Chapter 2

Now you shall vnderstand that there is one other thing belonging to the Plough, which albe it be no member thereof, yet is it so necessary that the Husbandman which liueth in durty and stiffe clayes can neuer goe to Plough without it, and it is called the Aker-staffe, being a pretty bigge cudgell, of about a yarde in length, with an Iron spud at the end, according to this figure:

{Illustration}

This Akerstaffe the Husbandman is euer to carry within his Plough, and when at any time the Irons, shelboard, or Plough, are choaked with durt, clay, or filth, which will cling about the ould stubble, then with this Akerstaffe you shall put the same off (your Plough still going) and so kéepe her cleane and smooth that your worke may lye the handsomer; and this you must euer doe with your right hand: for the Plough choaketh euer on the shelboard side, and betwéene the Irons. And thus much touching the perfect Plough, and the members thereof.

CHAP. IIII.

_How the Husbandman shall temper his Plough, and make her fit for his worke._

A Plough is to a Husbandman like an Instrument in the hand of a Musition, which if it be out of tune can neuer make good Musicke, and so if the Plough, being out of order, if the Husbandman haue not the cunning to temper it and set it in the right way, it is impossible that euer his labour should come to good end.

It is very necessary then that euery good Husbandman know that a Plough being perfectly well made, the good order or disorder thereof consisteth in the placing of the Plough-Irons and the Plough-foote. Know then, that for the placing of the Irons, the share would be set to looke a little into the ground: and because you shall not bruise, or turne, the point thereof, you shall knocke it fast vpon the head, either with a crooked Rams-horne, or else with some piece of soft Ash woode: and you shall obserue that it stand plaine, flat, and leuell, without wrying or turning either vpward or downeward: for if it runne not euen vpon the earth it will neuer make a good furrow, onely as before I said, the point must looke a little downeward.

Now, for the coulture, you must place it slopewise through the beame, so as the point of it and the point of the share may as it were touch the ground at one instant, yet if the coulture point be a little thought the longer it shall not be amisse: yet for a more certaine direction and to try whether your Irons stand true I or no, you shall take a string, and measure from the mortisse-hole through which the coulture passeth, to the point of the coulture, and so kéeping your vpper hand constant lay the same length to the of point your share, and if one measure serue them both right, there being no difference betwéene them, then the Irons stand true for their length, otherwise they stand false.

Now your coulture albe it stand true for the length, yet it may stand either too much to the land, or too much from the land, either of which is a great errour, and will kéepe the Plough from going true: your coulture therefore shall haue certaine wedges of ould dry Ash woode, that is to say, one before the coulture on the vpper side the beame, and another on the land side, or left side, the coulture on the vpper side the beame also; then you shall haue another wedge behinde the coulture vnderneath the beame, and one on the furrow side, or right side, the beame vnderneath also. Now, if your coulture haue too much land, then you shall driue in your vpper side wedge and ease the contrary: if it haue too little land, then you shall contrarily driue in your right side vnder wedge and ease the other: If your coulture stand too forward, then you shall driue in your vpper wedge which standeth before the coulture; and if it stand too backward and too néere your share, then you shall driue in your vnder wedge which standeth behinde the coulture: if your coulture standeth awry any way, then are either your side wedges too small, or else not euen and plaine cut, which faults you must amend, and then all will be perfect. Now, when your Irons are iust and truely placed, then you shall driue in euery wedge hard and firme, that no shaking or other straine may loosen them: as for the Plough foote it also must haue a wedge or two, which when your Plough goeth right and to your contentment (for the foote will kéepe it from sinking or rising) then you shall also driue them in hard, that the foote may not stirre from the true place where you did set it. And that these things when a man commeth into the field may not be to séeke, it is the office of euery good Husbandman neuer to goe forth with his Plough but to haue his Hatchet in a socket, fixt to his Plough beame, and a good piece of hard wedge woode, in case any of your wedges should shake out and be lost.

