CHAPTER VIII.

OF PREPOSITIONS.

A preposition has been defined to be “that part of speech which shows the relation that one thing bears to another.” According to Mr. Harris, it is a part of speech devoid itself of signification, but so formed as to unite words that are significant, and that refuse to unite or associate of themselves. He has, therefore, compared them to pegs or pins, which serve to unite those parts of the building which would not, by their own nature, incorporate or coalesce. When one considers the formidable objections which present themselves to this theory, and that the ingenious author now quoted has, in defence of it, involved himself in palpable contradictions, it becomes matter of surprise that it should have so long received from grammarians an almost universal and implicit assent. This furnishes one of many examples, how easily error may be imposed and propagated by the authority of a great name. But, though error may be repeatedly transmitted from age to age, unsuspected and unquestioned, it cannot be perpetuated. Mr. Horne Tooke has assailed this theory by irresistible arguments, and demonstrated that, in our language at least, prepositions are significant of ideas, and that, as far as import is concerned, they do not form a distinct species of words.

It is not, indeed, easy to imagine, that men, in the formation of any language, would invent words insignificant, and to which, singly, they attached no determinate idea; especially when it is considered, that, in every stage of their existence, from rudeness to civilization, new words would perpetually be wanting to express new ideas. It is not, therefore, probable that, while they were under the necessity of framing new words, to answer the exigences of mental enlargement, and while these demands on their invention were incessantly recurring, they would, in addition to this, encumber themselves with the idle and unnecessary task of forming new words to express nothing.

But, in truth, Harris himself yields the point, when he says, that prepositions, when compounded, transfuse something of their meaning into the compound; for they cannot transfuse what they do not contain, nor impart what they do not possess. They must, therefore, be themselves significant words.

But it is not so much their meaning with which the grammarian is concerned, as their syntactical character, their capacity of affecting other words, or being affected by them. In both these lights, however, I propose to consider them.

The name of preposition has been assigned to them, because they generally precede their regimen, or the word which they govern. What number of these words ancient and modern languages contain, has been much disputed; some grammarians determining a greater and some a less number. This, indeed, of itself affords a conclusive proof that the character of these words has not been clearly understood; for, in the other parts of speech, noun, adjective, and verb, the discriminative circumstances are so evident, that no doubt can arise concerning their classification.

That most of our English prepositions have signification _per se_, and form no distinct species of words, Mr. Tooke has produced incontrovertible evidence: nor is it to be doubted, that a perfect acquaintance with the Northern languages would convince us, that all of them are abbreviations, corruptions, or combinations of other words. A few of Mr. Tooke’s examples I shall now present to the reader.

_Above_, from the Anglo-Saxon _ufa_, high; hence _bufan_, _on bufan_, bove, above.

_With_, from _withan_, to join, of which _with_ is the imperative; thus, “_a house with a party wall_,”--“a house, _join_ a party wall;” or it is sometimes the imperative of _wyrthan_, “to be;” hence, _by_ and _with_ are often synonymous, the former being derived from _beon_, “to be.”

_Without_, from the Saxon preposition _withutan_, _extra_, _sine_, which is properly the imperative of the verb _wyrthanutan_, “to be out.” _Withutan_, _beutan_, “without,” “be out,” or “but.” The Saxon preposition occurs frequently in the writings of Chaucer, and is still used in Scottish poetry[111].

_From_[112], is simply the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun _frum_, “beginning,” “source,” “origin;” thus, “Figs came _from_ Turkey;” that is, Figs came; “the source,” or “beginning,” Turkey; to which is opposed the word.

_To_, the same originally as _do_, signifying finishing or completion; thus “Figs came _from_ Turkey _to_ England;” “the beginning,” or “source,” Turkey; “the finishing,” or “end,” England.

_Beneath_, is the imperative _be_, compounded with the noun _neath_, of the same import with _neden_ in Dutch, _ned_ in Danish, _niedere_ in German, and _nedre_ or _neder_ in Swedish, signifying the lower place; hence, the astronomical term _Nadir_, opposed to _Zenith_. Hence also _nether_ and _nethermost_.

_Between_, “be twain,” “be two,” or “be separated.”[113]

_Before_, } _Behind_, } Imperative _be_, and the nouns, _fore_, _hind_, _side_, _Beside_, } _low_. _Below_, }

_Under_, i.e. _on neder_.

