Part 3

The Friar confesses that it was he who married them.

Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare Rule 15).

In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid intercalating such expressions as "he said," "he stated," "the speaker added," "the speaker then went on to say," "the author also thinks," or the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification.

In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words. But in the criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; he may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works, he will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing general conclusions.

18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.

The proper place in the sentence for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end.

Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways.

Humanity, since that time, has advanced in many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.

This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness.

Because of its hardness, this steel is principally used in making razors.

The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the _new_ element in the sentence, as it is in the second example.

The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which it gives to the main statement.

Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.

With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.

The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, may become emphatic when placed first.

Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.

So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature.

A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence,

Great kings worshipped at his shrine,

the emphasis upon _kings_ arises largely from its meaning and from the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate.

Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.

The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.

IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM

=Headings.= Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first line.

=Numerals.= Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate.

August 9, 1918 (9 August 1918)

Rule 3

Chapter XII

352nd Infantry

=Parentheses.= A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent. The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.

I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he had left town.

He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now certain of success.

(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)

=Quotations.= Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.

The provision of the Constitution is: "No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state."

Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.

I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, "Gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come."

Aristotle says, "Art is an imitation of nature."

Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh line and centered, but need not be enclosed in quotation marks.

Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:

Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, But to be young was very heaven!

Quotations introduced by _that_ are regarded as in indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks.

Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.

Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require no quotation marks.

These are the times that try men's souls.

He lives far from the madding crowd.

The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.

=References.= In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit the words _act_, _scene_, _line_, _book_, _volume_, _page_, except when referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.

In the second scene of the third act

In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii in parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence)

After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii. 14).

_2 Samuel_ i:17-27

_Othello_ II.iii. 264-267, III.iii. 155-161.

=Syllabication.= If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless this involves cutting off only a single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down. The principles most frequently applicable are:

(a) Divide the word according to its formation:

know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere);

(b) Divide "on the vowel:"

edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions allowable); deco-rative; presi-dent;

(c) Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the simple form of the word:

Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.

(d) Do not divide before final _-ed_ if the _e_ is silent:

treat-ed (but not roam-ed or nam-ed).

The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples:

for-tune; pic-ture; sin-gle; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.

The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book.

=Titles.= For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial _A_ or _The_ from titles when you place the possessive before them.

The _Iliad_; the _Odyssey_; _As You Like It_; _To a Skylark_; _The Newcomes_; _A Tale of Two Cities_; Dickens's _Tale of Two Cities_.

V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED

(Some of the forms here listed, as _like I did_, are downright bad English; others, as the split infinitive, have their defenders, but are in such general disfavor that it is at least inadvisable to use them; still others, as _case_, _factor_, _feature_, _interesting_, _one of the most_, are good in their place, but are constantly obtruding themselves into places where they have no right to be. If the writer will make it his purpose from the beginning to express accurately his own individual thought, and will refuse to be satisfied with a ready-made formula that saves him the trouble of doing so, this last set of expressions will cause him little trouble. But if he finds that in a moment of inadvertence he has used one of them, his proper course will probably be not to patch up the sentence by substituting one word or set of words for another, but to recast it completely, as illustrated in a number of examples below and in others under Rules 12 and 13.)

=All right.= Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense, "Agreed," or "Go ahead." In other uses better avoided. Always written as two words.

=As good or better than.= Expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentence.

My opinion is as good or better than his.

My opinion is as good as his, or better (if not better).

=As to whether.= _Whether_ is sufficient; see under Rule 13.

=Bid.= Takes the infinitive without _to_. The past tense in the sense, "ordered," is _bade_.

=But.= Unnecessary after _doubt_ and _help_.

I have no doubt but that

I have no doubt that

He could not help see but that

He could not help seeing that

The too frequent use of _but_ as a conjunction leads to the fault discussed under Rule 14. A loose sentence formed with _but_ can always be converted into a periodic sentence formed with _although_, as illustrated under Rule 4.

Particularly awkward is the following of one _but_ by another, making a contrast to a contrast or a reservation to a reservation. This is easily corrected by re-arrangement.