{SN: Of holding the Plough.} When your Plough is thus ordered and tempered in good manner, and made fit for her worke, it then resteth that you know the skill and aduantages in holding thereof, which indéed are rules of much diuersitie, for if it be a stiffe, blacke clay which you Plow, then can you not Plow too déepe, nor make your furrowes too bigge: if it be a rich hassell ground, and not much binding, then reasonable furrowes, laid closse, are the best: but if it be any binding, stony, or sandy ground, then you cannot make your furrowes too small. As touching the gouerning of your Plough, if you sée shée taketh too much land, then you shall writh your left hand a little to the left side and raise your Plough rest somewhat from the ground: if shée taketh too little earth, then you shall raise vp your left hand, and carry your Plough as in a direct line: If your Plough-Irons forbeare and will not bite on the earth at all, then it is a signe that you hang too heauy on the Plough hales, raising the head of the Plough from the ground, which errour you must amend, and of the two rather raise it vp behind then before, but to doe neither is best, for the Plough hale is a thing for the hand to gouerne, and not to make a leaning stocke of: And thus much touching the tempring of the Plough and making her fit for worke.

CHAP. V.

_The manner of Plowing the rich, stiffe, blacke Clay, his Earings, Plough, and other Instruments._

Of all soyles in this our kingdome there is none so rich and fruitfull, if it be well handled and Husbanded, as is that which we call the stiffe, blacke, Clay, and indeed is more blacker to looke on then any other soyle, yet some times it will turne vp very blewish, with many white vaines in it, which is a very speciall note to know his fruitfulnesse; for that blewish earth mixt with white is nothing else but very rich Marle, an earth that in Cheshire, Lanckashire, and many other countries, serueth to Manure and make fat their barrainest land in such sort that it will beare Corne seauen yeeres together. This blacke clay as it is the best soyle, well Husbanded, so it is of all soyles the worst if it be ill Husbanded: for if it loose but one ardor, or seasenable Plowing, it will not be recouered in foure yéeres after, but will naturally of it selfe put forth wilde Oates, Thistels, and all manner of offensiue wéedes, as Cockle, Darnell, and such like: his labour is strong, heauy, and sore, vnto the cattell that tilleth it, but to the Husbandman is more easie then any other soyle, for this asketh but foure times Plowing ouer at the most, where diuers other soyles aske fiue times, and sixe times, as shalbe shewed hereafter. But to come to the Plowing of this soyle, I hold it méete to beginne with the beginning of the yéere, which with Husbandmen is at Plow-day, being euer the first Munday after the Twelft-day, at which time you shall goe forth with your draught, & begin to plow your Pease-earth, that is, the earth where you meane to sow your Pease, or Beanes: for I must giue you to vnderstand, that these Clayes are euer more naturall for Beanes then Pease, not but that they will beare both alike, only the Husbandman imployeth them more for Beanes, because pease & fitches wil grow vpon euery soyle, but Beanes wil grow no where but on the clayes onely. This Pease-earth is euer where barley grew the yéere before, & hath the stubble yet remayning thereon. You shal plow this Pease-earth euer vpward, that is, you shall beginne on the ridge of the land, & turne all your furrowes vp, one against another, except your lands lye too high (which seldome can be séene) and then you shall begin at the furrow, & cast downe your land.

Now, when you haue plowed all your Pease-ground, you shall let it so lye, till it haue receiued diuers Frosts, some Raine, and then a fayre season, which betwixt plow-day and Saint _Valentines_ day you shalbe sure to inioy: and this is called, _The letting of Land lye to baite_: for without this rest, and these seasons, it is impossible to make these Clayes harrow, or yéelde any good mould at all. After your Land hath receiued his kindely baite, then you shall cast in your séede, of Beanes, or Pease: but in my conceit, an equall mixture of them is the best séede of all, for if the one faile, the other will be sure to hit: and when your land is sowne you shall harrow it with a harrow that hath woodden téeth.

The next Ardor after this, is the sowing of your Barley in your fallow field: the next is the fallowing of your ground for Barley the next yéere: the next Ardor is the Summer-stirring of that which you fallowed: the next is the foyling of that which you Summer-stirde: and the last is the Winter rigging of that which you foil'd: of all which Ardors, and the manner of Plowing them, with their seasons, I haue written sufficiently in the first Chapter of the next part; where I speake of simple earths vncompounded.

