Chapter 12

DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.

THE ATHABASKANS OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COUNTRY.--THE ALGONKIN STOCK.--THE IROQUOIS.--THE SIOUX.--ASSINEBOINS.--THE ESKIMO.--THE KOLÚCH.--THE NEHANNI.--DIGOTHI.--THE ATSINA.--INDIANS OF BRITISH OREGON, QUADRA'S AND VANCOUVER'S ISLAND.--HAIDAH.--CHIMSHEYAN.-- BILLICHULA.--HAILTSA.--NUTKA.--ATNA.--KITUNAHA INDIANS.--PARTICULAR ALGONKIN TRIBES.--THE NASCOPI.--THE BETHUCK.--NUMERALS FROM FITZ-HUGH SOUND.--THE MOSKITO INDIANS.--SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS OF BRITISH GUIANA.--CARIBS.--WAROWS.--WAPISIANAS.--TARUMAS.--CARIBS OF ST. VINCENT.--TRINIDAD.

_The Athabaskans._--The best starting-point for the ethnology of the British dependencies in America is the water-system of the largest of the rivers which empty themselves into the Polar Sea, a system which comprises the Rivers Peel, Dahodinni, and the Rivière aux Liards, tributaries to the McKenzie, as well as the Great Bear Lake, the Great Slave Lake, and Lake Athabaska; a vast tract, and one which is _almost_ wholly occupied by a population belonging to one and the same class; a class sometimes known under the name _Chepewyan_, or _Chepeyan_, sometimes under that of _Athabaskan_.

The water-system in question forms the centre of the great Athabaskan area--the centre, but not the whole. _Eastward_, there are Athabaskan tribes as far as the coasts of Hudson's Bay; westwards as far as the immediate neighbourhood of the Pacific; and southwards as far as the head-waters of the Saskatchewan. Full nineteen-twentieths of the Athabaskan population, in respect to its political relations, is British; all that is not British being either Russian or American. To this we may add, that it is the Hudson's Bay territory rather than Canada to which the British Athabaskans belong.

The divisions and subdivisions of the Athabaskans are as follows:--

1. The _Sí-ísaw-dinni_ (_See-eesaw-dinneh_), or _rising-sun-men_.--These, generally called either _Chipewyans_, or _Northern Indians_, are the most eastern members of the family, and extend from the mouth of the Churchill River to Lake Athabaska. I imagine that the _Brushwood_, _Birchrind_, and _Sheep_ Indians are particular divisions of this branch.

2. _The Beaver Indians._--From the Lake Athabaska to the Rocky Mountain, _i.e._, the valley of the Peace River.

3. The _Daho-dinni_.--On the head-waters of the Rivière aux Liards. Called also _Mauvais Monde_.

4. The _Strong-Bows_.--Mountaineers of the upper part of the Rocky Mountains.

5. The _Kancho_.--Called also _Hare_ and _Slave_ Indians. Starved and miserable occupants of the parts along the River McKenzie between the Slave and Great Bear Lakes. Accused of occasional cannibalism, justified by the pressure of famine. Due east of these come--

6. The _Dog-ribs_, and

7. The _Yellow-knives_, on the _Copper River_; these last being also called the Copper Indians.

8, 9. The _Slaous-cud-dinni_[71] of the McKenzie River is, probably, a division of some of the other groups rather than a separate substantive class.

10. The _Takulli_.[72]--These fall into eleven minor tribes or clans.

_a._ The _Taú-tin_; probably the same as the _Naote-tains_.

_b._ The _Tshilko-tin_.

_c._ The _Nasko-tin_.

_d._ The _Thetlio-tin_.

_e._ The _Tsatsno-tin_.

_f._ The _Nulaáu-tin_.

_g._ The _Ntsaáu-tin_.

_h._ The _Natliáu-tin_.

_i._ The _Nikozliáu-tin_.

_j._ The _Tatshiáu-tin_.

_k._ The _Babine_ Indians.

11. The _Susi_ (_Sussees_).--On the head-waters of the Saskatchewan.

New Caledonia is the chief area of the _Takulli_.

Adjacent to them, but to the east of the Rocky Mountains, lie--

12. The _Tsikani_ (_Sicunnies_).

The Athabaskan is the _first_ class in our list; and, if we look only at the area which its population occupies, it is a great one. All the Athabaskan languages or dialects are mutually intelligible.

_The Algonkins._--The _second_ class is the Algonkin. It is greater in every way than the Athabaskan--greater in respect to the number of its divisions and subdivisions, greater in respect to the ground it covers, and greater in respect to the range of difference which it embraces. All the Algonkin languages are not mutually intelligible.

Unlike the Athabaskan the Algonkin stock is nearly equally divided between the United States and Great Britain.

Unlike, too, the Athabaskan, it is divided between the Canadas and our other possessions and the Hudson's Bay territory.

The whole of the Canadas, with one small but important exception, the whole of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward's Isle, is Algonkin. Labrador and Newfoundland are chiefly Algonkin.

To this stock belonged and belong the extinct and extant Indians of New England, part of New York, part of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, part of the Carolinas, and part of even Kentucky and Tennessee; a point of American rather than of British ethnology, but a point necessary to be noted for the sake of duly appreciating the magnitude of this stock.

Amongst others, the Pequods, the Mohicans, the Narragansetts, the Massachuset, the Montaug, the Delaware, the Menomini, the Sauks, the Ottogamis, the Kikkapús, the Potawhotamis, the Illinois, the Miami, the Piankeshaws, the Shawnos, &c. belong to this stock--all within the United States.

The British Algonkins are as follows:--

1. The _Crees_; of which the _Skoffi_ and _Sheshatapúsh_ of Labrador are branches.

2. The _Ojibways_;[73] falling into--

_a._ The _Ojibways Proper_, of which the _Sauteurs_ are a section.

_b._ The _Ottawas_ of the River Ottawa.

_c._ The original Indians of Lake _Nipissing_; important because it is believed that the form of speech called _Algonkin_, a term since extended to the whole class, was their particular dialect. They are now either extinct or amalgamated with other tribes.

_d._ The _Messisaugis_, to the north of Lake Ontario.

