which I have described, in the details of construction, coupled with a general uniformity of design throughout the entire region of distribution of these weapons, we may, I think, draw an exact parallel between the development of bronze celts and the development of the forms of cannon between the fourteenth and the nineteenth centuries. From Europe to China we know that the form of cannon has developed upon the same plan. In the same way that the overlapping wings of the palstave were represented on the faces of the socket celt, so the rings of metal which bound together the bars of which the ancient bombard was composed, were represented on the surface of the cast bronze cannon which superseded it. In every country the general type of development of cannon has been the same, but the details of construction have varied in each. Even in our own time, the introduction of breech-loaders has been synchronous throughout Europe; but the French and English cannon are not perfectly identical. Now, the cause of this is sufficiently well known. There has been constant intercommunication between the several countries throughout the whole period of the development of this weapon. Each new improvement as it occurred has been communicated from one country to another, either by contact in war, or by peaceful intercourse; but each country has fabricated its own weapons, and has by that means contrived to give them a national character.

So in like manner we must assume that the development of the bronze celt extended over a long period of time; that each new improvement was communicated from tribe to tribe and from nation to nation; but that each country manufactured its own implements, and varied in the construction of them. The proof that this was the case is found in the circumstance that moulds for casting them have been found in different countries. Plate XX, Fig. 31, represents a stone mould found at Ballynahinch, Co. Down, Ireland, and figured in the _Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy_; it is adapted for casting celts of the Class B. Fig. 32 is a stone mould for Class G, found at Montaigu, near Valoignes, Normandy, and is taken from a cast in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries. Fig. 33, a stone mould for Class H, from Kilkenny, Ireland. Fig. 34, two halves of a bronze mould for Class E, from Morges, Switzerland, figured in Keller, Plate xxxix. Fig. 35, two halves of a bronze mould for Class H, found in the Forest of Bricquebec, Normandy, in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries. Fig. 36, one-half of a bronze mould for Class H, from England, figured in the _Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy_, ‘Bronze,’ page 393. In the three last specimens it will be seen that the mode of fitting the two halves together, so as to prevent the escape of the metal, is by means of a ridge on one half, fitting into a groove in the other. It is improbable that a contrivance so identical as this should have arisen independently in the three countries. Further proof of connexion is shown by the identity of the ribs in the interior of the sockets of celts belonging to Class H. Figs. 37 and 38 represent sections of socket celts from Ireland, the former showing three, the latter one, longitudinal rib of raised metal running from the bottom of the socket for some distance up the side of the interior of the socket. Fig. 39 is the section of a socket celt from Denmark, in my collection, having one rib of the same kind. It has been suggested that these ribs represent the interstices between slices of the core, by means of which the socket was formed in casting; if so, the cores must have been constructed of some hard material, cut in slices, in order to facilitate their removal from the socket when formed. Several objections may, however, be urged against this; in the first place, no such cores have ever been discovered, which tends to the supposition that the cores must, in all probability, have been constructed of clay; in the second place, it will be seen by reference to Fig. 20 that this celt has only one central rib; if, therefore, the rib was formed by the metal pressing into the interstices between the slices of the core, it is evident that the core in this case had only two slices; but it will be seen that the aperture of the socket expands towards the bottom, and it would have been impossible, therefore, to extract the core if it were divided into only two parts.

The theory of core slices must, therefore, be abandoned, and we are driven to the conclusion that the ribs must have been intentional, either to give strength to the celt, which is unlikely from the great thickness of the metal, or to form channels for the passage of the metal in casting, or, what is more probable, to serve the purpose of gripping the portion of the wooden handle which fitted into the socket, and preventing its shifting with the blows of the weapon. Fig. 39 represents cross ribs at the bottom of the socket of a celt from Denmark, in my collection. Whatever may have been the purpose for which the ribs were formed, their identity in the implements of the two countries serves us as an additional proof of intercourse between them.

Although moulds for casting celts have not been found in Denmark, there is evidence to show, from vestiges of scoriae that have been found, that they were there cast in clay, as indeed they must probably have been to a great extent in other parts of Europe.

It would be premature to speculate upon the primary sources of the bronze civilization of Europe, until we have examined carefully the distribution of the other weapons belonging to that period. This much may, however, I think, be said with respect to the geographical region of bronze celts, that they belong more especially to the north and west of Europe; they have never been found in any of those countries which were occupied by the Phoenicians, nor have we any sufficient reason for believing that they were common in Greece. We have, therefore, no evidence whatever for supposing that the north of Europe derived the first idea of these weapons from either of those nations. We certainly have only negative evidence as yet for affirming that they did not, but the burden of proof must rest with those who have attributed them to the Phoenicians. To what extent they were employed in Russia and Northern Siberia, is a point which we have not as yet sufficient evidence to determine. I think, however, I am justified in saying that those hitherto discovered in Siberia are of a late type, belonging chiefly to the socket variety, and that they are there often associated with weapons of iron. I trust, however, to have an opportunity of entering more fully into this subject on a future occasion, when treating of the weapons of the later bronze and early iron periods of Europe.

FOOTNOTES:

[184] A Lecture delivered at the Royal United Service Institution on June 18, 1869, and published in the _Journal of the R. U. S. Inst._, vol. xiii (1869), pp. 509-539, pl. xxxi-xxxiii (= Plates XVII-XX herewith).

[185] _Trans. Int. Congr. Preh. Arch. at Norwich_, 1868 (London, 1869), p. 92 ff.

[186] _Lectures on Man, his Place in Creation, and in the History of the Earth_, by Dr. Carl Vogt. Edited by James Hunt, Ph.D. (London, 1864), p. 466 ff.

[187] The fact mentioned both by the Baron de Bonstetten and Dr. Keller, of celts of jade and nephrite having been found in Switzerland, materials which, according to the latest investigations [1869], are not found in the Alps, but must have been imported from the East, proves that intercommunication and barter must have been carried on between distant countries at the time when such weapons were used.--Baron de Bonstetten, _Recueil d’Antiquités Suisses_ (Berne, 1855), p. 12; Keller, _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland_ (1866), pp. 56, 68 (cf. 1878, pp. 72, 195, 205, 215).

[188] _Prehistoric Times_, by Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S., London (1865), p. 147.

[189] _Prehistoric Times_, by Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. (1865), pp. 142-3; _Results of the Investigation of Animal Remains from the Lake Dwellings_, by Prof. Rütimeyer; in _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland_, by Dr. Ferdinand Keller, translated by J. E. Lee, F.S.A., F.G.S., 1866, pp. 355-62 (1878, pp. 537-44).

[190] _Moosseedorf_, Keller, l. c., p. 35; _Robenhausen_, Keller, l. c., p. 40.

[191] (The first two sentences of this paragraph have been transposed, for clearness.--ED.)

[192] Max Müller, _Science of Language_, second series (London, 1864), p. 230.

[193] Rawlinson, _The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World_ (1864), vol. i. p. 123.

[194] Klemm, _Werkzeuge und Waffen_ (Sondershausen, 1858), p. 96.

[195] Keller, l. c., p. 116: (1878, p. 121).

[196] Keller, l. c., p. 221, pl. lxvii: (1878, p. 362, pl. cxix).

[197] Keller, l. c., pp. 218, 219, pl. lxviii: (1878, pp. 362-3, pl. cxx. 1-28).