CHAPTER II.

THE RELATION OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ANGLO-SAXON, AND THE STAGES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

s. 174. The relation of the present English to the Anglo-Saxon is that of a _modern_ language to an _ancient_ one: the words _modern_ and _ancient_ being used in a defined and technical sense.

Let the word _smidhum_ illustrate this. _Smidhum_, the dative plural of _smidh_, is equivalent in meaning to the English _to smiths_, or to the Latin _fabris_. _Smidhum_ however, is a single Anglo-Saxon word (a substantive, and nothing more); whilst its English equivalent is two words _i.e._, a substantive with the addition of a preposition). The letter _s_, in _smiths_ shows that the word is plural. The _-um_, in _smidhum_, does this and something more. It is the sign of the _dative case_ plural. The _-um_ in _smidhum_, is the part of a word. The preposition to is a separate word with an independent existence. _Smidhum_ is the radical syllable _smidh_, _plus_ the subordinate inflectional syllable _-um_, the sign of the dative case. _To smiths_ is the substantive _smiths_, _plus_ the preposition _to_, equivalent in power to the sign of a dative case, but different from it in form. As far, then, as the word just quoted is concerned, the Anglo-Saxon differs from the English thus. It expresses a given idea by a modification of the form of the root, whereas the modern English denotes the same idea by the addition of a preposition. The Saxon inflection is superseded by a combination of words.

The part that is played by the preposition with nouns, is played by the auxiliaries (_have_, _be_, &c.) with verbs.

The sentences in italics are mere variations of the same general statement. (1.) _The earlier the stage of a given {113} language the greater the amount of its inflectional forms, and the later the stage of a given language, the smaller the amount of them._ (2.) _As languages become modern they substitute prepositions and auxiliary verbs for cases and tenses._ (3.) _The amount of inflection is in the inverse proportion to the amount of prepositions and auxiliary verbs._ (4.) _In the course of time languages drop their inflection and substitute in its stead circumlocutions by means of prepositions, &c. The reverse never takes place._ (5.) _Given two modes of expression, the one inflectional _(smidhum)_, the other circumlocutional _(to smiths)_, we can state that the first belongs to an early, the second to a late, stage of language._

The present chapter, then, showing the relation of the English to the Anglo-Saxon, shows something more. It exhibits the general relation of a modern to an ancient language. As the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, so are the Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, to the old Norse; so also the Modern High German to the Moeso-Gothic; so the Modern Dutch of Holland to the Old Frisian; so, moreover, amongst the languages of a different stock, are the French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanese and Wallachian to the Latin, and the Romaic to the Ancient Greek.

s. 175. Contrasted with the English, but contrasted with it only in those points where the ancient tongue is compared with the modern one, the Anglo-Saxon has the following differences.

NOUNS.

_Of Gender._--In Anglo-Saxon there are three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. With _adjectives_ each gender has its peculiar declension; with _substantives_ there are also appropriate terminations, but only to a certain degree; _e.g._, of words ending in _-a_ (_nama_, a name; _cuma_, a guest), it may be stated that they are always masculine; of words in _-u_ (_sunu_, a son; _gifu_, a gift), that they are never neuter; in other words, that they are either mas. or fem.

The definite article varies with the gender of its substantive; _thaet eage_, the eye; _se steorra_, the star; _seo tunge_, the tongue. {114}

_Of Number._--The plural form in _-en_ (as in _oxen_), rare in English, was common in Anglo-Saxon. It was the regular termination of a whole declension; _e.g._, _e['a]gan_, eyes; _steorran_, stars; _tungan_, tongues. Besides this, the Anglo-Saxons had forms in _-u_ and _-a_, as _ricu_, kingdoms; _gifa_, gifts. The termination _-s_, current in the present English was confined to a single gender and to a single declension, as _endas_, ends; _dagas_, days; _smidhas_, smiths.

