CHAPTER IV.
AFFINITIES OF THE ENGLISH WITH THE LANGUAGES OF GERMANY AND SCANDINAVIA.
s. 65. The last chapter has limited the Anglo-Saxon area to the northern part of the Saxon area in general. Further details, however, upon this point, may stand over until the _general_ affinities of the English language have been considered.
s. 66. Over and above those languages of Germany and Holland which were akin to the dialects of the Angles and the Saxons, cognate languages were spoken in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and the Feroe isles, _i.e._, in Scandinavia.
s. 67. The general collective designation for the Germanic tongues of Germany and Holland, and for the Scandinavian languages of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and the Feroe Isles, is taken from the name of those German tribes who, during the decline of the Roman Empire, were best known to the Romans as the _Goths_; the term _Gothic_ for the Scandinavian and Germanic languages, collectively, being both current and convenient.
s. 68. Of this great _stock_ of languages the Scandinavian is one _branch_; the Germanic, called also Teutonic, another.
s. 69. The Scandinavian branch of the Gothic stock comprehends, 1. The dialects of Scandinavia Proper, _i.e._, of Norway and Sweden; 2. of the Danish isles and Jutland; 3. of Iceland; 4. of the Feroe Isles. On the side of Lapland the languages of this branch come in contact with the Laplandic and Finlandic; whilst in Sleswick they are bounded by the Low German. {29}
SPECIMENS.
_Icelandic_ (Fareyinga-Saga--Ed. Mohnike).
Ok n['u] er that eitthvert sinn um sumarit, at Sigmundr maelti til th['o]ris: "Hvat mun verdha, tho at vidh farim ['i] sk['o]g thenna, er h[`e]r er nordhr fr['a] gardhi?" th['o]rir svarar: "['a] thv['i] er m[`e]r eingi forvitni," segir hann. "Ekki er m[`e]r sv[^a] gefit," segir Sigmundr, "ok th['a]ngat skal ek fara." "th['u] munt r['a]dha hlj['o]ta," segir th[^u]rir, "en brj['o]tum vidh tha bodhordh f['o]stra m['i]ns." Nu f['o]ru their, ok hafdhi Sigmundr vidharoexi eina i hendi s[`e]r; koma i sk['o]ginn, ok ['i] rj[^o]dhr eitt fagurt; ok er their hafa thar eigi leingi verit, th['a] heyra their bjoern mikinn hardhla ok grimligan. that var vidhbjoern mikill, ['u]lfgr['a]r at lit. their hlaupa nu aptra ['a] stiginn than, er their hoeldhu th['a]ngat farit; stigrinn var mj['o]r ok thraurigr, ok hleypr th['o]rir fyrir, en Sigmundr s['i]dhar. D['y]rit bleypr n['u] eptir theim ['a] stiginn, ok verdhr thv['i] thraungr stigrinn, ok brotna eikrnar fyrir thvi. Sigmundr snyr th['a] skj['o]tt ['u]t af stignum millum trj['a]nna, ok bidhr thar til er dyrit kemr jafn-fram honum. tha hoeggr hann jafnt medhal hlusta ['a] d[^y]rinu medh tveim hoendum, sv[^a] at exin soekkr. En d[^y]rit fellr ['a]fram, ok er dautt.
_Feroic._
N['u] vaer so til ajna Ferina um Summari, at Sigmundur snakkaji so vi Towra: "Kvat man bagga, towat v[`i]d faerin uj henda Skowin, uj [`e]r h[`e]r noran-firi Gaerin?" Towrur svaerar, "Ikkji haevi e Hu at forvitnast ettir tuj," s[`i]ir han. "Ikkji eri e so sintur," s[`i]ir Sigmundur, "og haear skael e fara." "T[`u] fert t[oa] at r[oa]a," s[`i]ir Towrur, "men t[oa] browtum vid Forbo Fostirfaejir mujns." N[`u] fowru tajr, og Sigmundur heji ajna oeksi til Brennuv[`i] uj Hondini; tajr koma in uj Skowin, og [oa] ajt vaekurt rudda Plos men ikkji haeva tajr veri haer l['a]jngji, firin tajr hojra kvoedtt Brak uj Skownun, og br[oa]t ettir sujgja tajr ajna egvulia stowra Bjoedn og gruiska. Tae vae ajn stowr Skowbjoedn gr[oa]gulmut [oa] Litinun. Tair lejpa n[`u] attir [oa] R[oa]sina, sum tajr hoeddu gingji ettir; R[oa]sin vaer mj[oa]v og trong; Towrur lejpur undan, og Sigmundur attan[oa]. Djowri leipur n[`u] ettir tajmum [oa] R[oa]sini; og n[`u] verur R[oa]sin trong kj[oa] tuj, so at Ajkjinar brotnavu fr[oa] tuj. Sigmundur snujur t[oa] kvikliani ['u]taef R[oa]sini inimidlum Trjini, og bujar haer til Djowri kjemur abajnt han. T[oa] hoeggur han bajnt uj Ojrnalystri [oa] Djowrinum vi b[oa]vun Hondun, so at oexin soekkur in, og Djowri dettir bajnt framettir, og er standejt.
_Swedish._
Och nu var det eng[oa]ng on sommaren, som Sigmund sade till Thorer: "Hvad m[oa]nde vael deraf warda, om vi [oa]ter g[oa] ut i skogen, som ligger der norr on g[oa]rden?" "Det aer jag alldeles icke nyfiken att veta," svarade Thor. "Icke g[oa]r det s[oa] med mig," sade Sigmund, "och ditret maeste jag." "Du kommer d[oa] att r[oa]da," sade Thor, "men dermed oefvertraeda vi v[oa]r {30} Fosterfaders bud." De gingo nu [oa]stad, och Sigmund bade en vedyxa i handen; de kommo in i skogen, och strat derp[oa] fingo de se en ganska stor och vildsinnt bjoern, en dr[oa]pelig skogsbjoern, varg-gr[oa] till faergen. De sprungo d[oa] tillbaka p[oa] samma stig som de hade kommit dit. Stigen var smal och tr[oa]ng; och Thorer sprang fr[oa]mst, men Sigmund efterst. Djuret lopp nu efter dem p[oa] stigen, och stigen blef tr[oa]ng foer detsamma, s[oa] att traeden soenderbroetos i dess lopp. Sigmund vaende d[oa] kurtigt retaf fr[oa]n stigen, och staellde sig mellan traeden, samt stod der, tills djuret kom fram midt foer honom. D[oa] fattade han yxan med begge haenderna, och hoegg midt emellan oeronen p[oa] djuret, s[oa] att yxan gick in, och djuret stoertade fram[oa]t, och dog p[oa] staellet.
_Danish._
Og nu var det engang om Sommeren, at Sigmund sagde til Thorer: "Hvad mon der vel kan flyde af, om vi end gaae hen i den Skov, som ligger her nordenfor Gaarden?" "Det er jeg ikken nysgjerrig efter at vide," svarede Thorer. "Ei gaar det mig saa," sagde Sigmund, "og derud maa jeg." "Du kommer da til at raade," sagde Thorer, "men da overtraede, vi vor Fosterfaders Bud." De gik nu, og Sigmund havde en Vedoexe i Haanden; de kom ind i Skoven, og strax derpaa saae de en meget stor og grum Bjoern, en drabelig Skovejoern, ulvegraa af Farve. De loeb da tilbage ad den samme Sti, ad hvilken de vare komne derhen. Stien var smal og trang; og Thorer loeb forrest, men Sigmund bagerst. Dyret loeb nu efter dem paa Stien, og Stien blev trang for det, og Traeerne broedes i dets. Loeb Sigmund dreiede da nu hurtig ud af Stien, og stillede sig imellem Traeerne, og stod der indtil Dyret kom frem lige for ham. Da fattede han oexen med begge Haender, og hug lige imellem oererne paa Dyret, saa at oexen sank i, og Dyret styrtede fremad, og var doedt paa Stedet.