3. The _Micmacs_ of New Brunswick, Gaspé, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and part of Newfoundland; closely allied to the--

4. _Abnaki_ of Mayne, and the British frontier; represented at present by the _St. John's Indians_.

5. The _Bethuck_--the aborigines of Newfoundland.

6. The _Blackfoots_, consisting of the--

_a._ _Satsikaa_, or _Blackfoots Proper_.

_b._ The _Kena_, or _Blood Indians_.

_c._ The _Piegan_.

To these must be added numerous extinct tribes.

_The Iroquois._--The single and important exception to the Algonkin population of the Canadas is made by the existence of certain members of the great Iroquois class on the New York frontier; a class falling into two divisions. The _northern_ Iroquois belong to New York and Pennsylvania, the _southern_ to the Carolinas.

The former of these two falls into two great confederations, and into several unconfederate tribes.

The chief of the unconfederate tribes are the now extinct _Mynkasar_ and _Cochnowagoes_--extinct, unless either or both be represented by a small remnant mentioned by Schoolcraft, in his great work on the Indian tribes, now in the course of publication, under the sanction of Congress, as the _St. Regis Indians_.

Of the second confederation the leading members were the _Wyandots_, or _Hurons_, of the parts between Lakes Simcoe, Huron, and Erie.

The first was that of the famous and formidable _Mohawks_. To these add the _Senekas_, the _Onondagos_, the _Cayugas_, and the _Oneidas_, and you have the _Five_ Nations. Then add, as a later accession, from the southern Iroquois, the _Tuskaroras_, and the _Six_ Nations are formed.

Between these two there was war _even to the knife_; the greater portion of the Wyandot league belonging to the Algonkin class.

Nevertheless, a few representatives of the whole seven tribes[74] still remain extant, their present locality--a reserve--being the triangular peninsula which was the original Huron area.

Again, in the present site of Montreal, the earlier occupants were the _Hochelaga_; an Iroquois tribe also.

_The Sioux._--In tracing the Nelson River from its embouchure in Hudson's Bay, towards its source in the Rocky Mountains, we reach Lake Winnepeg, and the Red River Settlement--the Red River rising within the boundary of the United States, flowing from south to north, and receiving, as a feeder, the Assineboin. Now the Valley of the Assineboin is an interesting ethnological locality.

Either the river takes its name from the population, or the population from the river; the division to which it belongs being a new one. Different from the Algonkins on the east, different from the Athabaskans on the north, and (in the present state of our knowledge) different from the Arrapahoes on the west, the Assineboins have all their affinities southwards. In that direction the family to which they belong extends as far as Louisiana. These Indians it is to whom nine-tenths of the Valley of Missouri originally belonged--the Indians of the great Sioux class; Indians whose original hunting-grounds included the vast prairie-country from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi, and who again appear as an isolated detachment on Lake Michigan. These isolated Sioux are the Winebagoes; the others being the Dahcota, the Yankton, the Teton, the Upsaroka, the Mandan, the Minetari, the Missouri, the Osage, the Konzas, the Ottos, the Omahaws, the Puncas, the Ioways, and the Quappas,--all American, _i.e._, belonging to the United States.

None of the Sioux tribe come in contact with the sea. None of them belong to the great _forest_ districts of America. Most of them hunt over the country of the buffalo. This makes them warlike, migratory hunters; with fewer approaches to agricultural or industrial civilization than any Indians equally favoured by soil and climate.

Of this class the Assineboins are the British representatives. They are the chief _Red River_ aborigines.

It is the Iroquois, the Sioux, and certain members of the Algonkin stock, upon which the current and popular notions of the American Indian, the _Red Man_, as he is called--

The Stoic of the woods, the man without a tear, &c.,

have been formed. The Athabaskans, on the other hand, have not contributed much to our notions on this point. In the first place, they are less known; in the next, they are less typical.

But this raises their value in the eyes of the ethnologist; and the very fact of their possessing certain characteristics, in a comparatively slight degree, makes them all the fitter for illustrating the phenomena of _transition_.

Previous, however, to this, we must get our other _extreme_. This is to be found in the ethnology of--

_The Eskimo._--It is a very easy matter for an artistic ethnologist to make some fine light-and-shade contrasts between two populations, where he has an Iroquois or a Sioux at one end, and an Eskimo of Labrador at the other. An oblique eye, bleared and sore from the glare of the snow, with a crescentic fold overshadowing the _caruncula lacrymalis_, surmounted by a low forehead and black shaggy locks, with cheek-bones of such inordinate development as to make the face as broad as it is long, are elements of ugliness which catch the imagination, and produce a caricature, where we want a picture. And they are elements of ugliness which can be accumulated. We may add to them, a nose so flat, and cheeks so fleshy, as for a ruler, placed across the latter, to leave the former untouched. We may then notice the state of the teeth, from the mastication of injurious substances; and having thus exhausted nature, we may revert to the deformities of art. We may observe that wherever there is a fleshy portion of the face that can be perforated by a stone knife, or pierced by a whalebone, there will be tattooing and incisions; and that wherever there are incisions, bones, nails, feathers, and such like ornaments will be inserted. All this is the case. What European ladies do with their ears, the Eskimo does with the cartilage of his nose, the lips, the corners of his mouth, and the cheeks. More than this--in the lower lip, parallel to the mouth, and taking the guise of a mouth additional, a slit is made quite through the lip, large enough to allow the escape of spittle and the protrusion of the tongue. The insertion of a shell or bone, cut into the shape of teeth, completes the adornment.

Then comes the question of colour. The Indian has a tinge of red; a tinge which enables us to compare his skin to _copper_. The Eskimo is simply brown, swarthy, or tawny.

Again, the Eskimo hold periodical fairs. Whales are scarce in the south, and wood in the north of Greenland; and in consequence of this, there are regular meetings for the business of barter. This gives us the elements of commercial industry; elements which must themselves be taken in conjunction with the maritime habits of the people. What stronger contrast can we find to all this than the gloomy isolation of the hunters of the prairie-countries, whether Sioux, Iroquois, or Algonkin?

Again, it is safe, in the way of intellectual capacity, to give the Eskimo credit for ingenuity and imitativeness. The Indian, of the type which we have chosen to judge him by, is pre-eminently indocile and inflexible.