_Of Case._--Of these the Saxons had, for their substantives, at least three; viz. the nominative, dative, genitive. With the pronouns and adjectives there was a true accusative form; and with a few especial words an ablative or instrumental one. _Smidh_, a smith; _smidhe_, to a smith; _smidhes_, of a smith. Plural, _smidhas_, smiths; _smidhum_, to smiths; _smidha_, of smiths: _he_, he; _hine_, him; _him_, to him; _his_, his; _se_, the; _tha_, the; _thy_, with the; _tham_, to the; _thaes_, of the.

Of the dative in _-um_, the word _whilom_ (_at times_, _at whiles_) is a still extant and an almost isolated specimen.

_Of Declension._--In _Anglo-Saxon_ it is necessary to determine the termination of a substantive. There is the weak, or simple declension for words ending in a vowel (as _eage_, _steorra_, _tunga_), and the strong, or complex declension for words ending in a consonant (_smidh_, _spraec_, _le['a]f_). The letters _i_ and _u_ are dealt with as semivowels, semivowels being dealt with as consonants; so that words like _sunu_ and _gifu_ belong to the same declension as _smidh_ and _spr['ae]c_.

That the form of adjectives varies with their definitude or indefinitude, has been seen from s. 93: definite adjectives following the inflection of the simple; indefinite ones that of the complex declension.

The detail of the Anglo-Saxon declension may be collected from ss. 83-89.

The Anglo-Saxon inflection of the participles present is remarkable. With the exception of the form for the genitive plural definite (which, instead of _-ena_, is _-ra_,) they follow the declension of the adjectives. From the masculine substantives formed from them, and denoting the agent, they may be distinguished by a difference of inflection. {115}

_Participle._ _Substantive._

Wegferende=_Wayfaring_. Wegferend=_Wayfarer_.

_Sing. Nom._ Wegferende Wegferend. _Acc._ Wegferendne Wegferend. _Abl._ Wegferende Wegferende. _Dat._ Wegferendum Wegferende. _Gen._ Wegferendes Wegferendes. _Plur. Nom._ Wegferende Wegferendas. _Dat._ Wegferendum Wegferendum. _Gen._ Wegferendra Wegferenda.

_Pronouns Personal._--Of the pronominal inflection in Saxon, the character may be gathered from the chapter upon pronouns. At present, it may be stated that, like the Moeso-Gothic and the Icelandic, the Anglo-Saxon language possessed for the first two persons a _dual_ number; inflected as follows:

_1st Person._ _2nd Person._

_Nom._ Wit _We two._ _Nom._ Git _Ye two._ _Acc._ Unc _Us two._ _Acc._ Inc _You two._ _Gen._ Uncer _Of us two._ _Gen._ Incer _Of you two._

Besides this, the demonstrative, possessive, and relative pronouns, as well as the numerals _twa_ and _threo_, had a fuller declension than they have at present.

VERBS.

_Mood._--The subjunctive mood that in the present English (with the exception of the conjugation of the verb substantive) differs from the indicative only in the third person singular, was in Anglo-Saxon inflected as follows:

_Indicative Mood._

_Pres. Sing._ 1. Lufige. _Plur._ 1. } 2. Lufast. 2. } Lufiadh. 3. Lufadh. 3. }

_Subjunctive Mood._

_Pres. Sing._ 1.} _Plur._ 1. } 2.} Lufige. 2. } Lufion. 3.} 3. }

The Saxon infinitive ended in _-an_ (_lufian_), and besides this there was a so-called gerundial form, to _lufigenne_. {116}

_Tense._--In regard to tense, the Anglo-Saxon coincided with the English. The present language has two tenses, the present and the past; the Saxon had no more. This past tense the modern English forms either by addition (_love_, _loved_), or by change (_fall_, _fell_). So did the Anglo-Saxons.

_Number and Person._--In the present English the termination -_eth_ (_moveth_) is antiquated. In Anglo-Saxon it was the only form recognized. In English the plural number (indicative as well as subjunctive) has no distinguishing inflection. It was not so in Anglo-Saxon. There, although the _persons_ were identical in form, the _numbers_ were distinguished by the termination -_adh_ for the indicative, and -_n_ for the subjunctive. (_See above._) For certain forms in the second conjugation, see the remarks on the forms _drunk_ and _drank_, in Part IV.