_Beyond_, imperative _be_, and the participle past _goned_ of the verb _gan_, “to go:” as, “beyond the place,” i.e. “be passed the place.”

_Among_, from _gemong_, the preterperfect of the verb _mengan_, to mix, used as a participle, and signifying “mixed.”

Many other examples might be produced from Tooke’s ingenious illustration of his theory; but those which I have now offered suffice to prove, that our prepositions, so far from being words insignificant, belong to the class of nouns or verbs either single or compounded.

Besides, if prepositions denote relations, as Harris admits, it is surely absurd to suppose, that they have no meaning; for the relation, whether of propinquity, contiguity, approach, or regress, &c., may be expressed, and apprehended by the mind, though the objects between which the relation subsists be not specified. If I hear the word _with_, I naturally conceive the idea of conjunction; the reverse takes place when I hear _without_. If it be said _a soldier with_, I have the idea of a soldier associated with something else, which association is denoted by _with_. What is conjoined to him I know not, till the object be specified, as, “a soldier _with_ a musquet;” but the mere association was before sufficiently expressed, and clearly apprehended. Again, if a person say, “_he threw a glass under_,” I have instantly an idea of a glass, and of inferiority of place, conceiving a glass removed into a situation lower than something else. To ascertain that _something_, I ask, _under what?_ and the answer may be, _under the table_. Now, if _under_ had no meaning, this question would be insignificant, or rather impossible.

From the examples given, I trust the young reader sufficiently understands the difference between the doctrine of Harris on this subject, and that of Horne Tooke; nay, I think, he must perceive, that the former is merely a theory, while the latter is supported by reason and fact. The syntax of our prepositions will be afterwards explained. I shall only observe at present, that the words which are in English considered as prepositions, and joined to the objective case are these:

Above Beneath Since About Below Through } After Beside Throughout } Against By Till } Among } Down Until } Amongst } For To } Amid } From Unto } Amidst } In Toward } Around } Into Towards } Round } Near } Under } At Nigh } Underneath } Between } Of Up Betwixt } Off With Beyond Over Within Before On } Without Behind Upon }

Some of these, though they are commonly joined to an objective case, and may therefore be deemed prepositions, are, notwithstanding, of an equivocal character, resembling the Latin adverbs _procul_ and _prope_, which govern a case by the ellipsis of a preposition. Thus we say, “near the house” and “near _to_ the house,” “nigh the park,” and “nigh _to_ the park,” “off the table,” and “off _from_ the table.”

Several are used as adverbs, and also as prepositions, no ellipsis being involved, as, _till_, _until_, _after_, _before_.

There are certain particles, which are never found single or uncompounded, and have therefore been termed inseparable prepositions. Those purely English are, _a_, _be_, _fore_, _mis_, _un_. The import of these, and of a few separable prepositions when prefixed to other words, I proceed to explain.

_A_, signifies _on_ or _in_, as, _a foot_, _a shore_, that is, _on foot_, _on shore_. Webster contends, that it was originally the same with _one_.

_Be_, signifies _about_, as, _bestir_, _besprinkle_, that is, _stir about_; also _for_ or _before_, as, _bespeak_, that is, _speak for_, or _before_.

_For_, denies, or deprives, as, _bid, forbid_, _seek, forsake_, i.e. _bid, bid not_; _seek, not seek_.

_Fore_, signifies _before_, as, _see, foresee_, that is, _see beforehand_.

_Mis_, denotes defect or error, as, _take, mistake_, or _take wrongly_; _deed, misdeed_, that is, _a wrong_ or _evil deed_.

_Over_, denotes eminence or superiority, as, _come, overcome_; also excess, as, _hasty_, _over hasty_, or _too hasty_.

_Out_, signifies excess or superiority, as, _do, outdo_, _run, outrun_, that is, “to surpass in running.”

_Un_, before an adjective, denotes negation, or privation, as, _worthy, unworthy_, or “_not_ worthy.” Before verbs it denotes the undoing or the destroying of the energy or act, expressed by the verb, as, _say, unsay_, that is, “affirm,” retract the “affirmation.”