Yet all this, with much more besides, is capable of great qualification--qualification which we find necessary, whether we look to the extent to which the Eskimos approach the Indian, or the Indian the Eskimo--each receding from its own more extreme representative.

The prominence of the nasal bones is certainly common amongst the Red Indian tribes; and rare amongst the Eskimo. Yet it is neither universal in the one, nor non-existent in the other. Oval features, a mixture of red in the complexion, an aquiline nose, have all been observed amongst the more favoured of the Circumpolar men and women.

In respect, too, to stature, the Eskimo is less remarkable for inferiority than is generally supposed. His bulky, baggy dress makes him look square and short. Measurements, however, correct this impression. Men of the height of five feet ten inches have been noticed as particular specimens--better grown individuals than their fellows. And men under five feet have also been noticed for the contrary reasons. Numerous measurements, however, give about five feet as the height of an Eskimo woman, and five feet six inches as that of a man. This is more than so good an authority as Mr. Crawfurd gives to the Malays; whose person is squat, and whose average stature does not exceed five feet three or four inches. It is more, too, than Sir R. Schomburgk gives the Guiana Indians, as may be seen from the following table:--

+---------------+-------+-------------+ | | Aged. | ft. in. | +---------------+-------+-------------+ | _Wapisianas._ | 12 | 4 8-5/10 | | | 15 | 4 6 | | | 16 | 5 1-1/10 | +---------------+-------+-------------+ | _Tarumas._ | 14 | 4 11-3/10 | +---------------+-------+-------------+ | _Mawackas._ | 15 | 4 10 | | | 16} | 4 9-5/10 | | | 17} | | +---------------+-------+-------------+ | _Atorais._ | 35 | 5 1-5/10 | | | 15 | 5 1 | +---------------+-------+-------------+ | _Macusis._ | 14} | 4 8 | | | 15} | | | | 14 | 5 0 | +---------------+-------+-------------+

It is more than the average of several other populations.

Neither is the Eskimo skull so wholly different from the American. It is, probably, larger in its dimensions; so that its cavity contains more cubic inches. The measurements, however, which suggest this view, are but few. On the other hand, the relations between the _width_ and the _depth_ of the skull, are considered important and distinctive.

By _width_ is meant the number of inches from side to side, from one parietal bone to the other; in other words, the _parietal diameter_.

_Depth_ signifies the length of the _occipito-frontal_ diameter, or the number of inches from the forehead to the back of the skull.

Now, in one out of four of the Eskimo crania examined by Dr. Morton, the parietal diameter so nearly approaches the occipito-frontal as for the skull in question to be as much as 5·4 inches in width, and as little as 5·7 in depth; a measurement which makes the Eskimo brain almost as broad as it is long. _Valeat quantum._ It is an extreme specimen. The remainder are as 5·5 to 7·3; as 5·1 to 7·5; and as 5 to 6·7, proportions by no means exclusively Eskimo, and proportions which occur in very many of the undeniably American stocks.

Likeness there is; and variety there is;--likeness in physical feature, likeness in language, and likeness in the general moral and intellectual characteristics. And then there is variety--variety in all the details of their arts; variety in their bows, their canoes, their dwellings, their fashions in the way of incisions and tattooings, and their fashions in the dressing of their hair.

This is as much as can be said about the Eskimo at present. It is, however, preparatory to the general statement that _all the remaining_ Indians of British North America recede from the Sioux and Iroquois type, and approach that of the family in question. Such, indeed, has been the case, though (perhaps) in a less degree, with one of the classes already considered--the Athabaskan.

_The Kolúch._--The extreme west of the British possessions beyond the Rocky Mountains, _north_ of latitude 55° is but imperfectly known. Indeed, for scientific, and, perhaps, for political purposes as well, the country is unfortunately divided. The Russians have the long but narrow strip of coast; and, consequently, limit their investigations to its bays and archipelagoes. The British, on the contrary, though they possess the interior, have no great interest in the parts about the Russian boundary. In the way of trade, they are not sufficiently on the sea for the sea-otter, nor near enough the mountains for other fur-bearing animals.

Now, the mouth of the Stikin River is Russian, the head-waters British. Beyond these, we have the water-system of the McKenzie--for that river, although falling into the Arctic Sea, has a western fork, which breaks through the barrier of the Rocky Mountains, and changes in direction from west and south-west to north. Lake Simpson, Lake Dease, and the River Turnagain belong to this branch; the tract in which they lie being a range of highlands, if not of mountains.

This is the country of the Nehannis; conterminous on the south with that of the Takulli, and on the north-east with that of the Dahodinni. How far, however, it extends towards the Russian boundary and in the north-west direction I cannot say.

The Nehannis are, probably, the chief British representatives of the class called Kolúch.[75] Assuming this--although from the want of a special Nehanni vocabulary, the philological evidence is wanting--I begin with the notice of the _Nehannis_, as known to the Hudson's Bay Company, and afterwards superadd a sketch of the _Sitkans_, as known to the Russians of New Archangel; the two notices together giving us the special description of a family, and the general view of the class to which that family belongs.

That the Nehannis are brave, warlike, and turbulent, is no more than is expected. We are far beyond the latitude of the peaceful Eskimo. That they are ruled by a woman should surprise us. Such, however, is the case. A female rules them--and rules them, too, with a rod of iron. Respect for sex has here attained its height. It had begun to be recognized amongst the Athabaskans.

The Nehannis are strong enough to rob; but they are also civilized enough to barter; buying of the inland tribes, and selling to the Russians--a practice which seems to divert the furs of British territory to the markets of Muscovy. But this is no business of the ethnologist's. They are slavers and slave-owners; ingenious and imitative; fond of music and dancing; fish-eaters; active in body; bold and treacherous in temper; and with the common Kolúch physiognomy and habits.

_These_ we must collect from the descriptions of the Russian Kolúches--the locality where they have been best studied being Sitka Sound, or New Archangel. We must do it, however, _mutatis mutandis_, _i.e._, remembering that the Sitkans are Kolúch of an Archipelago, the Nehanni Kolúch of a continent.