Now whereas I told you before that these clayes were heauy worke for your Cattell, it is necessary that I shew you how to ease them, and which way they may draw to their most aduantage, which onely is by drawing in beare-geares, an inuention the skilfull Husbandman hath found out, wherein foure horses shall draw as much as sixe, and sixe as eight, being geard in any other contrary fashion. Now because the name onely bettereth not your knowledge, you shall heare behould the figure and manner thereof.

{Illustration}

Now you shall vnderstand the vse of this Figure by the figures therein contayned, that is to say, the figure

(1) presenteth the plough-cleuisse, which being ioyned to the plough-beame, extendeth, with a chaine, vnto the first Toastrée: and touching this Cleuisse, you shall vnderstand, that it must be made with thrée nickes in the midst thereof, that if the Plough haue too much land giuen it in the making, that is, if it turne vp too much land, then the chaine shall be put in the outwardmost nicke to the land side, that is, the nicke towards your right hand: but if it take too little land, then it shall be put in the nicke next the furrow, that is, towards the right hand: but if it goe euen and well, then you shall kéepe it in the middle nicke, which is the iust guide of true proportion. And thus this Cleuisse is a helpe for the euill making or going of a plough.

(2) Is the hind-most Toastrée, that is, a broad piece of Ash woode, thrée inches broad, which going crosse the chaine, hath the Swingletrées fastned vnto it, by which the horses draw. Now you shall vnderstand that in this Toastrée is great helpe and aduantage: for if the two horses which draw one against the other, be not of equall strength, but that the one doth ouer-draw the other, then you shall cause that end of the Toastrée by which the weaker horse drawes, to be longer from the chaine then the other, by at least halfe a foote, and that shall giue the weaker horse such an aduantage, that his strength shall counterpoyse with the stronger horse. Now there be some especiall Husbandmen that finding this disaduantage in the Toastrée, and that by the vncertaine shortening, and lenthening of the Toastrée, they haue sometimes more disaduantaged the strong horse, then giuen helpe to the weake, therefore they haue inuented another Toastrée, with a double chaine, and a round ring, which is of that excellent perfection in draught, that if a Foale draw against an olde horse, yet the Foale shall draw no more then the abilitie of his owne strength, each taking his worke by himselfe, as if they drew by single chaines. Now because this Toastrée is such a notable Implement both in Plough, Cart, or Waine, and so worthy to be imitated of all good husbands, I thinke it not amisse to shew you the figure thereof.

{Illustration: The Toastree with double chaines.}

(3) The Swingletrées, being pieces of Ash wood cut in proportion afore-shewed, to which the Treates, by which the horses draw, are fastned with strong loopes.

(4) The Treates by which the horses draw, being strong cords made of the best Hempe.

(5) The place betwéene the Treats, where the horses must stand.

(6) The Hames, which girt the Collers about, to which the other end of the Treats are fastned, being compassed pieces of wood, eyther cleane Ash, or cleane Oake.

(7) The round Withes of wood, or broad thongs of leather, to put about the horses necke, to beare the maine chayne from the ground, that it trouble not the horses in their going.

(8) The Single-linckes of Iron, which ioyne the Swingle-trées vnto the Toastrées.

(9) The Belly-bands, which passe vnder the belly of the horse, and are made fast to both sides of the Treates, kéeping them downe, that when the horse drawes, his coller may not choake him: being made of good small line or coard.

(10) The Backe-bands, which going ouer the horses backe, and being made fast to both sides of the Treates, doe hold them, so as when the horses turne, the Treates doe not fall vnder their féete.