_English._
And now is it a time about the summer, that Sigmund spake to Thorir: "What would become, even if we two go into the wood (shaw), which here is north from the house?" Thorir answers, "Thereto there is to me no curiosity," says he. "So is it not with me," says Sigmund, "and thither shall I go." "Thou mayst counsel," says Thorir, "but we two break the bidding-word of foster-father mine." Now go they, and Sigmund had a wood-axe in his hands; they come into the wood, and into a fair place; and as they had not been there long, they hear a bear, big, fierce, and grim. It was a wood-bear, big, wolf-grey in hue. They run (leap) now back (after) to the path, by which they had gone thither. The path was narrow and strait; and Thorir runs first, and Sigmund after. The beast runs now after them on the path, and the path becomes strait, and broken oaks before it. Sigmund turns then short out of the path among the trees, and bides there till the beast comes even with him. Then cuts he even in between {31} the ears of the beast with his two hands, so that the axe sinks, and the beast falls forward, and is dead.
s. 70. The Teutonic branch falls into three divisions:--
1. The Moeso-Gothic.
2. The High Germanic.
3. The Low Germanic.
s. 71. It is in the Moeso-Gothic that the most ancient specimen of any Gothic tongue has been preserved. It is also the Moeso-Gothic that was spoken by the conquerors of ancient Rome; by the subjects of Hermanic, Alaric, Theodoric, Genseric (?), Euric, Athanaric, and Totila.
This history of this language, and the meaning of the term by which it is designated, is best explained by the following passages:--
_a._ A.D. 482. "Trocondo et Severino consulibus--Theodoricus cognomento Valamer utramque Macedoniam, Thessaliamque depopulatus est, Larissam quoque metropolim depredatus, Fausto solo consule (A.D. 485)--Idem Theodoricus rex Gothorum Zenonis Augusti munificentia pene pacatus, magisterque praesentis militiae factus, consul quoque designatus, _creditam sibi Ripensis Daciae partem_ Moesiaeque _inferioris, cum suis satellitibus pro tempore tenuit_."--Marcellini Comitis Chronicon, D.N.
_b._ "Frederichus ad Theodoricum regem, qui tunc apud Novam Civitatem provinciae Moesiae morabatur, profectus est."--Vita S. Severini, D.N.
_c._ "Zeno misit ad Civitatem Novam, in qu[^a] erat Theodoricus dux Gothorum, filius Valameris, et eum invitavit in solatium sibi adversus Basiliscum."--Anon. Valesii, p. 663, D.N.
d. _Civitas Nova_ is Nicopolis on the Danube; and the nation thus spoken of is the Gothic nation in the time of Zeno. At this time they are settled in the Lower Moesia, or Bulgaria.
How they got here from the _northern_ side of the Danube we find in the history of the reign of Valens. When pressed by intestine wars, and by the movements of the Huns, they were assisted by that emperor, and settled in the parts in question. {32}
Furthermore, they were converted to Christianity; and the Bible was translated into their language by their Bishop Ulphilas.
Fragments of this translation, chiefly from the Gospels, have come down to the present time; and the Bible translation of the Arian Bishop Ulphilas, in the language of the Goths of Moesia, during the reign of Valens, exhibits the earliest sample of any Gothic tongue.
s. 72. How Gothic tribes reached the Lower Danube is a point upon which there is a variety of opinion. The following facts, however, may serve as the basis of our reasoning.
A.D. 249-251--The Goths are found about equidistant from the Euxine Sea, and the eastern portion of the range of Mount Haemus, in the Lower Moesia, and at Marcianopolis. Here they gain a great battle against the Romans, in which the Emperor Decius is killed.
His successor, Gallus, purchases a peace.
Valerian defends himself against them.
During the reign of Gallienus they appear as _maritime_ warriors, and ravage Asia Minor, Greece, and Illyria.
A.D. 269--Are conquered at Naissus, on the western boundary of Moesia _Superior_ by Claudius.
A.D. 282--Are defeated by Carus.
A.D. 321--Ravage Moesia (Inferior?) and Thrace.
A.D. 336--Attacked by Constantine in Dacia--_north_ of the Danube.
A.D. 373--In the reign of Valens (as already stated), they were admitted to settle within the limits of the empire.
s. 73. Now, although all this explains, how a Gothic language was spoken in Bulgaria, and how remnants of it have been preserved until the nineteenth century, the manner in which the tribe who spoke it reached Marcianopolis, so as to conquer the Emperor Decius, in A.D. 249, is unexplained.
Concerning this there are three opinions--
_A._ _The Baltic doctrine._ According to this the Goths migrated from the Baltic to the Maeotis, from the Maeotis to the Euxine, and from the Euxine to the Danube, along which river they moved from _east to west_. {33}
_B._ _The Getic doctrine._--Here the Goths are made out to be the aborigines of the Lower Danube, of Dacia, Moesia, and even Thrace; in which case their movement was, also, from _east to west_.
_C._ _The German doctrine._--Here the migration is from west to east, along the course of the Danube, from some part of south-eastern Germany, as its starting-point, to Asia Minor as its extreme point, and to Bulgaria (_Moesia Inferior_) as its point of settlement.
s. 74. Respecting the first of these views the most that can be said in its favour is, that it is laid down by Jornandes, who wrote in the fifth century, and founded his history upon the earlier writings of Ablavius and Dexippus, Gothic historians, who, in their turn took their account from the old legends of the Goths themselves--_in priscis eorum carminibus, paene historico ritu_. On the other hand, the evidence is, at best, traditional, the fact improbable, and the likelihood of some such genealogy being concocted after the relationship between the Goths of the Euxine, and Germans of the Baltic had been ascertained exceedingly great.
s. 75. The second is supported by no less an authority than Grimm, in his latest work, the History of the German Language;--and the fact of so learned and comprehensive an investigator having admitted it, is, in the mind of the present writer, the only circumstance in its favour. Over and above the arguments that may be founded on a fact which will soon be noticed, the chief reasons are deduced from a list of Dacian or Getic plants in Dioscorides, which are considered to bear names significant in the German. Whether or not, the details of this line of criticism will satisfy the reader who refers to them, it is certain that they are not likely to take a more cogent form than they take in the hands of the _Deutsche Grammatik_.
s. 76. The third opinion is the likeliest; and if it were not for a single difficulty would, probably, never have been demurred to. The fact in question is the similarity between the words _Getae_ and _Gothi_.
The fact that a tribe called G-O-T-H-I should, when they first peopled the Moesogothic country, have hit upon the {34} country of a people with a name so like their own as G-E-T-AE, by mere accident, is strange. English or American colonies might be sent to some thousand places before one would be found with a name so like that of the mother-country as _Get_ is to _Got_. The chances, therefore, are that the similarity of name is _not_ accidental, but that there is some historical, ethnological, or geographical grounds to account for it. Grimm's view has been noticed. He recognises the difficulty, and accounts for it by making the _Goths_ indigenous to the land of Getae.
To a writer who (at one and the same time) finds difficulty in believing that this similarity is accidental and is dissatisfied with Grimm's reasoning, there seems to be no other alternative but to consider that the Goths of the Lower Danube had no existence at all in Germany _under that name_, that they left their country under a different[5] one, and that they took the one by which they were known to the Romans (and through them to us), on reaching the land of the _Getae_--as, in England, the Saxons of _Essex_ and _Wessex_ did _not_ (since they brought their name with them), but as the East and West _Kent-ings_[6] did.
This doctrine, of course, falls to the ground directly it can be shown that the Goths of Moesia were either called _Goths_ in Germany, or any where else, anterior to their settlement in the _Geta_-land.
Be this, however, as it may, the first division of the Teutonic branch of languages is the Moeso-Gothic of the Goths of the Lower Danube, in the fourth century, as preserved in the translation of Ulphilas, and in other less important fragments.
SPECIMEN.
LUKE i. 46-56.
Jah quath Mariam. Mikileid saivala meina Fan, jah svegneid ahma meins du Gotha nasjand meinamma. Unte insahu du hnaivenai thiujos seinaizos: {35} sai allis fram himma nu audagjand mik alla kunja. Unte gatavida mis mikilein sa mahteiga, jah veih namo is. Jah armahairtei is in aldins ald[^e] thaim ogandam ina. Gatavida svinthein in arma seinamma; distahida mikilthuhtans gahugdai hairtins seinis; gadrausida mahteigans af stolam, jah ushauhida gahnaividans; gredigans gas[^o]thida thiuthe, jah gabignandans insandida lausans; hleibida Israela thiumagu seinamma, gamundans armahairteins, sva sve rodida du attam unsaraim Abrahaima jah fraiv is und aiv.
s. 77. The Old High German, called also Francic and Alemannic, was spoken in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries, in Suabia, Bavaria, and Franconia. It is in the Old High German that the Krist of Otfrid, the Psalms of Notker, the Canticle of Willeram, the Glosses of Kero, the Vita Annonis, &c., are composed.