The Kolúch complexion is light; the hair long and lank; the eyes black; and the lip and chin often bearded.

The _Konægi_ are the natives of the island Kadiak. Now Lisiansky, from whom the chief details of the Sitkan Kolúch are taken, especially states that, with few exceptions, their manners and customs are those of these same Konægi; one of the minor points of difference being the greater liveliness of the Sitkans, and one of the more important ones, their treatment of the dead. They _burn_ the bodies (as do the Takulli Athabaskans) and deposit the ashes in wooden boxes placed upon pillars, painted or carved, more or less elaborately, according to the wealth of the deceased.

On the death of a _toyon_, or chief, one of his slaves is killed and burned with him. If, however, the deceased be of inferior rank the victim is _buried_. If the death be in battle, the head, instead of being burned, is kept in a wooden box of its own. But it is not with the shaman as with the warrior. The shaman is merely interred; since he is supposed to be too full of the evil spirit to be consumed by fire. The reason why burning is preferred to burying is because the possession of a piece of flesh is supposed to enable its owner to do what mischief he pleases.

_Now the Konægi are admitted Eskimo._

Notwithstanding the similarity between the Sitkans and Konægi there is no want of true American customs amongst them. Cruelty to prisoners, indifference to pain when inflicted on themselves, and the habit of scalping are common to the Indians of King George's Archipelago, and those of the water-system of the Mississippi. On the other hand, they share the skill in painting and carving with the Chenúks and the aborigines of the Oregon.

_The Digothi._--The Dahodinni are Athabaskan rather than Kolúch; the Nehanni Kolúch rather than Athabaskan. Now I imagine that the Dahodinni country is partially encircled by Kolúch populations, and that a fresh branch of this stock re-appears when we proceed northwards. On the Lower McKenzie, in the valley of the Peel River, and at the termination of the great Rocky Range on the shore of the Polar Sea, we find the _Digothi_ or _Loucheux_; the only family not belonging to the Eskimo class, which comes in contact with the ocean; and, consequently, the only unequivocally Indian population which interrupts the continuity of the Eskimo from Behring's Straits to the Atlantic. Perhaps the alluvium of a great river like the McKenzie, has determined this displacement. Such an occupancy would be as naturally coveted by an inland population, as undervalued by a maritime one. At any rate, the Loucheux have the appearance of being an encroaching tenantry; indeed, few Indians have had their physical appearance described in terms equally favourable. Black-haired and fair-complexioned, with fine sparkling eyes, and regular teeth, they approach the Nehanni in physiognomy, and surpass them in stature. The same authority which expressly states that the Nehanni are not generally tall, speaks to the athletic proportions and tall stature of the Loucheux; adding that their countenances are handsome and expressive.

Whence came they? From the south-east, from Russian America. Their points of contrast to the Eskimo indicate this. Their points of contrast to the Athabaskans indicate it also. Their points of similarity to the Kolúch do more. The Loucheux possessive pronoun is the same as the Kenay. Thus--

ENGLISH. LOUCHEUX. KENAY.

_My_-son _se_-jay _ssi_-ja. _My_-daughter _se_-zay _ssa_-za.

Fuller descriptions, however, of both the Loucheux and Nehanni are required before we can decidedly pronounce them to be Kolúch; indeed, so high an authority as Gallatin places the latter amongst the Athabaskans.

_The Fall Indians._--In a MS. communicated by Mr. Gallatin to Dr. Prichard, and, by the latter kindly lent to myself, and examined by me some years back, was a vocabulary of the language of the Indians of the Falls of the Saskatchewan. In this their native name was written _Ahnenin_. Mr. Hale, however, calls them _Atsina_. Which is correct is difficult to say.

_Gros ventres_ is another of their designations; _Minetari of the Prairie_ another. This last is inconvenient, as well as incorrect, since the true _Minetari_ are a Sioux tribe, different in language, manners, and descent.

_Arrapaho_ is a third synonym; and this is important, since there are other _Arrapahoes_ as far south as the Platte and Arkansas Rivers.

The identity of name is _primâ facie_ evidence of two tribes so distant as those of Arkansas and the Saskatchewan being either offsets from one another, or else from some common stock; but it is not more. Nothing can be less conclusive. This has just been shown to be in the case of the term _Minetari_.

The Ahnenin, or Atsina language is peculiar; though the confederacy to which the Indians who speak it belong, is the Blackfoot.

Of the southern Arrapaho we have no vocabulary; neither do we know whether the name be native or not.

* * * * *

A tract still stands over for notice. As we have no exact northern limits for the Nehanni, no exact western ones for the Dahodinni, and no exact southern ones for the Loucheux, the parts due east of the Russian boundary are undescribed.

I can only _contribute_ to the ethnology here.

_The Ugalentses._--Round Mount St. Elias we have a population of _Ugalentses_ or Ugalyakhmutsi. Though said to consist of less than forty families,[76] as their manners are migratory, it is highly probable that some of them are British.

_The Tshugatsi_.--In contact with the Ugalents, who are transitional between the true Eskimo and the true Kolúch, the Tshugatsi are unequivocally Eskimo. The parts about Prince William's Sound are their locality.

_The Haidah._--Queen Charlotte's, and the southern extremity of the Prince of Wales' Archipelago, are the parts to which the Indians speaking the Haidah language have been referred. In case, however, any members of their family extend into the British territory, they are mentioned here.

Three Haidah tribes are more particularly named--

_a._ The _Skittegat_.

_b._ The _Cumshahas_--a name remarkably like that of the _Chimsheyan_, hereafter to be noticed.

_c._ The _Kygani_.

_The Tungaas._--This is the name of the language of the most Northern Indians, with which the Hudson's Bay Company comes in contact. It is Kolúch; and more Russian than British.

The chief authority is Dr. Scouler. The whole of his valuable remarks upon the North-western Indians, is a commentary upon the assertion already made as to the extent which we have formed our ideas of the Aboriginal American upon the Algonkins and Iroquois exclusively; and his facts are a correction to our inferences. In what way do the moral and intellectual characters of the Western Indians differ from those of the Eastern? I shall give the answer in Dr. Scouler's only terms. They are less inflexible in character. Their range of ideas is greater. They are imitative and docile. They are comparatively humane.[77] No scalping. No excessive torture of prisoners. No probationary inflictions.

