CHAPTER II.

Critical Remarks and Illustrations.

SECT. I.--The Noun 236

SECT. II.--The Adjective 244

SECT. III.--The Pronoun 254

SECT. IV.--The Verb 264

SECT. V.--The Adverb 284

SECT. VI.--The Preposition 290

SECT. VII.--The Conjunction 293

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX

OF

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

INTRODUCTION.

Language consists of intelligible signs, and is the medium by which the mind communicates its thoughts. It is either articulate or inarticulate; artificial or natural. The former is peculiar to man; the latter is common to all animals. By inarticulate language, we mean those instinctive sounds, or cries, by which the several tribes of inferior creatures are enabled to express their sensations and desires. By articulate language is understood a system of expression, composed of simple sounds, differently modified by the organs of speech, and variously combined.

Man, like every other animal, has a natural language intelligible to all of his own species. This language, however, is extremely defective, being confined entirely to the general expression of joy, grief, fear, and the other passions or emotions of the mind; it is, therefore, wholly inadequate to the purposes of rational intercourse, and the infinitely-diversified ideas of an intelligent being. Hence arises the necessity of an artificial or articulate language; a necessity coeval with the existence of man in his rudest state, increasing also with the enlargement of his ideas, and the improvement of his mind. Man, therefore, was formed capable of speech. Nature has furnished him with the necessary organs, and with ingenuity to render them subservient to his purposes. And though at first his vocabulary was doubtless scanty, as his wants were simple, and his exigencies few, his language and his intellect would naturally keep pace. As the latter improved, the former would be enlarged.

Oral language, we have reason to suppose, continued long to be the only medium by which knowledge could be imparted, or social intercourse maintained. But, in the progress of science, various methods were devised for attaining a more permanent and more extensive vehicle of thought. Of these, the earliest were, as some think, picture-writing and hieroglyphics. Visible objects and external events were delineated by pictures, while immaterial things were emblematically expressed by figures representative of such physical objects as bore some conceived analogy or resemblance to the thing to be expressed. These figures or devices were termed hieroglyphics[1]. It is obvious, however, that this medium of communication must not only have embarrassed by its obscurity, but must have also been extremely deficient in variety of expression.

At length oral language, by an effort of ingenuity which must ever command admiration, was resolved into its simple or elementary sounds, and these were characterized by appropriate symbols[2]. Words, the signs of thought, came thus to be represented by letters, or characters arbitrarily formed, to signify the different sounds of which the words were severally composed. The simplest elementary part of written language is, therefore, a letter: and the elements or letters into which the words of any language may be analyzed, form the necessary alphabet of that language.

In the English alphabet are twenty-six letters.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z.

Of these there are six vowels, or letters which by themselves make every one a perfect sound. The remaining twenty are called consonants, or letters which cannot be sounded without a vowel.

This alphabet is both redundant and defective. It is redundant; for of the vowels, the letters _i_ and _y_ are in sound the same: one of them therefore is unnecessary. Of the consonants, the articulator _c_ having sometimes the sound of _k_, and sometimes of _s_, one of these must be unnecessary. _Q_, having in all cases the sound of _k_, may likewise be deemed superfluous. _W_ appears to me in every respect the same with the vowel _u_ (_oo_), and is therefore supernumerary[3]. The double consonant _x_ might be denoted by the combination of its component letters, _gs_ or _ks_.

It is to be observed also, that _g_, when it has the soft sound, is a double consonant, and performs the same office as the letter _j_; each having a sound compounded of the sounds of _d_ and the French _j_. Thus, _g_ in _general_ has the same sound as _j_ in _join_. _J_, however, is not, as some have supposed, resolvable into two letters, for we have no character to express the simple sound of the French _j_, of which, with the consonant _d_, the sound of the English _j_ is compounded. To resolve it into _dg_, as some have done, is therefore an error; as the soft _g_, without the aid of the other consonant, is precisely identical, in respect to sound, with the consonant _j_. The letter _h_ is no consonant; it is merely the note of aspiration.

Our alphabet is likewise defective. There are nine simple vowel sounds, for which we have only six characters, two of which, as it has been already observed, perform the same office. The simple vowel sounds are heard in these words,

Hall, hat, hate, met, mete, fin, hop, hope, but, full.

Some of these characters occasionally perform the office of diphthongs. Thus, in the word _fine_, the vowel _i_ has the diphthongal sound of the letters _â è_, as these are pronounced in French; and the vowel _u_ frequently represents the diphthong _eu_ (e-oo), as fume (fe-oom).

There are, besides, four different consonants for which we have no proper letters; namely, the initial consonant in the word _thin_, the initial consonant in _then_, the sibilating sound of _sh_, and the final consonant (marked _ng_), as in the word _sing_.

Consonants are generally divided into mutes and semi-vowels. The mutes are those which entirely, and at once, obstruct the sound of the vowel, and prevent its continuation. These are called perfect mutes. Those which do not suddenly obstruct it are called imperfect mutes.

Semi-vowels are those consonants which do not entirely obstruct the voice: but whose sounds may be continued at pleasure, thus partaking of the nature of vowels.