{SN: How many beasts in a plough.} Thus I haue giuen you the perfect portraiture of a well yoakt Plough, together with his Implements, and the vse of them, being the best which hath yet béene found out by any of our skilfullest English Husbandmen, whose practise hath béene vpon these déepe, stiffe, blacke clayes. Now you shall vnderstand, that for the number of Cattell to be vsed in these ploughes, that in fallowing your land, and plowing your Pease-earth, eight good Cattell are the best number, as being the strongest, and within the compasse of gouernment, whereas more were but troublesome, and in all your other Ardors, sixe good beasts are sufficient, yet if it be so, that eyther want of abilitie, or other necessity vrge, you shall know that sixe beasts will suffice eyther to fallow, or to plow Pease-earth, and foure beasts for euery other Ardor or earing: and lesse then this number is most insufficient, as appeares by daily experience, when poore men kill their Cattell onely by putting them to ouer-much labour. And thus much touching the plowing of the blacke clay.

CHAP. VI.

_The manner of plowing the white or gray Clay, his Earings, Plough, and Instruments._

Now as touching the white or gray clay, you shall vnderstand that it is of diuers and sundry natures, altering according to his tempers of wet or drynesse: the wet being more tough, and the dry more brittle: his mixture and other characters I haue shewed in a former Chapter, wherefore for his manner of plowing (obseruing my first methode, which is to beginne with the beginning of the yéere, I meane at Christmas) it is thus:

{SN: Of sowing of Pease and Beanes.} If you finde that any of this white or gray clay, lying wet, haue lesse mixture of stone or chaulke in it, and so consequently be more tough, as it doth many times fall out, and that vpon such land, that yéere, you are to sow your Pease and Beanes: for as in the former blacke clay, so in this gray clay you shall begin with your Pease-earth euer: then immediately after Plow-day, you shall plow vp such ground as you finde so tough, in the selfe-same manner as you did plow the blacke clay, and so let it lye to baite till the frost haue seasoned it, and then sow it accordingly. But if you haue no such tough land, but that it holdes it owne proper nature, being so mixt with small stones and chaulke, that it will breake in reasonable manner, then you shall stay till the latter end of Ianuary, at what time, if the weather be seasonable, and inclining to drynesse, you shall beginne to plow your Pease-earth, in this manner: First, you shall cause your séedes-man to sow the land with single casts, as was shewed vpon the blacke clay, with this caution, that the greater your séede is, (that is, the more Beanes you sow) the greater must be your quantitie: and being sowne, you shall bring your plough, and beginning at the furrow of the land, you shall plow euery furrow downeward vpon the Pease and Beanes: which is called sowing of Pease vnder furrow: and in this manner you shall sow all your Pease and Beanes, which is cleane contrary to your blacke clay. Besides, whereas vpon the stiffe clay it is conuenient to take as large furrowes as you please, vpon this kinde of gray clay you shall take as small furrowes as is possible. Now the reason for this manner of plowing your Pease-earth, is, because it is a light kinde of breaking earth, so that should it be sowne according to the stiffe blacke clay, it would neuer couer your Pease, but leaue them bare, both to be destroyed by the Fowles of the ayre, and the bitternesse of the weather. As soone as your Pease and Beanes are risen a fingers length aboue the earth, then if you finde that any of your lands doe lye very rough, and that the clods be great, it shall not be amisse, to take a payre of woodden Harrowes, and harrow ouer all your rough lands, the benefit whereof is this, that it will both breake the hard clots, and so giue those Pease leaue to sprout through the earth, which before lay bound in and drowned, and also lay your lands smooth and cleane, that the Mowers when they come to mowe your Pease and Beanes, shall haue better worke, and mowe them with more ease, and much better to the owners profit. For you must vnderstand that where you sow Beanes, there it is euer more profit to mowe them with Sythes, then to reape them with Hookes, and much sooner, and with lesse charge performed. The limitation of time for this Ardor of earing, is from the latter end of Ianuary vntill the beginning of March, not forgetting this rule, that to sow your Pease and Beanes in a shower, so it be no beating raine is most profitable: because they, as Wheat, take delight in a fresh and a moyst mould.