Now--whether negative or positive--there is not one of those characteristics wherein the Western American differs from the Eastern, in which he does not, at the same time, approach the Eskimo. In the absence of the scalping-knife, the tomahawk, the council fire, the wampum-belt, the hero chief, and the metaphorical orator, the Eskimo differs from the Ojibway, the Huron, and the Mohawk. True. But the Haidah and the Chimsheyan do the same.

The religion of the Algonkin and Iroquois is Shamanistic; like the Negro of Africa they attribute to some material object mysterious powers. As far as the term has been defined, this is Feticism. But, then, like the Finn, and the Samoeid of Siberia, they either seek for themselves or reverence in others, the excitement of fasting, charms, and dreams. As far as the term has been defined this is Shamanism. Now lest our notions as to the religion of the Indians be rendered unduly favourable through the ideas of pure theism, called up by the missionary term _Great Spirit_, we must simply remember, in the first place, that the term is _ours_, not _theirs_; and that those who, by looking to facts rather than words, have criticised it, have arrived at the conclusion that the creed of the Indians of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi is neither better nor worse than the creed of the Indians of the Columbia. Both are alike, Shamanistic. And so is the Eskimo.

The names in detail of the Indians of British Oregon, over and above those of the Athabaskan family already enumerated, are as follows; Dr. Scouler still being the authority, and, along with him, Mr. Tolmie and Mr. Hale.

1. The _Chimsheyan_, or _Chimmesyan_, on the sea-coast and islands about 55° North lat. Their tribes are the _Naaskok_, the _Chimsheyan Proper_, the _Kitshatlah_, and the _Kethumish_.

2. The _Billichula_, on the mouth of the Salmon River.

3. The _Hailtsa_, on the sea-coast, from Hawkesbury Island to Broughton's Archipelago, and (perhaps) the northern part of Quadra's and Vancouver's Island. Their tribes are the _Hyshalla_, the _Hyhysh_, the _Esleytuk_, the _Weekenoch_, the _Nalatsenoch_, the _Quagheuil_, the _Ttatla-shequilla_, and the _Lequeeltoch_. The numerals from Fitz-Hugh Sound will be noticed in the sequel.

4. _The Nutka Sound Indians_ occupy the greater part of Quadra's and Vancouver's Island, speak the _Wakash_ language, and fall into the following tribes--

_a._ _The Naspatl._

_b._ _The Nutkans Proper._

_c._ _The Tlaoquatsh._

_d._ _The Nittenat._

5. _The Shushwah_, or _Atna_, are bounded on the north by the Takulli, belong to the interior rather than the coast, are members of a large family, called the _Tsihaili-Selish_, extending far into the United States. According to Mr. Hale, they present the remarkable phenomenon of an aboriginal stock having increased from about four hundred to twelve hundred, instead of diminishing.

6. _The Kitunaha_, _Cutanies_, or _Flat-bows_, hardy, brave and shrewd hunters on the Kitunaha, or Flat-bow River, and conterminous with the Blackfoots, are the Oregon Indians whose habits most closely approach those of the Indians to the east of the Rocky Mountains.

* * * * *

To some of these I now return, since three points of Algonkin ethnology require special notice.

_a._ _The Nascopi_ or _Skoffi_.--This is a frontier tribe. Much as we connect the ideas of cold and cheerless sterility with the inclement climate and naked moorlands of Labrador, and much as we connect the Eskimo as a population with a similarly inhospitable country, it is only the coast of that vast region which is thus tenanted. On Hudson's Straits there are Eskimo; on the Straits of Belleisle there are Eskimo; along the intervening coast there are Eskimo, and as far south as Anticosti there are Eskimo, but in the interior there are no Eskimo. Instead of them we find the Skoffi, and the Sheshatapúsh--subsections (as stated before) of the same section of the great Algonkin stock. In them we have a measure of the effect of external conditions upon different members of the same class. Between the Skoffi of Mosquito Bay and the Pamticos of Cape Hatteras we have more than 25° of latitude combined with a difference of other physical conditions which more than equals the difference between north and south. Yet the contrast between the Algonkin and other inhabitants of Labrador is as evident (though not, perhaps, so great) as that between the Greenlander and the Virginian; so that just as the Norwegian is distinguishable from the Laplander so is the Skoffi from Eskimo.

Dirtier and coarser than any other Algonkins, the Nascopi hunts and fishes for his livelihood exclusively; depending most upon the autumnal migrations of the reindeer; and, next to that, upon his net. This he sets under the ice, during the earlier months of the winter. After December, however, he would set them in vain; the fish being, then, all in the deep water. Woman, generally a drudge in North America, is pre-eminently so with the Nascopis. All that the man does, is the _killing_ of the game. The woman brings it home. The woman also drags the loaded sledges from squatting to squatting, clears the ground, and collects fuel; whilst the man sits idle and smokes. Of such domestic slaves more than one is allowed; so that as far as the Nascopi recognizes marriage at all, he is a polygamist. In this sense the contracting parties are respectively the parents of the couple--the bride and bridegroom being the last parties consulted. When all has been arranged, the youth proceeds to his father-in-law's tent, remains there a year, and then departs as an independent member of the community. Cousins are addressed as brothers or sisters; marriage between near relations is allowed; and so is the marriage of more than one sister successively.

The Paganism of the Nascopi is that of the other Cree tribes; their Christianity still more partial and still more nominal. Sometimes rolling in abundance, sometimes starving, they are attached to the Whites by but few artificial wants; the few fur-bearing animals of their country being highly prized, and, consequently, going a long way as elements of barter. Their dress is almost wholly of reindeer skin; their travelling gear a leathern bag with down in it, and a kettle. In this bag the Nascopi thrusts his legs, draws his knees up to his chin, and defies both wind and snow.