SPECIMEN.
KRIST, i. 12. (Edit. Graff.)
Tho uuarun thar in lante hirta haltente; Thes fehes datun uuarta uuidar fianta. Zi ['i]n quam boto sconi, engil scinenti; Joh uuurtun sie inliuhte fon himilisgen liohte. Forahtun sie in tho gahun so sinan anasahun; Joh hintarquamun harto thes Gotes boten uuorto. Sprah ther Gotes boto sar. "Ih scal ['i]['u] sagen uuuntar. Ju scal sin fon Gote heil; nales forahta nihein. Ih scal iu sagen imbot, gibot ther himilisgo Got; Ouh nist ther er gihorti so fronisg arunti. Thes uuirdit uuorolt sinu zi euuidon blidu, Joh al giscaft thiu in uuorolti thesa erdun ist ouh dretenti Niuuui boran habet thiz lant then himilisgon Heilant; The ist Druhtin Krist guater fon iungeru muater. In Bethleem thiue kuninga thie uuarun alle thanana, Fon in uuard ouh giboran iu sin muater magad sconu. Sagen ih ['i]['u], guate man, uuio ir nan sculut findan, Zeichen ouh gizami thuruh thaz seltsani. Zi theru burgi faret hinana, ir findet, so ih ['i]['u] sageta, Kind niuuui boranaz in kripphun gilegitaz. Tho quam unz er zin tho sprah engilo heriscaf, Himilisgu menigi, sus alle singenti-- In himilriches hohi si Gote guallichi; Si in erdu fridu ouh allen thie fol sin guates uuillen
{36}
_The Same, in English._
Then there was in the land herdsmen feeding: Of their cattle they made watch against foes. To them came a messenger fair, an angel shining, And they became lit with heavenly light. They feared, suddenly as on him they looked; And followed much the words of God's messenger: Spake there God's messenger strait, "I shall to you say wonders. To you shall there be from God health; fear nothing at all. I shall to you say a message, the bidding of the heavenly God: Also there is none who has heard so glad an errand. Therefore becomes his world for ever blythe, And all creatures that in the world are treading this earth. Newly borne has this land the heavenly Savior, Who is the Lord Christ, good, from a young mother. In Bethleem, of the kings they were all thence-- From them was also born his mother, a maid fair. I say to you, good men, how ye him shall find, A sign and token, through this wonder. To your burgh fare hence, ye find, so as I to you said, A child, new born, in a crib lying." Then came, while he to them spake, of angels an host, A heavenly retinue, thus all singing: "In the heavenly kingdom's highth be to God glory; Be on earth peace also to all who are full of God's will."
The Middle High German ranges from the thirteenth Century to the Reformation.
s. 78. The Low Germanic Division, to which the Anglo-Saxon belongs, is currently said to comprise six languages, or rather four languages in different stages.
I. II.--The Anglo-Saxon and Modern English.
III.--The Old Saxon.
IV. V.--The Old Frisian and Modern Dutch.
VI.--The Platt-Deutsch, or Low German.
s. 79. _The Frisian and Dutch._--It is a current statement that the Old Frisian bears the same relation to the Modern Dutch of Holland that the Anglo-Saxon does to the English.
The truer view of the question is as follows:-- {37}
1. That a single language, spoken in two dialects, was originally common to both Holland and Friesland.
2. That from the northern of these dialects we have the Modern Frisian of Friesland.
3. From the southern, the Modern Dutch of Holland.
The reason for this refinement is as follows:--
The Modern Dutch has certain grammatical forms _older_ than those of the Old Frisian; _e.g._, the Dutch infinitives and the Dutch weak substantives, in their oblique cases, end in _-en_; those of the Old Frisian in _-a_: the form in _-en_ being the older.
s. 80. The true Frisian is spoken in few and isolated localities. There is--
1. The Frisian of the Dutch state called Friesland.
2. The Frisian of the parish of Saterland, in Westphalia.
3. The Frisian of Heligoland.
4. The North Frisian, spoken in a few villages of Sleswick. One of the characters of the North Frisian is the possession of a Dual Number.
s. 81. In respect to its stages, we have the Old Frisian of the Asega-bog, the Middle Frisian of Gysbert Japicx, and the Modern Frisian of the present Frieslanders, Westphalians, and Heligolanders.
_Asega-bog_, i. 3. p. 13, 14. (_Ed. Wiarda._)
Thet is thiu thredde liodkest and thes Kynig Kerles ieft, theter allera monna ek ana sina eyna gode besitte umberavat. Hit ne se thet ma hine urwinne mith tele and mith rethe and mith riuchta thingate, sa hebbere alsam sin Asega dema and dele to lioda londriuchte. Ther ne hach nen Asega nenne dom to delande hit ne se thet hi to fara tha Keysere fon Rume esweren hebbe and thet hi fon da liodon ekeren se. Sa hoch hi thenne to demande and to delande tha fiande alsare friounde, thruch des ethes willa, ther hi to fara tha Keysere fon Rume esweren heth, tho demande and to delande widuon and weson, waluberon and alle werlosa liodon, like to helpande and sine threa knilinge. Alsa thi Asega nimth tha unriuchta mida and tha urlouada panninga, and ma hini urtinga mi mith twam sine juenethon an thes Kyninges bonne, sa ne hoch hi nenne dom mar to delande, truch thet thi Asega thi biteknath thene prestere, hwande hia send siande and hia skilun wesa agon there heliga Kerstenede, hia skilun helpa alle tham ther hiam seluon nauwet helpa ne muge.
{38}
_The Same, in English._
That is the third determination and concession of King Charles, that of all men each one possess his own goods (house?) unrobbed. It may not be that any man overcome him with charge (tales), and with summons (rede), and with legal action. So let him hold as his Asega (judge) dooms and deals according to the land-right of the people. There shall no Asega deal a doom unless it be that before the Caesar of Rome he shall have sworn, and that he shall have been by the people chosen. He has then to doom and deal to foes as to friends, through the force (will) of the oath which he before the Caesar of Rome has sworn, to doom and to deal to widows and orphans, to wayfarers and all defenceless people, to help them as his own kind in the third degree. If the Asega take an illegal reward, or pledged money, and a man convict him before two of his colleagues in the King's Court, he has no more to doom, since it is the Asega that betokens the priest, and they are seeing, and they should be the eyes of the Holy Christendom, they should help all those who may nought help themselves.
s. 82. _The Low German and Platt-Deutsch._--The words _Low German_ are not only lax in their application, but they are _equivocal_; since the term has two meanings, a _general_ meaning when it signifies a division of the Germanic languages, comprising English, Dutch, Anglo-Saxon, Old Saxon, and Frisian, and a limited one when it means the particular dialects of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe. To avoid this the dialects in question will be henceforth called by their continental name of _Platt-Deutsch_; which although foreign, is convenient.
s. 83. The points of likeness and difference between two languages belonging to different branches of the same Gothic stock may be partially collected from the following comparison between certain Icelandic, Norse or Scandinavian, and certain Anglo-Saxon or Germanic inflections.
Declension of substantives ending with a _vowel_.
_Saxon._ _Icelandic._
_Neuter._ _Neuter._
_Sing. Nom._ E['a]ge (_an eye_). Auga (_an eye_). _Acc._ E['a]ge Auga. _Dat._ E['a]gan Auga. _Gen._ E['a]gan Auga. {39} _Plur. Nom._ E['a]gan Augu. _Acc._ E['a]gan Augu. _Dat._ E['a]gan Augum. _Gen._ E['a]gan Augna.
_Masculine._ _Masculine._
_Sing. Nom._ Nama (_a name_). Bogi (_a bow_). _Acc._ Naman Boga. _Dat._ Naman Boga. _Gen._ Naman Boga. _Plur. Nom._ Naman Bogar. _Acc._ Naman Boga. _Dat._ Namum Bogum. _Gen._ Namena Boga.