Such are the chief points in the declension of nouns and the conjugation of verbs that give a difference of character between the ancient Anglo-Saxon and the modern English: and it has already been stated that the difference between the New and the Old German, the Dutch and the Frisian, the Italian, &c., and the Latin, the Romaic and the Greek, &c., are precisely similar.

How far two languages pass with equal rapidity from their ancient to their modern, from their inflected to their uninflected state (in other words, how far all languages alter at the same rate), is a question that will be noticed elsewhere. At present, it is sufficient to say, that (just as we should expect _[`a] priori_) languages do _not_ alter at the same rate.

Akin to the last question is a second one: viz.: how far the rate of change in a given language can be accelerated by external circumstances. This second question bears immediately upon the history of the English language. The grammar of the current idiom compared with the grammar of the Anglo-Saxon is simplified. How far was this simplification of the grammar promoted by the Norman Conquest. The current views exaggerate the influence of the Norman Conquest and of French connexions. The remark of Mr. Price in his Preface to Warton, acceded to by Mr. Hallam in his Introduction to the Literature of Europe, is, that every one of the {117} other Low Germanic languages (affected by nothing corresponding to the Norman Conquest) displays the same simplification of grammar as the Anglo-Saxon (affected by the Norman Conquest) displays. Confirmatory of this remark, it may be added, that compared with the Icelandic, the Danish and Swedish do the same. Derogatory to it is the comparatively complex grammar of the _new_ German, compared, not only with the Old High German, but with the Moeso-Gothic. An extract from Mr. Hallam shall close the present section and introduce the next.

"Nothing can be more difficult, except by an arbitrary line, than to determine the commencement of the English language: not so much, as in those on the Continent, because we are in want of materials, but rather from an opposite reason, the possibility of showing a very gradual succession of verbal changes that ended in a change of denomination. We should probably experience a similar difficulty, if we knew equally well the current idiom of France or Italy in the seventh and eighth centuries. For when we compare the earliest English of the thirteenth century with the Anglo-Saxon of the twelfth, it seems hard to pronounce why it should pass for a separate language, rather than a modification or simplification of the former. We must conform, however, to usage, and say that the Anglo-Saxon was converted into English:--1. By contracting and otherwise modifying the pronunciation and orthography of words. 2. By omitting many inflections, especially of the noun, and consequently making more use of articles and auxiliaries. 3. By the introduction of French derivatives. 4. By using less inversion and ellipsis, especially in poetry. Of these, the second alone, I think, can be considered as sufficient to describe a new form of language; and this was brought about so gradually, that we are not relieved from much of our difficulty, as to whether some compositions shall pass for the latest offspring of the mother, or the earlier fruits of the daughter's fertility. It is a proof of this difficulty that the best masters of our ancient language have lately introduced the word Semi-Saxon, which is to cover everything from A.D. 1150 to A.D. 1250."--Chapter i. 47.

s. 176. At a given period, then, the Anglo-Saxon of the standard, and (if the expression may be used) classical authors, such as Caedmon, Alfred, Aelfric, &c., had undergone such a change as to induce the scholars of the present age to denominate it, not Saxon, but _Semi_-Saxon. It had ceased to be genuine Saxon, but had not yet become English. In certain parts of the kingdom, where the mode of speech {118} changed more rapidly than elsewhere, the Semi-Saxon stage of our language came earlier. It was, as it were, precipitated.

The History of King Leir and his Daughters is found in two forms. Between these there is a difference either of dialect or of date, and possibly of both. Each, however, is Semi-Saxon. The extracts are made from Thorpe's Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, p. 143.