This account has been condensed from M'Lean's "Five and Twenty Years' Service in the Hudson's Bay Territory." I subjoin the remainder in his own words: "The horrid practice still obtains among the Nascopis of destroying their parents and relatives, when old age incapacitates them for further exertion. I must, however, do them the justice to say, that the parent himself expresses a wish to depart, otherwise the unnatural deed would probably never be committed, for they, in general, treat their old people with much care and tenderness. The son, or nearest relative, performs the office of executioner--the self-devoted victim being disposed of by strangulation."

_b._ _The Aborigines of Newfoundland._--Sebastian Cabot brought three Newfoundlanders to England. They were clothed in beasts' skin, and ate raw flesh. This last is an accredited characteristic of the Eskimo; and, thus far, the evidence is in favour of the savages in question belonging to that stock. Yet it is more than neutralized by what follows; since Purchas states that two years after he saw two of them, dressed like Englishmen, "which, at that time, I could not discover from Englishmen, till I learned what they were."

Now as the Bethuck--the aborigines in question--have either been cruelly exterminated, or exist in such small numbers as not to have been seen for many years, it has been a matter of doubt whether they were Eskimo or Micmacs, the present occupants of the island. Reasons against either of these views are supplied by a hitherto unpublished Bethuck vocabulary, with which I have been kindly furnished by my friend Dr. King, of the Ethnological Society. This makes them a _separate section_ of the Algonkins. Such I believe them to have been, and have placed them accordingly.

_c._ _The Fitz-Hugh Sound Numerals._--These are nearly the same as the Hailtsa. On the other hand, they agree with the Blackfoot in ending in -_scum_.

Now if the resemblance go farther, so as really to connect the Blackfoot with the Hailtsa, it brings the Algonkin class of languages across the whole breadth of the continent, and as far as the shores of the Pacific.

* * * * *

The Moskito Indians are no subjects of England, any more than the Tahitians are of France, or the Sandwich Islanders of America, France, and England conjointly. The Moskito coast is a Protectorate: and the Moskito Indians are the subjects of a native king.

The present reigning monarch was educated under English auspices at Jamaica, and, upon attaining his majority, crowned at Grey Town. I believe that his name is that of the grandfather of our late gracious majesty. King George, then, king of the Moskitos, has a territory extending from the neighbourhood of Truxillo to the lower part of the River San Juan; a territory whereof, inconveniently for Great Britain, the United States, and the commerce of the world at large, the limits and definition are far from being universally recognized. Nicaragua has claims, and the Isthmus canal suffers accordingly.

The king of the Moskito coast, and the emperor of the Brazil, are the only resident sovereigns of the New World.

The subjects of the former are, really, the aborigines of the whole line of coast between Nicaragua and Honduras--there being no Indians remaining in the former republic, and but few in the latter. Of these, too--the Nicaraguans--we have no definite ethnological information. Mr. Squier speaks of them as occupants of the islands of the lakes of the interior. Colonel Galindo also mentions them; but I infer, from his account, that their original language is lost, and that Spanish is their present tongue; just as it is said to be that of the aborigines of St. Salvador and Costa Rica. This makes it difficult to fix them. And the difficulty is increased when we resort to history, tradition, and archæology. History makes them Mexicans--Asteks from the kingdom of Montezuma, and colonists of the Peninsula, just as the Ph[oe]nicians were of Carthage. Archæology goes the same way. A detailed description of Mr. Squier's discoveries, is an accession to ethnology which is anxiously expected. At any rate, stone ruins and carved decorations have been found; so that what Mr. Stephenson has written about Yucatan and Guatemala, may be repeated in the case of Nicaragua. Be it so. The difficulty will be but increased; since whatever facts makes Nicaragua Mexican, isolates the Moskitos. They are now in contact with Spaniards and Englishmen--populations whose civilization differs from their own; and populations who are evidently intrusive and of recent origin. Precisely the same would be the case, if the Nicaraguans were made Mexican. The civilization would be of another sort; the population which introduced it would be equally intrusive; and the only difference would be a difference of stage and degree--a little earlier in the way of time, and a little less contrast in the way of skill and industry.

But the evidence in favour of the Mexican origin of the Nicaraguans, is doubtful; and so is the fact of their having wholly lost their native tongue; and until one of these two opinions be proved, it will be well to suspend our judgment as to the isolation of the Moskitos. If, indeed, either of them be true, their ethnological position will be a difficult question. With nothing in Honduras to compare them with--with nothing tangible, or with an apparently incompatible affinity in Nicaragua--with only very general miscellaneous affinities in Guatemala--their ethnological affinities are as peculiar as their political constitution. Nevertheless, isolated as their language is, it has undoubted _general affinities with those of America at large_; and this is all that it is safe to say at present. But it is safe to say _this_. We have plenty of data for their tongue, in a grammar of Mr. Henderson's, published at New York, 1846.

The chief fact in the history of the Moskitos, is that they were never subject to the Spaniards. Each continent affords a specimen of this isolated freedom--the independence of some exceptional and impracticable tribes, as compared with the universal empire of some encroaching European power. The Circassians in Caucasus, the Tshuktshi Koriaks in North-eastern Asia, and the Kaffres in Africa, show this. Their relations with the buccaneers were, probably, of an amicable description. So they were with the Negroes--maroon and imported. And this, perhaps, has determined their _differentiæ_. They are intertropical American aborigines, who have become partially European, without becoming Spanish.

Their physical conformation is that of the South rather than the North American; and, here it must be remembered, that we are passing from one moiety of the new hemisphere to the other. With a skin which is olive-coloured rather than red, they have small limbs and undersized frames; whilst their habits are, _mutatis mutandis_, those of the intertropical African. This means, that the exuberance of soil, and the heat of the climate, makes them agriculturists rather than shepherds, and idlers rather than agriculturists; since the least possible amount of exertion gives them roots and fruits; whilst it is only those wants which are compatible with indolence that they care to satisfy. They presume rather than improve upon the warmth of their suns, and the fertility of the soil. When they get liquor, they get drunk; when they work hardest, they cut mahogany. Canoes and harpoons represent the native industry. _Wulasha_ is the name of their Evil Spirit, and _Liwaia_ that of a water-god.

I cannot but think that there is much intermixture amongst them. At the same time, the _data_ for ascertaining the amount are wanting. Their greatest intercourse has, probably, been with the Negro; their next greatest with the Englishman. Of the population of the interior, we know next to nothing. Here their neighbours are Spaniards.