The nature of these consonants I proceed briefly to explain.

A vowel sound may be continued at pleasure, or it may be terminated, either by discontinuing the vocal effort, in which case it is not articulated by any consonant, as in pronouncing the vowel _o_; or by changing the conformation of the mouth, or relative position of the organs of speech, so that the vowel sound is lost by articulation, as in pronouncing the syllable _or_. It is to be observed, also, that a vowel may be articulated, not only by being terminated by a consonant, as in the example now given, but likewise by introducing the sound with that position of the organs, by which it had, in the former case, been terminated, as in pronouncing the syllable _ro_.

In pronouncing the consonants, there are five distinguishable positions of the organs[4]. The first is the application of the lips to each other, so as to close the mouth. Thus are formed the consonants _p_, _b_, and _m_.

In the second position, the under lip is applied to the fore teeth of the upper jaw; and in this manner we pronounce the consonants _f_ and _v_.

The third position is, when the tongue is applied to the fore teeth; and thus we pronounce _th_.

In the fourth position we apply the fore part of the tongue to the fore part of the palate, and by this application we pronounce the letters _t_, _d_, _s_, _z_, _r_, _l_, _n_.

The fifth position is, when the middle part of the tongue is applied to the palate, and thus we pronounce _k_, the hard sound of _g_ (as in _ga_), _sh_, _j_, and _ng_.

In the first position we have three letters, of which the most simple, and indeed the only articulator, being absolutely mute, is _p_. In the formation of this letter, nothing is required but the sudden closing of the mouth, and stopping the vowel sound; or the sound may be articulated by the sudden opening of the lips, in order to emit the compressed sound of the vowel.

Now, if instead of simply expressing the vowel sound by opening the lips, in saying for example _pa_, we shall begin to form a guttural sound, the position being still preserved; then, on opening the lips, we shall pronounce the syllable _ba_. The guttural sound is produced by a compression of the larynx, or windpipe; and is that kind of murmur, as Bishop Wilkins expresses it, which is heard in the throat, before the breath is emitted with the vocal sound. _B_, therefore, though justly considered as a mute, is not a perfect mute.

The mouth being kept in the same position, and the breath being emitted through the nostrils, the letter _m_ is produced.

In the first position, therefore, we have a perfect mute _p_, having no audible sound; a labial and liquid consonant _m_, capable of a continued sound; and between these two extremes we have the letter _b_, somewhat audible, though different from any vocal sound.

Here, then, are three things to be distinguished. 1st, The perfect mute, having no sound of any kind: 2dly, The perfect consonant, having not only a proper, but continued sound: and 3dly, Between these extremes we find the letter _b_, having a proper sound, but so limited, that, in respect to the perfect consonant, it may be termed a mute, and in relation to the perfect mute may be properly termed imperfect.

In the second position, we have the letters _f_ and _v_, neither of which are perfect mutes. The letter _f_ is formed by having the aspiration not altogether interrupted, but emitted forcibly between the fore teeth and under lip. This is the simple articulation in this position. If to this we join the guttural sound, we shall have the letter _v_, a letter standing in nearly the same relation to _f_, as _b_ and _m_, in the first position, stand to _p_. The only difference between _f_ and _v_ is, that, in the former, the compression of the teeth and under lip is not so strong as in the latter; and that the former is produced by the breath only, and the latter by the voice and breath combined.

The consonant _f_, therefore, though not a mute like _p_, in having the breath absolutely confined, may notwithstanding be considered as such, consistently with that principle, by which a mute is understood to be an aspiration without guttural sound.

Agreeably to the distinction already made, _v_ may be termed a perfect consonant, and _f_ an imperfect one, having no proper sound, though audible. Thus we have four distinctions in our consonantal alphabet; namely, of perfect and imperfect consonants; perfect and imperfect mutes: thus,

_p_ is a perfect mute, having no sound.

_b_ an imperfect mute, having proper sound, but limited.

_m_ a perfect consonant, having sound, and continued.

_f_ an imperfect consonant, having no sound, but audible.

In the third position we have _th_ as heard in the words _then_ and _thin_, formed by placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth, and pressing it against the upper teeth. The only difference between these articulations is, that like _f_ and _v_, the one is formed by the breath only, and the other by the breath and voice together[5].

Here also may be distinguished the perfect and the imperfect consonant; for the _th_ in _thin_ has no sound, but is audible, whereas the _th_ in _this_, _there_, has a sound, and that continued[6].

In the fourth position there are several consonants formed.

1st, If the breath be stopped, by applying the fore part of the tongue forcibly to that part of the palate, which is contiguous to the fore teeth, we produce the perfect mute _t_, having neither aspiration nor guttural sound. By accompanying this operation of the tongue and palate with the guttural sound, we shall pronounce the letter _d_, which, like _b_, of the first position, may be considered as a mute, though not perfect. For in pronouncing _ed_, the tongue at first gently touches the gum, and is gradually pressed closer, till the sound is obstructed; whereas in pronouncing _et_, the tongue is at once pressed so close, that the sound is instantly intercepted.