_Feminine._ _Feminine._
_Sing. Nom._ Tunge (_a tongue_). T['u]nga (_a tongue_). _Acc._ Tungan T['u]ngu. _Dat._ Tungan T['u]ngu. _Gen._ Tungan T['u]ngu. _Plur. Nom._ Tungan T['u]ngur. _Acc._ Tungan T['u]ngur. _Dat._ Tungum T['u]ngum. _Gen._ Tungena T['u]ngna.
Declension of Substantives ending with a _Consonant_.
_Saxon._ _Icelandic._
_Neuter._ _Neuter._
_Sing. Nom._ Le['a]f (_a leaf_). Skip (_a ship_). _Acc._ Le['a]f Skip. _Dat._ Le['a]fe Skipi. _Gen._ Le['a]fes Skips. _Plur. Nom._ Le['a]f Skip. _Acc._ Le['a]f Skip. _Dat._ Le['a]fum Skipum. _Gen._ Le['a]fa Skipa.
_Masculine._ _Masculine._
_Sing. Nom._ Smidh (_a smith_). Konungr (_a king_). _Acc._ Smidh Konung. _Dat._ Smidhe Konungi. _Gen._ Smidhes Konungs. {40} _Plur. Nom._ Smidhas Konungar. _Acc._ Smidhas Konunga. _Dat._ Smidhum Konungum. _Gen._ Smidha Konunga.
_Feminine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ Spr['ae]c (_a speech_). Br['u]dhr (_a bride_). _Acc._ Spr['ae]ce Br['u]i. _Dat._ Spr['ae]ce Br['u]dhi. _Gen._ Spr['ae]ce Br['u]dhar. _Plur. Nom._ Spr['ae]ca Br['u]dhir. _Acc._ Spr['ae]ca Br['u]dhir. _Dat._ Spr['ae]cum Br['u]dhum. _Gen._ Spr['ae]ca Br['u]dha.
s. 84. The most characteristic difference between the Saxon and Icelandic lies in the peculiar position of the definite article in the latter language. In Saxon, the article corresponding with the modern word _the_, is _thaet_, _se_, _se['o]_, for the neuter, masculine, and feminine genders respectively; and these words, regularly declined, are _prefixed_ to the words with which they agree, just as is the case with the English and with the majority of languages. In Icelandic, however, the article, instead of preceding, _follows_ its noun, _with which it coalesces_, having previously suffered a change in form. The Icelandic article corresponding to _thaet_, _se_, _se['o]_, is _hitt_ (N.), _hinn_ (M.), _hin_ (F.): from this the _h_ is ejected, so that, instead of the regular inflection (_a_), we have the forms (_b_).
_a._ _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._
_Sing. Nom._ Hitt Hinn Hin. _Acc._ Hitt Hinn Hina. _Dat._ Hinu Hinum Hinni. _Gen._ Hins Hins Hinnar. _Plur. Nom._ Hin Hinir Hinar. _Acc._ Hin Hina Hinar. _Dat._ Hinum Hinum Hinum. _Gen._ Hinna Hinna Hinna.
_b._
_Sing. Nom._ --it --inn --in. _Acc._ --it --inn --ina (-na). {41} _Dat._ --nu --num --inni (-nni). _Gen._ --ins --ins --innar (-nnar). _Plur. Nom._ --in --nir --nar. _Acc._ --in --na --nar. _Dat._ --num --num --num. _Gen._ --nna --nna --nna.
whence, as an affix, in composition,
_Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._
_Sing. Nom._ Augat Boginn T['u]ngan. _Acc._ Augat Boginn T['u]nguna. _Dat._ Auganu Boganum T['u]ngunni. _Gen._ Augans Bogans T['u]ngunnar. _Plur. Nom._ Augun Bogarnir T['u]ngurnar. _Acc._ Augun Bogana T['u]ngurnar. _Dat._ Augunum Bogunum T['u]ngunum. _Gen._ Augnanna Boganna T['u]ngnanna.
s. 85. In the Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish this peculiarity in the position of the definite article is preserved. Its origin, however, is concealed; and an accidental identity with the indefinite article has led to false notions respecting its nature. In the languages in point the _i_ is changed into _e_, so that what in Icelandic is _it_ and _in_, is in Danish _et_ and _en_. _En_, however, as a separate word, is the numeral _one_, and also the indefinite article _a_; whilst in the neuter gender it is _et_--en Sol, _a sun_; et Bord, _a table_: Solen, _the sun_; Bordet, _the table_. From modern forms like those just quoted, it has been imagined that the definite is merely the indefinite article transposed. This it is not.
Reference will be made to this passage on more occasions than one, to show how words originally distinct may, in the process of time, take the appearance of being identical. To apply an expression of Mr. Cobbett's, _en_=_a_, and _-en_=_the_, are _the same combination of letters, but not the same word_. {42}
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES.
_Saxon_. _Icelandic_. _Definite_.[7] _Definite_.[7] _Singular_. _Singular_.
_Neut_. _Masc_. _Fem_. _Neut_. _Masc_. _Fem_.
_Nom_. G['o]de G['o]da G['o]de. _Nom_. Haga Hagi Haga. _Acc_. G['o]de G['o]dan G['o]dan. _Acc_. Haga Haga Hoegu. _Abl_. G['o]dan G['o]dan G['o]dan. _Abl_. Haga Haga Hoegu. _Dat_. G['o]dan G['o]dan G['o]dan. _Dat_. Haga Haga Hoegu. _Gen_. G['o]dan G['o]dan G['o]dan. _Gen_. Haga Haga Hoegu.
_Plural_. _Hoegu_ is the Plural form for all _Nom_. G['o]dan G['o]dan G['o]dan. the Cases and all the Genders. _Acc_. G['o]dan G['o]dan G['o]dan. _Abl_. G['o]dum G['o]dum G['o]dum. _Dat_. G['o]dum G['o]dum G['o]dum. _Gen_. G['o]dena G['o]dena G['o]dena.
_Indefinite_. _Indefinite_. _Singular_. _Singular_.
_Neut_. _Masc_. _Fem_. _Neut_. _Masc_. _Fem_.
_Nom_. G['o]d G['o]d G['o]d. _Nom_. Hagt Hagr Hoeg. _Acc_. G['o]d G['o]dne G['o]de. _Acc_. Hagt Hagan Hoeg. _Abl_. G['o]de G['o]de G['o]dre. _Abl_. Hoegu Hoegum Hagri. _Dat_. G['o]dum G['o]dum G['o]dre. _Dat_. Hoegu Hoegum Hagri. _Gen_. G['o]des G['o]des G['o]dre. _Gen_. Hags Hags Hagrar.
_Plural_. _Plural_.
_Nom_. G['o]de G['o]de G['o]de. _Nom_. Hoeg Hagir Hagar. _Acc_. G['o]de G['o]de G['o]de. _Acc_. Hoeg Haga Hagar. _Abl_. G['o]dum G['o]dum G['o]dum. _Abl_. Hoegum Hoegum Hoegum. _Dat_. G['o]dum G['o]dum G['o]dum. _Dat_. Hoegum Hoegum Hoegum. _Gen_. G['o]dra G['o]dra G['o]dra. _Gen_. Hagra Hagra Hagra.
s. 86. Observe in the Icelandic forms the absence of the termination _-an_. Observe also the neuter termination _-t_, as _hagr_, _hagt_. Throughout the modern forms of the Icelandic (_viz._ the Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian languages) this termination is still preserved: e.g., _en god Hest_, a good horse; _et godt Hjaert_, a good heart; _en skoen Pige_, a beautiful damsel; _et skarpt Svoerd_, a sharp sword.
{43}
s. 87. Amongst the pronouns the following differences present themselves. The Saxon forms are, for the pronoun of the second person, _thu_ (thou), _git_ (ye _two_), _ge_ (ye); whilst in Icelandic they are _thu_, _thidh_, _per_, respectively. Again, in Saxon there is no reflective pronoun corresponding with the Latin _se_. In Icelandic we have _sik_, _s['e]r_, _sin_, corresponding to the Latin _se_, _sibi_, _suus_. Besides this, the word _sin_ is declined, so that like the Latin _suus_ it becomes adjectival.