They are frontagers to the river San Juan. This gives them their value in politics.

They are the only well-known extant Indians between Guatemala and Veragua. This gives them their value in ethnology.

The populations to which they were most immediately allied, have disappeared from history. This isolates them; so that there is no class to which they can be subordinated. At the same time, they are quite as like the nearest known tribes as the _American_ ethnologist is prepared to expect.

What they were in their truly natural state, when, unmodified by either Englishman or Spaniard, Black or Indian, they represented the indigenous civilization (such as it was) of their coast, is uncertain.

* * * * *

That the difference between the North and South American aborigines has been over-rated, is beyond doubt. The tendency, however, to do so, decreases. An observer like Sir R. Schomburgk, who is at once minute in taking notice, and quick at finding parallels, adds his suffrage to that of Cicca de Leon and others, who enlarge upon the extent to which the Indians of the New World in general look "like children of one family." On the other hand, however, there are writers like D'Orbigny. These expatiate upon the difference between members of the same class, so as to separate, not only Caribs from Algonkins, or Peruvians from Athabaskans, but Peruvians from Caribs, and Patagonians from Brazilians.

Now it is no paradox to assert that these two views, instead of contradicting, support each other. A writer exhibits clear and undeniable differences between two American tribes in geographical juxtaposition to one another. But does this prove a difference of origin, stock, or race? Not necessarily. Such differences may be, and often are, partial. More than this--they may be more than neutralized by undeniable marks of affinity. In such a case, all that they prove is the extent to which really allied populations may be contrasted in respect to certain particular characters.

Stature is the chief point in which the North American has the advantage of the Southern, _e.g._, the Algonkin over the Carib. Such is Sir R. Schomburgk's remark; and such is the general rule. Yet a vast number of the Indians of the Oregon, are shorter than the South American Patagonian and Pampa tribes. The head is large as compared with the trunk, and the trunk with the limbs; the hands small; the foot large; the skin soft, though with larger pores than in Europe.

_Indians of British Guiana._--These are distributed amongst four divisions, of very unequal magnitude and importance.--1. The Carib. 2. The Warow. 3. The Wapisiana. 4. The Taruma.

The number of vocabularies collected by Sir R. Schomburgk was eighteen.

1. The great _Carib_ group falls into three divisions:--

_a._ The Caribs Proper.

_b._ The Tamanaks.

_c._ The Arawaks.

Of these, it is only members of the first and last that occupy British Guiana.

_The Arawaks._--The Arawaks are our nearest neighbours, and, consequently, the most Europeanized. Sir R. Schomburgk says, that they and the Warows amount to about three thousand, and from Bernau we infer, that this number is nearly equally divided between the two; since he reckons the Arawaks at about fifteen hundred. Each family has its distinctive tattoo, and these families are twenty-seven in number.

The children may marry into their father's family, but not into that of their mother. Now as the caste is derived from their mother, this is an analogue of the North American _totem_. Polygamy is chiefly the privilege of the chiefs. The _Pe-i-man_ is the Arawak _Shaman_. He it is who names the children--_for a consideration_. Failing this, the progeny goes nameless; and to go nameless is to be obnoxious to all sorts of misfortunes.

Imposture is hereditary; and as soon as the son of a conjuror enters his twentieth year, his right ear is pierced, he is required to wear a ring, and he is trusted with the secrets of the craft.

In imitating what they see, and remembering what they hear, the Arawak has, at least, an average capacity. Neither is he destitute of ingenuity. Notation he has none; and the numeration is of the rudest kind.

Aba-da-kabo = once my hand = _five_. Biama-da-kabo = twice my hand = _ten_. Aba-olake = one man = _twenty_.

Perfect nudity is rare amongst the women; and some neatness in the dressing of their hair is perceptible. It is tied up on the crown of the head.

The nearer the coast the darker the skin; the lightest coloured families being as fair as Spaniards. This is on the evidence of Bernau, who adds, that, as children grow in knowledge and receive instruction, the forehead rises, and the physiognomy improves.

The other Guiana Indians, so far as they are Carib at all, are Caribs Proper, rather than Arawaks. Of these, the chief are--

_The Accaways_,--occupants of the rivers Mazaruni and Putara, with about six hundred fighting men. They are jealous, quarrelsome, and cruel; firm friends and bitter enemies. When resisted, they kill; when unopposed, enslave.

The law of revenge predominates in this tribe; for--like certain Australians--they attribute all deaths to contrivances of an enemy. Workers in poison themselves, they suspect it with others.

Their skin is redder than the Arawaks', but then their nudity is more complete; inasmuch as, instead of clothing, they paint themselves; arnotto being their red, lana their blue pigment. They pierce the _septum_ of the nose, and wear wood in the holes, like the Eskimo, Loucheux, and others. They paint the face in streaks, and the body variously--sometimes blue on one side, and red on the other. They rub their bodies with carapa oil, to keep off insects; and _one_ of the ingredients of their numerous poisons, is a kind of black ant called _muneery_.

Their forehead is depressed.

They give nicknames to each other and to strangers, irrespective of rank; and the better their authorities take it the greater their influence.

It is the belief of the Accaways that the spirit of the deceased hovers over the dwelling in which death took place, and that it will not tolerate disturbance. Hence they bury the corpse _in_ the hammock, and _under_ the hut in which it became one. This they burn and desert.

_The Carabísi._--Twenty years ago the Carabísi (_Carabeese_, _Carabisce_) mustered one thousand fighting men. It would now be difficult to raise one hundred. But the diminution of their numbers and importance began earlier still. Beyond the proper Carabísi area, there are numerous Carabísi names of rivers, islands, and other geographical objects. Hence, their area has decreased.

Omnivorous enough to devour greedily tigers, dogs, rats, frogs, insects, and other sorts of food, unpopular elsewhere, they are distinguished by their ornaments as well. The under-lip is the part which they perforate, and wherein they wear their usual pins; besides which they fasten a large lump of arnotto to the hair of the front of the head.