2dly, If the tip of the tongue be turned up towards the upper gum, so as not to touch it, and thus the breath be cut by the sharp point of the tongue passing through the narrow chink left between that and the gum, we pronounce the sibilating sound of _s_. If we accompany this operation with a guttural sound, as in _b_, _v_, and _th_ in _then_, we shall pronounce the letter _z_; the same difference subsisting between _s_ and _z_ as between _f_ and _v_, _p_ and _b_, _tħ_ and _th_.

3dly, If we make the tip of the tongue vibrate rapidly between the upper and lower jaw, so as not to touch the latter, and the former but gently, we shall pronounce the letter _r_. The more closely and forcibly the tongue vibrates against the upper jaw, the stronger will the sound be rendered. It is formed about the same distance from the teeth as the letter _d_, or rather somewhat behind it.

4thly, If the end of the tongue be gently applied to the fore part of the palate, a little behind the seat of the letter _d_, and somewhat before the place of _r_, and the voice be suffered to glide gently over the sides of the tongue, we shall pronounce the letter _l_. Here the breadth of the tongue is contracted, and a space left for the breath to pass from the upper to the under part of the tongue, in forming this the most vocal of all the consonants.

5thly, If the aspirating passage, in the formation of the preceding consonant, be stopped, by extending the tongue to its natural breadth, so as to intercept the voice, and prevent its exit by the mouth, the breath emitted through the nose will give the letter _n_.

In the fifth position, namely, when we apply the middle or back part of the tongue to the palate, we have the consonants _k_, _g_, _sh_, _j_, and _ng_.

If the middle of the tongue be raised, so as to press closely against the roof of the mouth, and intercept the voice at once, we pronounce the letter _k_ (_ek_). If the tongue be not so closely applied at first, and the sound be allowed to continue a little, we have the letter _g_ (_eg_). Thus _ek_ and _eg_ bear the same analogy to each other, as _et_ and _ed_ of the fourth position. If the tongue be protruded towards the teeth, so as not to touch them, and be kept in a position somewhat flatter than in pronouncing the letter _s_, the voice and breath passing over it through a wider chink, we shall have the sound of _esh_.

If we apply the tongue to the palate as in pronouncing _sh_, but a little more forcibly, and accompanying it with the guttural sound, we shall have the sound of the French _j_. Thus _j_ is in this position analogous to the letters _b_, _v_, _th_, in the first, second, and third positions, and is a simple consonant: _j_ in English is a double consonant, compounded of _d_ and the French _j_, as in _join_.

If we raise the middle of the tongue to the palate gently, so as to permit part of the voice to issue through the mouth, forcing the remainder back through the nose, keeping at the same time the tongue in the same position as in pronouncing _eg_, we shall have the articulating sound of _ing_, for which we have no simple character.

The only remaining letter _h_ is the note of aspiration, formed in various positions, according to the vowel with which it is combined.

The characters of the several letters may be seen in the following table:

+-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ |Perfect|Sounded, or| Imperfect | | | Mutes.| Imperfect.|Consonants.|Perfect.| +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | P | B | | | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | | | | M | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | | | F | V | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | | | tħ | th the | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | T | D | | | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | | | S | Z | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | | | | R | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | | | | L | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | | | | N | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | K | G | | | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | | | Sh |J French| +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | | | | ng | +-------+-----------+-----------+--------+

What effect the compression of the larynx has in articulation may be seen by comparing these pairs of consonants:

With compression. Without compression. B P G K D T Z S Th Tħ V F J Sh

These, as Mr. Tooke observes, differ, each from its partner, by a certain unnoticed and almost imperceptible motion or compression of or near the larynx. This compression, he remarks, the Welsh never use. For instead of

I vow by God, that Jenkin is a wizard;

they say,

I fow by Cot, that Shenkin iss a wisart.

The consonants have been distributed into different classes, according to the organs chiefly employed in their formation.

The Labial are eb, ep, ef, ev. Dental ed, et, etħ, eth. Palatal eg, ek, el, er, ess, esh, ez, ej. Nasal em, en, ing.

The association of two vowels, whether the sound of each be heard or not, is called a diphthong, and the concurrence of three is called a triphthong.

Of diphthongs there are twenty, viz. _ai_, _au_, _ea_, _ee_, _ei_, _eo_, _eu_, _ie_, _oa_, _oo_, _ui_, _ay_, _ey_, _uy_, _oi_, _oy_, _ou_, _aw_, _ew_, _ow_. Of the diphthongs seventeen have a sound purely monophthongal; hence they have been called improper diphthongs. It would be idle to dispute the propriety of a term almost universally adopted; but to call that a diphthong whose sound is monophthongal is an abuse of language, and creates confusion. The only proper diphthongs in our language are _eu_, _oi_, _ou_, in which each vowel is distinctly heard, forming together one syllable. The triphthongs are three, _eau_, _ieu_, _iew_. Of these, the first _eau_ is sometimes pronounced _eu_, as in _beauty_; sometimes _o_, as in _beau_: the other two have the diphthongal sound of _eu_.