_Up_, denotes motion upwards, as, _start, upstart_; rest in a higher place, as, _hold, uphold_; sometimes subversion, as, _set, upset_.

_With_, signifies _against_, as, _stand, withstand_, that is, “stand against, or resist.”

The Latin prepositions used in the composition of English words are these, _ab_ or _abs_, _ad_, _ante_, _con_, _circum_, _contra_, _de_, _di_, _dis_, _e_ or _ex_, _extra_, _in_, _inter_, _intro_, _ob_, _per_, _post_, _præ_, _pro_, _præter_, _re_, _retro_, _se_, _sub_, _subter_, _super_, _trans_.

_A, ab, abs_, signify _from_ or _away_, as, _to abstract_, that is, “to draw away.”

_Ad_, signifies _to_ or _at_, as, _to adhere_, that is, “to stick to.”

_Ante_, means _before_, as, _antecedent_, that is, “going before.”

_Circum_, round, _about_, as, _circumnavigate_, or “sail round.”

_Con, com, co, col_, signify _together_, as, _convoke_, or “call together,” _co-operate_, or “work together,” _colleague_, “joined together.”

_Contra_, _against_, as, _contradict_, or “speak against.”

_De_, signifies _down_, as, _deject_, or “throw down.”

_Di, dis_, _asunder_, as _distract_, or “draw asunder.”

_E_, _ex_, _out of_, as, _egress_, or “going out,” _eject_, or “throw out,” _exclude_, or “shut out.”

_Extra_, _beyond_, as, _extraordinary_, or “beyond the ordinary or usual course.”

_In_, before an adjective, like _un_, denotes privation, as, _active_, _inactive_, or “not active;” before a verb, it has its simple meaning.

_Inter_, _between_, as, _intervene_, or “come between,” _interpose_, or “put between.”

_Intro_, _to within_, as, _introduce_, or “lead in.”

_Ob_, denotes opposition, as, _obstacle_, that is, “something standing in opposition,” “an impediment.”

_Per_, _through_, or _thoroughly_, as, _perfect_, or “thoroughly done,” to _perforate_, or “to bore through.”

_Post_, _after_, as, _postscript_, or “written after,” that is, after the letter.

_Præ_, _before_, as, _prefix_, or “fix before.”

_Pro_, _forth_, or _forwards_, as, _promote_, or “move forwards.”

_Præter_, _past_, or _beyond_, as, _preternatural_, or “beyond the course of nature.”

_Re_, _again_, or _back_, as, _retake_, or “take back.”

_Retro_, _backwards_, as, _retrograde_, or “going backwards.”

_Se_, _apart_, or _without_, as, _to secrete_, “to put aside,” or “to hide,” _secure_, “without care or apprehension.”

_Subter_, _under_, as, _subterfluous_, or “flowing under.”

_Super_, _above_, or _over_, as, _superscribe_, or “write above, or over.”

_Trans_, _over_, _from one place to another_, as, _transport_, that is, “carry over.”

The Greek prepositions and particles compounded with English words are, _a_, _amphi_, _anti_, _hyper_, _hypo_, _meta_, _peri_, _syn_.

_A_, signifies privation, as, _anonymous_, or “without a name.”

_Amphi_, _both_, or _the two_, as, _amphibious_, “having both lives,” that is, “on land and on water.”

_Anti_, _against_, as, _anti-covenanter_, _anti-jacobin_, that is, “an opponent of the covenanters,” “an enemy to the jacobins.”

_Hyper_, _over and above_, as, _hypercritical_, or “over,” that is, “too critical.”

_Hypo_, _under_, implying concealment or disguise, as, _hypocrite_, “one dissembling his real character.”

_Meta_, denotes change or transmutation, as, _to metamorphose_, or “to change the shape.”

_Para_, denotes sometimes propinquity or similarity, and sometimes contrariety. It is equivalent to the Latin terms _juxta_ and _præter_, as, “to paraphrase,” παραφράζειν, _juxta alterius orationem loqui_; “to speak the meaning of another.” _Paradox_, “beyond,” or “contrary to, general opinion,” or “common belief.”

_Peri_, _round about_, as, _periphrasis_, that is, “circumlocution.”

_Syn_, _together_, as _synod_, “a meeting,” or “coming together,” _sympathy_, or “feeling together.”