In ordinary cases the hammock in which the death took place, serves as a coffin, the body is buried, and a funeral procession made once or twice round the grave; but the bodies of persons of importance are watched and washed by the nearest female relations, and when nothing but the skeleton remains, the bones are cleaned, painted, packed in a basket and preserved. When, however, there is a change of habitation they are _burned_; after which the ashes are collected, and kept.

Here we have interment and cremation in one and the same tribe; a circumstance which should guard us against exaggerating their value as characteristic and distinguishing customs.

Again. The _Macusi_ is closely akin to the Carabísi; yet the Macusi buries his dead in a sitting posture without coffins, and with but few ceremonies. Now the sitting posture is common to the Peruvians, the Oregon Indians, and numerous tribes of Brazil; indeed, Morton considers it to be one of the most remarkable characteristics of the Red Man of America in general.

The Arawak custom is peculiar. When a man of note dies his relations plant a field of cassava; just as the Nicobar Islanders plant a cocoa-nut tree. Then they lament loudly. But when twelve moons are over, and the cassava is ripe, they re-assemble, feast, dance, and lash each other cruelly, and severely with whips. The whips are then _hung up_ on the spot where the person died. Six moons later a second meeting takes place--and, this time, the whips are _buried_.

The _Waika_ are a small tribe of the _Accaways_; the _Zapara_ of the _Macusis_. Besides these, the following Guiana Indians are Carib.

The _Arecuna_; of which the _Soerikong_ are a section.

The _Waiyamara_.

The _Guinau_.

The _Maiongkong_.

The _Woyawai_.

The _Mawakwa_, or Frog Indians--a tribe that flattens the head.

The _Piano-ghotto_; of which the _Zaramata_ and _Drio_ are sections.

The _Tiveri-ghotto_.

2. _The Warow_, _Waraw_, _Warau_, or _Guarauno_.--These are the Indians of the Delta of the Orinoco, and the parts between that river and the Pomaroon. Their language is peculiar, but by no means without miscellaneous affinities. They are the fluviatile boatmen of South America. Their habit of taking up their residence in trees when the ground is flooded, has given both early and late writers an opportunity of enlarging upon their semi-arboreal habits.

3. _The Wapisianas_ fall into--

_a._ The _Wapisianas_ Proper--

_b._ The _Atorai_, of which the _Taurai_, or _Dauri_ (the same word under another form), and the extinct, or nearly extinct, _Amaripas_ are divisions.

_c._ The _Parauana_.

4. The _Tarumas_, on the Upper Essequibo, have their probable affinities with the uninvestigated tribes of Central South America.

The Indians of Trinidad are Carib. So are those of St. Vincents. In no other West Indian islands are there any aborigines extant.

FOOTNOTES:

[71] _Dinni_, _tinni_, _din_, _tin_, &c.=_man_ in the Athabaskan tongues.

[72] Called also _Carriers_, _Nagail_, and _Chin Indians_; though whether the last two names are correct is uncertain.

[73] By no means to be confounded with the _Chepewyans_.

[74] The Mohawks, Senekas, Onondagos, Cayugas, Oneidas, Tuskaroras, and Hurons.

[75] See a paper of Mr. Isbester's in the "Transactions of the British Association," 1847, p. 121.

[76] Thirty-eight.

[77] This requires modification. The Sitkan practices have already been noticed.

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Transcriber's Amendments:

p. 30, fn. 10, 'Fallermayer' amended to _Fallmerayer_.

p. 31, 'Britany' amended to _Brittany_.

p. 32, 'Notitiæ ...' amended to _Notitia Utriusque Imperii_.

p. 34, 'Caffres' amended to _Kaffres_.

p. 35, 'Woloffs' amended to _Wolofs_; 'Cabyles' amended to _Kabyles_.

p. 39, 'Avekoom' amended to _Avekvom_; 'Woloff' amended to _Wolof_; 'Bambarra' amended to _Bambara_.

p. 40, 'Woloffs' amended to _Wolofs_.

p. 65, 'languge' amended to _language_.

p. 67, 'Yorriba' amended to _Yarriba_; 'Callabar' amended to _Calabar_; 'Mosketo' amended to _Mosquito_.

p. 75, 'Amokosa' amended to _Amakosa_: '_The Amakosa._--This'.

p. 84, 'Caffraria' amended to _Kaffraria_.

p. 86, 'Crawford' amended to _Crawfurd_.

p. 94, 'Trangangetic' amended to _Transgangetic_.

p. 98, 'Crawford's Embassy' amended to _Crawfurd's Embassy_.

p. 107, 'Kamti' amended to _Khamti_.

p. 121, 'ecstacy' amended to _ecstasy_.

p. 137, 'Pottaing' amended to _Potteang_.

p. 140, 'Kuttak' amended to _Cuttack_; 'Penna' amended to _Pennu_ (twice).

p. 141, 'Cicacole' amended to _Chicacole_.

p. 146, 'jackall' amended to _jackal_.

p. 148, 'Rajaship' amended to _Rajahship_.

p. 177, 'Levitican' amended to _Levitical_.

p. 181, 'Peshawer' amended to _Peshawar_.

p. 192, 'Maha-Sodon' amended to _Maha-Sohon_.

p. 193, 'Singalese' amended to _Singhalese_.

p. 197, 'Binjarri' amended to _Brinjarri_; 'Telagu' amended to _Telugu_.

p. 198, 'Taremuki' amended to _Tarremúki_.

p. 199, 'Bowri' amended to _Bhowri_.

p. 201, 'Guzerat' amended to _Gujerat_.

p. 228, 'Skofi' amended to _Skoffi_.

p. 233, 'tatooing' amended to _tattooing_.

p. 237, 'tatooings' amended to _tattooings_.

p. 243, 'Saskachewan' amended to _Saskatchewan_.

p. 259, 'tatoo' amended to _tattoo_.

p. 262, 'Caribis' amended to _Carabísi_.

Further Notes:

p. 113, Brown's Table: Horizontal rows 'Áká' and 'Ábor' repositioned to match data; the value for 'Koreng' (row) and 'S. Tángkhul' (column), which originally read '--', has been amended to '11'.

p. 172-175, corrections to extracts taken from _A History of the Sikhs_, by J. D. Cunningham, 2nd Ed., London, 1853.