_Sing. Nom._ Sitt Sinn S['i]n. _Acc._ Sitt Sinn S['i]na. _Dat._ S['i]nu S['i]num Sinni. _Gen._ Sins Sins Sinnar. _Plur. Nom._ S['i]n S['i]nir S['i]nar. _Acc._ S['i]n S['i]na S['i]nar. _Dat._ S['i]num S['i]num S['i]num. _Gen._ Sinna Sinna Sinna.
In Saxon there is of course no such an adjectival form. _There_ the Possessives of the Third Person correspond not with the Latin _suus_, _sua_, _suum_; but with the Latin _ejus_ and _eorum_. The English words _his_ and _her_ are _genitive_ cases, not _adjectives_.
Further remarks upon the presence of the Reflective Pronoun _sik_ in Icelandic, and its absence in Saxon, will appear in the sequel.
THE NUMERALS.
_Saxon._ _Icelandic._ 1. ['A]n Eitt, einn, ein. 2. Tw['a] Tvoe, tveir. 3. Thre['o] Thrju, thrir. 4. Feower Fjoegur, fj['o]rir. 5. F['i]f Fimm. 6. Six Sex. 7. Seofon Sjoe. 8. Eahta ['A]tta. 9. Nigon Niu. 10. Tyn Tiu.
Of the Icelandic verbs the infinitives end in _-a_; as _kalla_, to call; _elska_, to love; whereas the Saxon termination is _-an_; as _lufian_, to love; _wyrcan_, to work. {44}
s. 88. The persons are as follows:--
_Saxon._ _Icelandic._
_Pres. Sing._ 1. Baerne Brenni. 2. Baernst Brennir. 3. Baerndh Brennir. _Plur._ 1. Baernadh Brennum. 2. Baernadh Brennidh. 3. Baernadh Brenna.
s. 89. The characteristic, however, of the Icelandic (indeed, of all the Scandinavian languages) is the possession of a _passive_ form, or a _passive_ voice, ending in _-st_:--_Ek_, _thu_, _hann brennist_=_I_, _thou_, _he is burnt_; _Ver brennumst_=_We are burnt_; _th['e]r brennizt_=_ye are burnt_; _their brennast_=_they are burnt_. Past tense, _Ek_, _thu_, _hann brendist_; _ver brendumst_, _th['e]r brenduzt_, _their brendust_. Imperat.: _brenstu_=_be thou burnt_. Infinit.: _brennast_=_to be burnt_.
In the modern Danish and Swedish, the passive is still preserved, but without the final _t_. In the _older_ stages of Icelandic, on the other hand, the termination was not _-st_ but _-sc_; which _-sc_ grew out of the reflective pronoun _sik_. With these phenomena the Scandinavian languages give us the evolution and development of a passive voice; wherein we have the following series of changes:--1st. the reflective pronoun coalesces with the verb, whilst the sense changes from that of a reflective to that of a middle verb; 2nd. the _c_ changes to _t_, whilst the middle sense passes into a passive one; 3rd. _t_ is dropped from the end of the word, and the expression that was once reflective then becomes strictly passive.
Now the Saxons have no passive voice at all. That they should have one _originating_ like that of the Scandinavians was impossible. Having no reflective pronoun, they had nothing to evolve it from.
_The Auxiliary Verb._
_Saxon._ _Icelandic._
_Indicative. Present._
_Sing._ 1. Eom (_I am_) Em. 2. Eart. Ert. 3. Is. Er. {45} _Plur._ 1. Synd (Syndon) Erum. 2. Synd (Syndon) Erudh. 3. Synd (Syndon) Eru.
_Indicative. Past._ _Sing._ 1. W['ae]s Var. 2. W['ae]re Vart. 3. W['ae]s Var. _Plur._ 1. W['ae]ron Vorum. 2. W['ae]ron Voru. 3. W['ae]ron Voru.
_Subjunctive. Present._ _Sing._ 1. S['y] S['e]. 2. S['y] S['e]r. 3. S['y] S['e]. _Plur._ 1. S['y]n S['e]um. 2. S['y]n Seudh. 3. S['y]n S['e]u.
_Subjunctive. Past._ _Sing._ 1. W['ae]re Vaeri. 2. W['ae]re Vaerir. 3. W['ae]re Vaeri. _Plur._ 1. W['ae]ron Vaerum. 2. W['ae]ron Vaeru. 3. W['ae]ron Vaerudh.
_Infinitive._ Wesan Vera.
_Participle._ Wesende Verandi.
s. 90. Recapitulating, we find that the characteristic differences of the greatest importance between the Icelandic and Saxon are three in number:--
1st. The peculiar nature of the definite article.
2nd. The neuter form of the adjectives in _-t_.
3rd. The existence of a passive voice in _-sc_, _-st_, or _-s_.
s. 91. In the previous comparison the substantives were divided as follows:--1st. into those ending with a vowel; 2ndly, into those ending with a consonant. In respect to the substantives ending with a vowel (_e['a]ge_, _nama_, _tunge_), it may have been observed that their cases were in A. S. almost {46} exclusively formed in _-n_, as _e['a]gan_, _tungan_, &c.; whilst words like _skip_ and _smidh_ had, throughout their whole declension, no case formed in _-n_; no case indeed wherein the sound of _-n_ entered. This enables us (at least with the A. S.) to make a general assertion concerning the substantives ending in a _vowel_ in contrast to those ending in a _consonant_, viz. that they take an inflection in _-n_.
In Icelandic this inflection in _-n_ is concealed by the fact of _-an_ having been changed into _-a_. However, as this _-a_ represents _-an_, and as fragments or rudiments of _-n_ are found in the genitive plurals of the neuter and feminine genders (_augna_, _tungna_), we may make the same general assertion in Icelandic that we make in A. S., _viz._ that substantives ending in a vowel take an inflection in _-n_.
s. 92. The points of likeness and difference between two languages, belonging to different _divisions_ of the same Germanic _branch_, may be partially collected from the following comparison between certain Moeso-Gothic and certain Anglo-Saxon inflections.
s. 93. It must, however, be premised, that, although the distinction between nouns taking an inflection in _-n_, and nouns not so inflected, exists equally in the Moeso-Gothic and the Icelandic, the form in which the difference shows itself is different; and along with the indication of this difference may be introduced the important terms _weak_ and _strong_, as applied to the declension of nouns.
_Weak_ nouns end in a vowel; or, if in a consonant, in a consonant that has become final from the loss of the vowel that originally followed it. They also form a certain proportion of their oblique cases in _-n_, or an equivalent to _-n_--Nom. _aug[^o]_, gen. _aug-in-s_.
_Strong_ nouns end in a consonant; or, if in a vowel, in one of the vowels allied to the semivowels _y_ or _w_, and through them to the consonants. They also form their oblique cases by the addition of a simple inflection, without the insertion of _n_.
Furthermore, be it observed that _nouns_ in general are _weak_ and _strong_, in other words, that adjectives are _weak_ or {47} _strong_, as well as substantives. Between substantives and adjectives, however, there is this difference:--
1. A substantive is _either_ weak or strong, _i.e._, it has one of the two inflections, but not both. _Aug[^o]_=_an eye_, is weak under all circumstances; _waurd_=_a word_, is strong under all circumstances.
2. An adjective is _both_ weak and strong. The Anglo-Saxon for _good_ is sometimes _god_ (strong), sometimes _gode_ (weak). Which of the two forms is used depends not on the word itself, but on the state of its construction.
In this respect the following two rules are important:--
1. The definite sense is generally expressed by the weak form, as _se blinde man_=_the blind man_.
2. The indefinite sense is generally expressed by the strong form, as _sum blind man_=_a blind man_.
Hence, as far as adjectives are concerned, the words _definite_ and _indefinite_ coincide with the words _weak_ and _strong_ respectively, except that the former are terms based on the syntax, the latter terms based on the etymology of the word to which they apply.
_Declension of Weak Substantives in Moeso-Gothic._
_Neuter._
_Singular._ _Plural._
_Nom._ ['A]ug[^o] (_an eye_) ['A]ug[^o]na. _Acc._ ['A]ug[^o] ['A]ug[^o]na. _Dat._ ['A]ugin ['A]ugam. _Gen._ ['A]ugins ['A]ug[^o]n[^e].