Bladud hafde ene sune, Bladud hadde one sone, Leir was ihaten; Leir was ihote, Efter his fader daie, After his fader he held this lond, He heold this drihlice lond, In his owene hond, Somed an his live, Ilaste his lif-dages, Sixti winter. Sixti winter. He makade ane riche burh, He makede on riche borh, Thurh radfulle his crafte, Thorh wisemenne reade, And he heo lette nemnen, And hine lette nemni, Efter him seolvan; After him seolve; Kaer-Leir hehte the burh. Kair-Leir hehte the borh. Leof heo wes than kinge, Leof he was than kinge; Tha we, an ure leod-quide, The we, on ure speche, Leir-chestre clepiad, Leth-chestre cleopieth, Geare a than holde dawon. In than eolde daiye.

The Grave, a poetical fragment, the latter part of the Saxon Chronicle, a Homily for St. Edmund's Day (given in the Analecta), and above all the printed extracts of the poem of Layamon, are the more accessible specimens of the Semi-Saxon. The Ormulum, although in many points English rather than Saxon, retains the dual number of the Anglo-Saxon pronouns. However, lest too much stress be laid upon this circumstance, the epistolary character of the Ormulum must be borne in mind.

It is very evident that if, even in the present day, there were spoken in some remote district the language of Alfred and Aelfric, such a mode of speech would be called, not Modern English, but Anglo-Saxon. This teaches us that the stage of language is to be measured, not by its date, but by its structure. Hence, Saxon ends and Semi-Saxon begins, not at a given year, A.D., but at that time {119} (whenever it be) when certain grammatical inflections disappear, and certain characters of a more advanced stage are introduced.

Some amongst others, of the earlier changes of the standard Anglo-Saxon are,

1. The substitution of -_an_ for -_as_, in the plural of substantives, _munucan_ for _munucas_ (monks); and, conversely, the substitution of -_s_ for -_n_, as _steorres_ for _steorran_ (stars). The use of -_s_, as the sign of the plural, without respect to gender, or declension, may be one of those changes that the Norman Conquest forwarded; -_s_ being the sign of the plural in Anglo-Norman.

2. The ejection or shortening of final vowels, _thaet ylc_ for _thaet ylce_; _sone_ for _sunu_; _name_ for _nama_; _dages_ for _dagas_.

3. The substitution of -_n_ for -_m_ in the dative case, _hwilon_ for _hwilum_.

4. The ejection of the -_n_ of the infinitive mood, _cumme_ for _cuman_ (_to come_), _nemne_ for _nemnen_ (_to name_).

5. The ejection of -_en_ in the participle passive, _I-hote_ for _gehaten_ (_called_, _hight_).

6. The gerundial termination -_enne_, superseded by the infinitive termination -_en_; as _to lufian_ for _to lufienne_, or _lufigenne_.

7. The substitution of -_en_ for -_adh_ in the persons plural of verbs; _hi clepen_ (_they call_) for _hi clypiadh_, &c.

The preponderance (not the occasional occurrence) of forms like those above constitute Semi-Saxon in contradistinction to standard Saxon, classical Saxon, or Anglo-Saxon proper.

s. 177. _Old English Stage._--Further changes convert Semi-Saxon into Old English. Some, amongst others, are the following:--

1. The ejection of the dative plural termination -_um_, and the substitution of the preposition _to_ and the plural sign -_s_; as _to smiths_ for _smidhum_. Of the dative singular the -_e_ is retained (_ende_, _worde_); but it is by no means certain that, although recognized in writing, it was recognized in pronunciation also.

2. The ejection of -_es_ in the genitive singular whenever the {120} preposition _of_ came before it; _Godes love_ (_God's love_), but the _love of God_, and not the _love of Godes_.

3. The syllable _-es_ as a sign of the genitive case extended to all genders and to all declensions; _heart's_ for _heortan_; _sun's_ for _sunnan_.

4. The same in respect to the plural number; _sterres_ for _steorran_; _sons_ for _suna_.

5. The ejection of _-na_ in the genitive plural; as _of tunges'_ for _tungena_.

6. The use of the word _the_, as an article, instead of _se_, &c.

The preponderance of the forms above (and not their occasional occurrence) constitutes old English in contradistinction to Semi-Saxon.