{SN: Of sowing of Barley.} After the beginning of March, you shall beginne to sow your Barley vpon that ground which the yéere before did lye fallow, and is commonly called your tilth, or fallow field: and if any part of it consist of stiffe and tough ground, then you shall, vpon such ground, sow your Barley vnder furrow, in such manner and fashion as I described vnto you for the sowing of your stiffe blacke clay: but if it be (as for the most part these gray and white clayes are) of a much lighter, and as it were, fussie temper, then you shall first plow your land vpward, cleane and well, without baukes or stiches: and hauing so plowed it, you shall then sow it with Barley, that is to say, with double casts, I meane, bestowing twise so many casts of Barley, as you would doe if you were to sow it with Pease. And as soone as you haue sowne your Barley, you shall take a payre of woodden Harrowes, and harrow it as small as is possible: and this is called sowing aboue furrow.

{SN: Of sowing Oates.} Now if you haue any land, which eyther through the badnesse of the soyle, or for want of manure, is more barrayne, and hard to bring forth then generally the rest of your land is, then you shall not bestow Barley thereupon, but sow it with Oates, in such manner and fashion as is appointed for the sowing of Pease, that is to say, if it be stiffe ground you shall sow it aboue furrow, if it be light ground, then you shall sow it vnder furrow, knowing this for a rule, that the barraynest ground will euer beare indifferent Oates, but if the ground haue any small hart, then it will beare Oates in great abundance: neither néede you to be very precise for the oft plowing of your ground before you sow your Oates, because Oates will grow very well if they be sowne vpon reasonable ground, at the first plowing: whence it comes to passe that many Husbandmen doe oft sow their Oates where they should sow their Pease, and in the same manner as they doe sow their Pease, and it is held for a rule of good husbandry also: because if the ground be held any thing casuall for Pease, it is better to haue good Oates then naughty Pease: besides, your Oates are both a necessary graine in the house, as for Oate-meale, for the pot, for Puddings, and such like, and also for the stable, for Prouender, and the féeding of all manner of Poultry. The time for sowing of your Barley and Oates, is from from the first of March till the first of Aprill, obseruing euer to sow your Oates first, and your Barley after, for it being onely a Summer graine, would participate as little as may be with any part of the Winter.

{SN: Of Fallowing.} {SN: Of sleighting Barley.} About the middest of Aprill you shall beginne to fallow that part of your ground, which you entend shall take rest that yéere, and so become your fallow or tilth-field. And in fallowing this gray or white clay, you shall obserue all those rules and ceremonies, which are formerly described for the fallowing of the stiffe blacke clay, knowing that there is in this worke no difference betwéene the blacke clay, and the gray clay, but both to be plowed after one manner, that is to say, to haue all the furrowes cast downeward, and the ridges of the lands laid largely open, and of a good depth, onely the furrowes which you turne vpon this gray clay must be much smaller and lesse then those which you turne vpon your stiffe blacke clay, because this earth is more naturally inclined to binde and cleaue together then that of the blacke clay. The time for fallowing of this ground, is from the middest of Aprill vntill the middest of May: at what time you shall perceiue your Barley to appeare aboue the ground, so that then you shall beginne to sleight and smooth it: but not with backe Harrowes, as was described for the blacke clay, because this gray clay being not so fat and rich, but more inclined to fastnesse and hardnesse, therefore it will not sunder and breake so easily as the other: wherefore when you will smooth or sleight this ground, you shall take a round piece of wood, being in compasse about at least thirty inches, and in length sixe foote, hauing at each end a strong pinne of Iron, to which making fast two small poales, by which the horse shall draw, yet in such sort that the round piece of wood may roule and turne about as the horse drawes it: and with this you shall roule ouer all your Barley, and by the waight of the round piece of wood bruise and breake all the hard clots asunder. This is called amongst Husbandmen a Rouler, and is for this purpose of sleighting and smoothing of grounds of great vse and profit. Now you shall vnderstand that you must not at any time sleight or smooth your Corne, but after a shower of Raine, for if the mould be not a little moistned the rouler will not haue power to breake it.

Now for as much as this rouler is of so good vse and yet not generally vsed in this kingdome, I thinke it not amisse to shew you the figure thereof.

{Illustration: The great Rouler.}