_Masculine._
_Nom._ Manna (_a man_) Mannans. _Acc._ Mannan Mannans. _Dat._ Mannin Mannam. _Gen._ Mannins Mannan[^e].
_Feminine._
_Nom._ Tugg[^o] (_a tongue_) Tugg[^o]ns. _Acc._ Tugg[^o]n Tugg[^o]ns. _Dat._ Tugg[^o]n Tugg[^o]m. _Gen._ Tugg[^o]ns Tugg[^o]n[^o].
{48}
_Declension of Strong Substantives in Moeso-Gothic._
_Neuter._
_Singular._ _Plural._
_Nom._ Va['u]rd (_a word_) Va['u]rda. _Acc._ Va['u]rd Va['u]rda. _Dat._ Va['u]rda Va['u]rdam. _Gen._ Va['u]rdis Va['u]rd[^e].
_Masculine._
_Nom._ Fisks (_a fish_) Fisk[^o]s. _Acc._ Fisk Fiskans. _Dat._ Fiska Fiskam. _Gen._ Fiskis Fisk[^e].
_Feminine._
_Nom._ Br[^u]ths (_a bride_) Br[^u]theis. _Acc._ Br[^u]th Br[^u]thins. _Dat._ Br[^u]thai Br[^u]thim. _Gen._ Br[^u]thais Br[^u]th[^e].
These may be compared with the Saxon declensions; viz. _a['u]g[^o]_ with _e['a]ge_, _manna_ with _nama_, _tugg[^o]_ with _tunge_, _va['u]rd_ with _le['a]f_, _fisks_ with _smidh_, and _br[^u]ths_ with _spraec_.
_Declension of Weak (or Definite) Adjectives in Moeso-Gothic._[8]
_Singular._
_Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._
_Nom._ Blind[^o] Blinda Blind[^o]. _Acc._ Blind[^o] Blindan Blind[^o]n. _Dat._ Blindin Blindin Blind[^o]n. _Gen._ Blindins Blindins Blind[^o]ns.
_Plural._
_Nom._ Blind[^o]na Blindans Blind[^o]ns. _Acc._ Blind[^o]na Blindans Blind[^o]ns. _Dat._ Blindam Blindam Blind[^o]m. _Gen._ Blind[^o]n[^e] Blindan[^e] Blind[^o]n[^o].
{49}
_Declension of strong (or indefinite) adjectives in Moeso-Gothic._[9]
_Singular._
_Nom._ Blindata Blinds Blinda. _Acc._ Blindata Blindana Blinda. _Dat._ Blindamma Blindamma Blind['a]i. _Gen._ Blindis Blindis Blind['a]iz[^o]s.
_Plural._
_Nom._ Blinda Blind['a]i Blind[^o]s. _Acc._ Blinda Blindans Blind[^o]s. _Dat._ Blind['a]im Blind['a]im Blind['a]im. _Gen._ Blind['a]iz[^e] Blind['a]iz[^e] Blind['a]iz[^o].
_Observe_--In the neuter form _blindata_ M. G. we have the sound of _t_, as in Icelandic. This becomes _z_ (_ts_) in Old High German, and _s_ in modern German.
The conjugation of the M. G. is as follows. From the Anglo-Saxon it differs most in its plural persons.
_Indicative._
M.G. A.S.
_Present._
_Sing._ 1. S[^o]k-ja Lufie. 2. S[^o]k-eis Lufast. 3. S[^o]k-eith Lufadh. _Plur._ 1. S[^o]k-jam Lufiadh. 2. S[^o]k-eith Lufiadh. 3. S[^o]k-jand Lufiadh.
_Praet._
_Sing._ 1. S[^o]kida Lufode. 2. S[^o]kides Lufodest. 3. S[^o]kida Lufode. _Plur._ 1. S[^o]kid[^e]dum Lufodon. 2. S[^o]kid[^e]duth Lufodon. 3. S[^o]kid[^e]dun Lufodon.
_Subjunctive._
M.G. A.S.
_Present._
_Sing._ 1. S[^o]kj['a]u } 2. S[^o]kj['a]is } Lufige. 3. S[^o]kj['a]i } _Plur._ 1. S[^o]kj['a]ima } 2. S[^o]kj['a]ith } Lufion. 3. S[^o]kj['a]ina }
_Praet._
_Sing._ 1. S[^o]kid[^e]dj['a]u } 2. S[^o]kid[^e]deis } Lufode. 3. S[^o]kid[^e]di } _Plur._ 1. S[^o]kid[^e]deima } 2. S[^o]kid[^e]deith } Lufodon 3. S[^o]kid[^e]deina }
The conjugation of the auxiliary verb in Moeso-Gothic is as follows. It may be compared with the A. S. s. 89.
{50}
_Indicative. Pres._ _Subjunctive. Pres._
_Sing._ _Plur._ _Sing._ _Plur._ 1. Im (_I am_) Sijum. 1. Sij['a]u Sij['a]ima. 2. Is Sijuth. 2. Sij['a]is Sij['a]ith. 3. Ist Sind. 3. Sij['a]i Sij['a]ina.
_Praet._ _Praet._
1. Vas V[^e]sum. 1. V[^e]sj['a]u V[^e]seima. 2. Vast V[^e]suth. 2. V[^e]seis V[^e]seith. 3. Vas V[^e]sun. 3. V[^e]sei V[^e]seina.
_Inf._ Visan and Sijan--(_to be_).
_Part._ Visands--(_being_).
s. 94. The points of likeness or difference between two languages, each of the Low Germanic division, may be partially collected from the following comparison between certain Old Frisian and certain Anglo-Saxon inflections.
In the comparison the first point to be noticed is the _Transition of Letters_.
_['a]_ in Frisian corresponds to _e['a]_ in A. S.; as _d['a]d_, _r['a]d_, _l['a]s_, _str['a]m_, _b['a]m_, _c['a]p_, _['a]re_, _h['a]p_, Frisian; _de['a]d_, _re['a]d_, _le['a]s_, _stre['a]m_, _be['a]m_, _ce['a]p_, _e['a]re_, _he['a]p_, Saxon; _dead_, _red_, _loose_, _stream_, _tree_ (boom), _bargain_ (cheap, chapman), _ear_, _heap_, English.
_['e]_ Frisian corresponds to ^a), the A. S. _['a]_; as _Eth_, _t['e]ken_, _h['e]l_, _br['e]d_, Fris.; _['a]th_, _t['a]cen_, _h['a]l_, _br['a]d_, Saxon; _oath_, _token_, _hale_, _broad_, English;--^b), to A. S. _ae_; _h['e]r_, _d['e]de_, _br['e]da_, Frisian; _haer_, _daed_, _braedan_, A. S.; _hair_, _deed_, _roast_, English.
_e_ to _ea_ and _ae_ A. S.--Frisian _thet_, A. S. _thaet_, Engl. _that_, Fris. _gers_, A. S. _gaers_, Engl. _grass_.--Also to _eo_; _prestere_, Fr.; _preost_ A. S., _priest_ Engl.; _berch_ Fr., _beorh_ A. S.; _hill_ (_berg_, as in _iceberg_) Engl.; _melok_ Fr., _meoloc_ A. S., _milk_ Engl.
_i_ to _eo_ A. S.--Fr. _irthe_, A. S. _eordhe_; Fris. _hirte_; A. S. _heorte_; Fris. _fir_ A. S. _feor_=in English _earth_, _heart_, _far_.
_j['a]_=_eo_ A. S.; as _bjada_, _be['o]dan_, _bid_--_thet fjarde_, _feordhe_, _the fourth_--_sj['a]k_, _se['o]c_, _sick_.
_ju_=_y_ or _eo_ A. S.; _rjucht_, _ryth_, _right_--_frjund_, _freond_, _friend_. {51}
_Dsz_=A. S. _cg_; Fr. _sedza_, _lidzja_; A. S. _secgan_, _licgan_; Engl. _to say_, _to lie_.
_Tz_, _ts_, _sz_, _sth_=A. S. _c_ or _ce_; as _szereke_, or _sthereke_, Frisian; _cyrice_ A. S., _church_ Engl.; _czetel_ Fr., _cytel_ A. S., _kettle_ English.