The following extract from Henry's history (vol. viii. append. iv.) is the proclamation of Henry III. to the people of Huntingdonshire, A.D. 1258. It currently passes for the earliest specimen of English.

"Henry, thurg Godes fultome, King on Engleneloande, lhoaurd on Yrloand, Duke on Normand, on Acquitain, Eorl on Anjou, send I greting, to alle hise holde, ilaerde & ilewerde on Huntingdonschiere.

"That witen ge well alle, thaet we willen & unnen (grant) thaet ure raedesmen alle other, the moare del of heom, thaet beoth ichosen thurg us and thurg thaet loandes-folk on ure Kuneriche, habbith idon, and schullen don, in the worthnes of God, and ure threowthe, for the freme of the loande, thurg the besigte of than toforen iseide raedesmen, beo stedfaest and ilestinde in alle thinge abutan aende, and we heaten alle ure treowe, in the treowthe thaet heo us ogen, thet heo stede-feslliche healden & weren to healden & to swerien the isetnesses thet beon makede and beo to makien, thurg than toforen iseide raedesmen, other thurg the moare del of heom alswo, also hit is before iseide. And thet aeheother helpe thet for to done bitham ilche other, aganes alle men in alle thet heo ogt for to done, and to foangen. And noan ne of mine loande, ne of egetewhere, thurg this besigte, muge beon ilet other iwersed on oniewise. And gif oni ether onie cumen her ongenes, we willen & heaten, thaet alle ure treowe heom healden deadlichistan. And for thaet we willen thaet this beo staedfast and lestinde, we senden gew this writ open, iseined with ure seel, to halden amanges gew ine hord. Witnes us-selven aet Lundaen, thaene egetetenthe day on the monthe of Octobr, in the two and fowertigthe geare of ure crunning."

s. 178. The songs amongst the political verses printed by the Camden Society, the romance of Havelok the Dane, {121} William and the Werwolf, the Gestes of Alisaundre, King Horn, Ipomedon, and the King of Tars; and, amongst the longer works, Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle, and the poems of Robert of Bourn (Brunn), are (amongst others) Old English. Broadly speaking, the _Old_ English may be said to begin with the reign of Henry III., and to end with that of Edward III.

In the Old English the following forms predominate.

1. A fuller inflection of the demonstrative pronoun, or definite article; _than_, _thenne_, _thaere_, _tham_;--in contradistinction to the Middle English.

2. The presence of the dative singular in _-e_; _ende_, _smithe_;--_ditto_.

3. The existence of a genitive plural in _-r_ or _-ra_; _heora_, theirs; _aller_, of all;--_ditto_. This with substantives and adjectives is less common.

4. The substitution of _heo_ for _they_, of _heora_ for _their_, of _hem_ for _them_;--in contradistinction to the later stages of English, and in contradistinction to old Lowland _Scotch_. (See Chapter III.)

5. A more frequent use of _min_ and _thin_, for _my_ and _thy_;--in contradistinction to middle and modern English.

6. The use of _heo_ for _she_;--in contradistinction to middle and modern English and old Lowland _Scotch_.

7. The use of broader vowels; as in _iclep_u_d_ or _iclep_o_d_ (for _iclep_e_d_ or _ycl_e_pt_); _geong_o_st_, youngest; _ascode_, asked; _eldore_, elder.

8. The use of the strong preterits (_see_ the chapter on the tenses of verbs), where in the present English the weak form is found; _wex_, _wop_, _dalf_, for _waxed_, _wept_, _delved_.

9. The omission not only of the gerundial termination _-enne_, but also of the infinitive sign _-en_ after _to_; _to honte_, _to speke_;--in contradistinction to Semi-Saxon.

10. The substitution of _-en_ for _-eth_ or _-edh_ in the first and second persons plural of verbs; _we wollen_, we will: _heo schullen_, they should;--_ditto_.

11. The comparative absence of the articles _se_ and _seo_;--_ditto_. {122}

12. The substitution of _ben_ and _beeth_, for _synd_ and _syndon_=_we_, _ye_, _they are_;--in contradistinction to Semi-Saxon.

s. 179. The degree to which the Anglo-Saxon was actually influenced by the Anglo-Norman has been noticed. The degree wherein the two languages came in contact is, plainly, another consideration. The first is the question, How far one of two languages influenced the other? The second asks, How far one of two languages had the opportunity of influencing the other? Concerning the extent to which the Anglo-Norman was used, I retail the following statements and quotations.

1. "Letters even of a private nature were written in Latin till the beginning of the reign of Edward I., soon after 1270, when a sudden change brought in the use of French."--_Mr. Hallam, communicated by Mr. Stevenson_ (_Literature of Europe, I. 52, and note_).

2. Conversation between the Members of the Universities was ordered to be carried on either in Latin or French:--"_Si qua inter se proferant, colloquio Latino vel saltem Gallico perfruantur._"--_Statutes of Oriel College, Oxford.--Hallam, ibid._ from Warton.

3. "The Minutes of the Corporation of London, recorded in the Town Clerk's Office, were in French, as well as the Proceedings in Parliament, and in the Courts of Justice."--_Ibid._

4. "In Grammar Schools, boys were made to construe their Latin into French,"--_Ibid._ "_Pueri in scholis, contra morem caeterarum nationum, et Normannorum adventu, derelicto proprio vulgari, construere Gallice compelluntur. Item quod filii nobilium ab ipsis cunabulorum crepundiis ad Gallicum idioma informantur. Quibus profecto rurales homines assimulari volentes, ut per hoc spectabiliores videantur, Francigenari satagunt omni nisu._"--_Higden_ (_Ed. Gale_, p. 210).

That there was French in England before the battle of Hastings appears on the authority of Camden:--

"Herein is a notable argument of our ancestors' steadfastness in esteeming and retaining their own tongue. For, as _before the Conquest_, they misliked nothing more in King Edward the Confessor, than that he was Frenchified, and accounted the desire of a foreign language then to be a foretoken of the bringing in of foreign powers, which indeed happened."--_Remains_, p. 30.

s. 180. In Chaucer and Mandeville, and perhaps in all the writers of the reign of Edward III., we have a transition {123} from the Old to the Middle English. The last characteristic of a grammar different from that of the present English, is the plural form in _-en_; _we tellen_, _ye tellen_, _they tellen_. As this disappears, which it does in the reign of Queen Elizabeth (Spenser has it continually), the Middle English may be said to pass into the New or Modern English.

s. 181. The _present_ tendencies of the English may be determined by observation; and as most of them will be noticed in the etymological part of this volume, the few here indicated must be looked upon as illustrations only.

1. The distinction between the subjunctive and indicative mood is likely to pass away. We verify this by the very general tendency to say _if it is_, and _if he speaks_, for _if it be_, and _if he speak_.

2. The distinction (as far as it goes) between the participle passive and the past tense is likely to pass away. We verify this by the tendency to say _it is broke_, and _he is smote_, for _it is broken_, and _he is smitten_.

3. Of the double forms, _sung_ and _sang_, _drank_ and _drunk_, &c. one only will be the permanent.

As stated above, these tendencies are a few out of a number, and have been adduced in order to indicate the subject rather than to exhaust it.

s. 182. What the present language of England would have been had the Norman Conquest never taken place, the analogy of Holland, Denmark, and of many other countries enables us to determine. It would have been much as it is at present. What it would have been had the _Saxon_ conquest never taken place, is a question wherein there is far more speculation. Of France, of Italy, of Wallachia, and of the Spanish Peninsula, the analogies all point the same way. They indicate that the original Celtic would have been superseded by the Latin of the conquerors, and consequently that our language in its later stages would have been neither British nor Gaelic, but Roman. Upon these analogies, however, we may refine. Italy, was from the beginning, Roman; the Spanish Peninsula was invaded full early; no ocean divided Gaul from Rome; and the war against the ancestors of the Wallachians was a war of extermination.

* * * * *

{124}