_ch_ Fr.=_h_ A. S., as _thjach_ Fr., _the['o]h_ A. S., _thigh_ Engl.--_berch_, _be['o]rh_, _hill_ (berg)--_dochter_, _dohtor_, _daughter_, &c.
As a general statement we may say, that in the transition letters the Frisian corresponds with the A. S. more closely than it does with any other language. It must, moreover, be remarked, that, in such pairs of words as _frjund_ and _freond_, the difference (as far at least as the _e_ and _j_ are concerned) is a mere difference of orthography. Such also is probably the case with the words _d['e]d_ and _daed_, and many others.
The Anglo-Saxon inflection of ^a) Substantives ending in a vowel, ^b) Substantives ending in a consonant, ^c) Adjectives with an indefinite ^d) Adjectives with a definite sense, ^e) Verbs Active ^f) and verbs auxiliar, may be seen in the comparison between the A. S. and the Icelandic. The corresponding inflections in Frisian are as follows:--
(_a_).
_Substantives ending in a vowel._
_Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._
_Sing. Nom._ ['A]re (_an ear_) Campa (_a champion_) Tunge (_a tongue_). _Acc._ ['A]re Campa Tunga. _Dat._ ['A]ra Campa Tunga. _Gen._ ['A]ra Campa Tunga. _Plur. Nom._ ['A]ra Campa Tunga. _Acc._ ['A]ra Campa Tunga. _Dat._ ['A]ron Campon Tungon. _Gen._ ['A]rona Campona Tungona.
(_b_).
_Substantives ending in a consonant._
_Neuter._ _Feminine._
_Sing. Nom._ Skip (_a ship_) Hond (_a hand_). _Acc._ Skip Hond. {52} _Dat._ Skipe Hond. _Gen._ Skipis Honde. _Plur. Nom._ Skipu Honda. _Acc._ Skipu Honda. _Dat._ Skipum Hondum (-on). _Gen._ Skipa Honda.
With respect to the masculine substantives terminating in a consonant, it must be observed that in A. S. there are two modes of declension; in one, the plural ends in _-s_; in the other, in _-a_. The specimen in s. 83 represents the first of these modes only. From this the Frisian is essentially different. With the second it has a close alliance; _e.g._:--
_Saxon._ _Frisian._
_Sing. Nom._ Sunu (_a son_) Sunu. _Acc._ Sunu Sunu. _Dat._ Suna Suna. _Gen._ Suna Suna. _Plur. Nom._ Suna Suna. _Acc._ Suna Suna. _Dat._ Sunum Sunum. _Gen._ Sunena (Sunena).
(_c_).
_Indefinite Declension of Adjectives._
_Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ G['o]d G['o]d G['o]d. _Acc._ G['o]d G['o]dene G['o]de. _Dat._ G['o]da (-um) G['o]da (-um). G['o]dere. _Gen._ G['o]des G['o]des G['o]dere. _Plur. Nom._ G['o]de G['o]de G['o]de. _Acc._ G['o]de G['o]de G['o]de. _Dat._ G['o]dum (-a) G['o]dum (-a) G['o]dum (-a). _Gen._ G['o]dera G['o]dera G['o]dera.
(_d_).
_Definite._
_Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Sing. Nom._ G['o]de G['o]da G['o]de. _Acc._ G['o]de G['o]da G['o]da. {53} _Dat._ G['o]da G['o]da G['o]da. _Gen._ G['o]da G['o]da G['o]da. _Plur. Nom._ G['o]da G['o]da G['o]da. _Acc._ G['o]da G['o]da G['o]da. _Dat._ G['o]da (-on) G['o]da (-on) G['o]da (-on). _Gen._ G['o]da (-ona) G['o]da (-ona) G['o]da (-ona).
(_e_).
_The Persons of the Present Tense._
_Indicative Mood._
_Sing._ 1. Berne _I burn._ 2. Bernst _Thou burnest._ 3. Bernth _He burns._ _Plur._ 1. Bernath _We burn._ 2. Bernath _Ye burn._ 3. Bernath _They burn._
In the inflection of the verbs there is between the Frisian and A. S. this important difference. In A. S. the infinite ends in _-an_ _macian_, to make, _laeran_, to learn, _baernan_, to burn; whilst in Frisian it ends in _-a_, as _maka_, _l['e]ra_, _berna_.
(_f_).
_The Auxiliar Verb_ Wesa, _To Be_.
_Indicative._
_Present._ _Past._
_Sing._ 1. Ik ben 1. Ik } 2. ? 2. Th['u] } Was. 3. Hi is 3. Hi } _Plur._ 1. Wi } 1. Wi } 2. I } Send 2. I } Weron. 3. Hja } 3. Hja }
_Subjunctive._
_Present._ _Past._
_Sing._ 1. 2. 3. Se 1. 2. 3. W['e]re. _Plur._ 1. 2. 3. Se 1. 2. 3. W['e]re. _Infin. Wesa._ _Pr. Part._ Wesande. _Past Part._ E-wesen.
The Frisian numerals (to be compared with those of the Anglo-Saxons, p. 43), are as follows:--_['E]n_, _tw['a]_, _thrj['u]_, {54} _fj['u]wer_, _f['i]f_, _sex_, _sj['u]gun_, _achta_, _njugun_, _tian_, &c. Of these the first three take an inflection, e.g., _En_, like _Gode_ and the adjectives, has both a definite and an indefinite form, _en_, and _thet ene_; whilst _twa_ and _thrj['u]_ run as follows:--_Nom._ and _Acc. Neut._ twa; _Masc._ twene; _Fem._ twa; _Dat._ twam; _Gen._ twira.--_Nom._ and _Acc. Neut._ thrju; _Masc._ thre; _Fem._ thrja; _Dat._ thrim; _Gen._ thrira.
In respect to the Pronouns, there is in the Old Frisian of Friesland no dual number, as there is in Anglo-Saxon. On the other hand, however, the Frisians (whilst they have no such form as _his_) possess, like the Icelandic, the inflected adjectival pronoun _sin_, corresponding to the Latin _suus_: whilst, like the Anglo-Saxons, and unlike the Icelanders, they have nothing to correspond with the Latin _se_.
s. 95. In Frisian there is between the demonstrative pronoun used as an article, and the same word used as a demonstrative in the limited sense of the term, the following difference of declension:--
THE ARTICLE.
_Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._
_Sing. Nom._ Thet Thi Thj['u]. _Acc._ Thet Thene Th['a]. \----------\/--------/ _Dat._ Th['a] There. _Gen._ Thes There. \--------------\/-------------/ _Plur. Nom._ Th['a]. _Acc._ Th['a]. _Dat. _ Th['a]. _Gen._ Th['e]ra.
PRONOUN.
_The Demonstrative in the limited sense of the word._
_Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._
_Sing. Nom._ Thet Thi Se. _Acc._ Thet Thene Se. \---------\/--------/ _Dat._ Tham There. _Gen._ Thes There. \-------------\/---------------/ {55} _Plur. Nom._ Se. _Acc._ Se. _Dat._ Th['a]m. _Gen._ Th['e]ra.
The Saxons draw no such a distinction. With them the article and demonstrative is declined as follows:--
_Neuter._ _Masculine._ _Feminine._
_Sing. Nom._ Thaet Se Seo. _Acc._ Thaet Thone Th['a]. \-----\/----/ _Dat._ Tham Th['ae]re. _Gen._ Thaes Th['ae]re. \--------\/-------/ _Plur. Nom._ Th['a]. _Acc._ Th['a]. _Dat._ Th['a]m. _Gen._ Th['a]ra.
s. 96. _Specimen of Glossarial affinity._--Taken from Rask's Preface to his Frisian Grammar:--
_Frisian._ _Anglo Saxon._ _English._
['A]ge E['a]ge _Eye_. H['a]ved He['a]fod _Head_. Kind Cild _Child_. Erva Eafora _Heir_. Drochten Drihten _Lord_. Nacht Niht _Night_. R['e]d R['ae]d _Council_ (_Rede_). D['e]de D['ae]d _Deed_. Nose Nasu _Nose_. ['E]in ['A]gen _Own_. K['a]pie Ceapige _I buy_ (_Chapman_). Dua Don _To do_. Sl['a] Sle['a]n _Slay_. Gunga Gangan _Go_ (_Gang_).
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s. 97. In this Chapter there has been, thus far, an attempt to do two things at once. Firstly, to exhibit the _general_ likeness between stocks, branches, &c.; and secondly, to show the _special_ affinities between certain languages allied to our {56} own, and of the Gothic Stock. What follows, consists of certain observations upon two or three points of nomenclature.
s. 98. _German._--The points to remember concerning this term are--
1. That it is no national name, but a name given by the Latins to the natives of the country called Germania. The word _German_ is foreign to all the Gothic languages.
2. That it was first applied to proper Germanic tribes in the time of Julius Caesar, and that it served to distinguish the Gothic Germans from the Celtic Gauls.
3. That, anterior to the time of Caesar, there is no proof of it being applied as a distinctive designation to any of the tribes to whom it was afterwards limited. The first tribe to whom it was applied, was (in the opinion of the present writer) a Gallic tribe.
4. That since the time of Julius Caesar, its application has been constant, _i.e._, it has always meant Gothic tribes, or Gothic languages.
5. That sometimes it has been general to the whole nation--_Unde fit ut tantae populorum multitudines arctoo sub axe oriantur, ut non immerito universa illa regio Tanai tenus usque ad occiduum, licet et propriis loca ea singula nuncupentur nominibus, generali tamen vocabulo Germania vocitetur ... Gothi, siquidem, Vandalique, Rugi, Heruli, atque Turcilingi, necnon etiam aliae feroces ac barbarae nationes e Germania prodierunt._--Paulus Diaconus.
6. That sometimes it has been peculiar and distinctive to certain prominent portions of the nation--_equi fraenis_ Germanicis, _sellis_ Saxonicis _falerati_.
7. That the general power of the word has been, with few exceptions, limited to the Germans of Germany. We do not find either English or Scandinavian writers calling their countrymen _Germani_.
8. That the two German tribes most generally meant, when the word _German_ is used in a limited sense, are the Franks and the Alemanni.
9. That by a similar latitude the words _Francic_ and {57} _Alemannic_ have been occasionally used as synonymous with _Germanic_.
10. That the origin of the word _Germani_, in the Latin language, is a point upon which there are two hypotheses.
_a._ That it is connected with the Latin word _Germani_=_brothers_, meaning either tribes akin to one another, or tribes in a degree of _brotherly_ alliance with Rome.
_b._ That it grew out of some such German word as _Herman_, _Irmin_, _Wehrmann_, or the _Herm-_ in _Hermunduri_, _Hermiones_, &c.
Neither of these views satisfies the present writer.
For all the facts concerning the word _Germani_, see the Introduction to the third edition of the Deutsche Grammar.
s. 99. _Dutch._--For the purposes of Philology the meaning given to this word is inconvenient. In England, it means the language of the people of Holland.
In Germany, Holland, and Scandinavia, it means the language of the people of Germany in _general_; and this _general_ power of the word is retained even with us in the expression High-Dutch, and Low-Dutch. In the present work the term is avoided as much as possible. Nevertheless, wherever it occurs it means the Dutch of Holland.
The origin of the word has been a subject of much investigation; the question, however, may be considered to be settled by the remarks of Grimm, D. G.--_Introduction to the third edition_.
1. It was originally no national name at all.
2. In the earliest passage where it occurs, the derivative form _thiudisk[^o]_ corresponds with the Greek word [Greek: ethnikos]--_The Moeso-Gothic Translation of the New Testament_--_Galatians_, ii. 14.
3. The derivation of the word from the substantive _thiudu_=_a people_, _a nation_, is undoubted.
4. So also is the derivation of the modern word _Dutch_, in all its varied forms:--Old High-German, _Diutisc_; Anglo-Saxon, _The['o]disc_; Latin, _Theodisca_, _Theudisca_, _Teutisca_; Italian, _Tedesco_; Danish, _Tyske_; English, _Dutch_; the latter part of the word being the adjectival ending _-isc_=_ish_. {58}
5. The original meaning being _of, or belonging to, the people_, or _of, or belonging to, the nation_, secondary meanings grew out of it.
6. Of these the most remarkable are _a_) the power given to the word in Ulphilas (_heathen_), illustrated by the similarly secondary power of the Greek [Greek: ethnikos]; _b_) the meaning _vernacular_, _provincial_ or _vulgar_ given to it as applied to language.
7. This latter power was probably given to it about the ninth century.
8. That it was not given much before, is inferred from negative evidence. The word _theotisca_ is not found in the Latin writers of the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, although there are plenty of passages where it might well have been used had it existed. The terms really used are either _patrius sermo_, _sermo barbaricus_, _sermo vulgaricus_, _lingua rustica_; or else the names of particular tribes, as _lingua Anglorum_, _Alamannorum_.
9. That it was current in the ninth century is evident from a variety of quotations:--_Ut quilibet episcopus homilias aperte transferre studeat in rusticam Romanam linguam, aut _theotiscam_, quo tandem cuncti possint intelligere quae dicantur._--Synodus Turonensis. _Quod in lingua _Thiudisca_ scaftlegi, id est armorum depositio, vocatur._--Capit. Wormatiense. _De collectis quas _Theudisca_ lingua heriszuph appellat._--Conventus Silvacensis. _Si _barbara_, quam _Teutiscam_ dicunt, lingua loqueretur._--Vita Adalhardi, &c.--D.G., i. p. 14, _Introduction_.
10. That its present national sense is wholly secondary and derivative, and that originally it was no more the name of a people or a language than the word _vulgate_ in the expression _the vulgate translation of the Scriptures_ is the name of a people or a language.
s. 100. _Teutonic._--About the tenth century the Latin writers upon German affairs began to use not only the words _Theotiscus_ and _Theotisc['e]_, but also the words _Teutonicus_ and _Teutonic['e]_. Upon this, Grimm remarks that the latter term sounded more learned; since _Teutonicus_ was a classical word, an adjective derived from the Gentile name of the Teutones conquered by Manus. Be it so. It then follows that the connexion between _Teutonicus_ and _Theotiscus_ is a mere accident, the origin {59} of the two words being different. The worthlessness of all evidence concerning the Germanic origin of the Teutonic tribes conquered by Marius, based upon the connexion between the word _Teuton_ and Dutch, has been pointed out by the present writer in the 17th number of the Philological Transactions.[10] All that is proved is this, _viz._, that out of the confusion between the two words arose a confusion between the two nations. These last may or may not have been of the same race.
s. 101. _Anglo-Saxon_--In the ninth century the language of England was _Angle_, or _English_. The _lingua Anglorum_ of Bede is translated by Alfred _on englisce_. The term _Saxon_ was in use also at an early (perhaps an equally early) date--_fures quos_ Saxonice _dicimus vergeld_ the['o]vas. The compound term _Anglo-Saxon_ is later.--Grimm, _Introduction to the third edition of_ D.G., p. 2.
s. 102. _Icelandic, Old Norse._--Although _Icelandic_ is the usual name for the mother-tongue of the Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, the Norwegian philologists generally prefer the term _Old Norse_.
In favour of this view is the fact that Norway was the mother-country, Iceland the colony, and that much of what is called Old Icelandic was composed in Norway.
Still the reason is insufficient; since the present term _Icelandic_ is given to the language not because Iceland _was_ the country that _produced_, but because it is the country that has _preserved_ it.
This leads to the argument in its most general form--should a language be named from the colony, or from the mother-country? The Norwegians say from the mother-country. Let us consider this.
Suppose that whilst the Latin of Virgil and Cicero in Italy had been changing into the modern Italian, in some old Roman colony (say Sardinia) it had remained either wholly {60} unaltered, or else, altered so little as for the modern _Sardinian_--provided he could read at all--to be able to read the authors of the Augustan age, just like those of the era of Charles Albert; no other portion of the old Roman territory--not even Rome itself--having any tongue more like to that of the Classical writers, than the most antiquated dialect of the present Italian. Suppose, too, that the term _Latin_ had become obsolete, would it be imperative upon us to call the language of the Classics _Old Italian_, _Old Roman_, or at least _Old Latin_, when no modern native of Rome, Latium, or Italy could read them? Would it be wrong to call it _Sardinian_ when every Sarde _could_ read them? I think not. _Mutatis mutandis_, this is the case with Iceland and Norway.
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