America had vast resources, but she seemed almost wholly unprepared for war. But within a year she had created an army of four million men.

America seemed almost wholly unprepared for war, but she had vast resources. Within a year she had created an army of four million men.

=Can.= Means _am (is, are) able_. Not to be used as a substitute for _may_.

=Case.= The _Concise Oxford Dictionary_ begins its definition of this word: "instance of a thing's occurring; usual state of affairs." In these two senses, the word is usually unnecessary.

In many cases, the rooms were poorly ventilated.

Many of the rooms were poorly ventilated.

It has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made.

Few mistakes have been made.

See Wood, _Suggestions to Authors_, pp. 68-71, and Quiller-Couch, _The Art of Writing_, pp. 103-106.

=Certainly.= Used indiscriminately by some writers, much as others use _very_, to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing.

=Character.= Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness.

Acts of a hostile character

Hostile acts

=Claim, vb.= With object-noun, means _lay claim to_. May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved: "He claimed that he was the sole surviving heir." (But even here, "claimed to be" would be better.) Not to be used as a substitute for _declare_, _maintain_, or _charge_.

=Clever.= This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters.

=Compare.= To _compare to_ is to point out or imply resemblances, between objects regarded as essentially of different order; to _compare with_ is mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London.

=Consider.= Not followed by _as_ when it means "believe to be." "I consider him thoroughly competent." Compare, "The lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator," where "considered" means "examined" or "discussed."

=Data.= A plural, like _phenomena_ and _strata_.

These data were tabulated.

=Dependable.= A needless substitute for _reliable_, _trustworthy_.

=Different than.= Not permissible. Substitute _different from_, _other than_, or _unlike_.

=Divided into.= Not to be misused for _composed of_. The line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas.

=Don't.= Contraction of _do not_. The contraction of _does not_ is _doesn't_.

=Due to.= Incorrectly used for _through_, _because of_, or _owing to_, in adverbial phrases: "He lost the first game, due to carelessness." In correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun: "This invention is due to Edison;" "losses due to preventable fires."

=Folk.= A collective noun, equivalent to _people_. Use the singular form only.

=Effect.= As noun, means _result_; as verb, means _to bring about_, _accomplish_ (not to be confused with _affect_, which means "to influence").

As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: "an Oriental effect;" "effects in pale green;" "very delicate effects;" "broad effects;" "subtle effects;" "a charming effect was produced by." The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.

=Etc.= Equivalent to _and the rest_, _and so forth_, and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation.

At the end of a list introduced by _such as_, _for example_, or any similar expression, _etc._ is incorrect.

=Fact.= Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however incontestable they may be, are not properly facts.

On the formula _the fact that_, see under Rule 13.

=Factor.= A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.

His superior training was the great factor in his winning the match.

He won the match by being better trained.

Heavy artillery has become an increasingly important factor in deciding battles.

Heavy artillery has played a constantly larger part in deciding battles.

=Feature.= Another hackneyed word; like _factor_ it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs.

A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Miss A.

(Better use the same number of words to tell what Miss A. sang, or if the programme has already been given, to tell how she sang.)

As a verb, in the advertising sense of _offer as a special attraction_, to be avoided.

=Fix.= Colloquial in America for _arrange_, _prepare_, _mend_. In writing restrict it to its literary senses, _fasten_, _make firm or immovable_, etc.

=Get.= The colloquial _have got_ for _have_ should not be used in writing. The preferable form of the participle is _got_.

=He is a man who.= A common type of redundant expression; see Rule 13.

He is a man who is very ambitious.

He is very ambitious.

Spain is a country which I have always wanted to visit.

I have always wanted to visit Spain.

=Help.= See under =But=.

=However.= In the meaning _nevertheless_, not to come first in its sentence or clause.

The roads were almost impassable. However, we at last succeeded in reaching camp.

The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reaching camp.

When _however_ comes first, it means _in whatever way_ or _to whatever extent_.

However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.

However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.

=Interesting.= Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of introduction. Instead of announcing that what you are about to tell is interesting, make it so.

An interesting story is told of

(Tell the story without preamble.)

In connection with the anticipated visit of Mr. B. to America, it is interesting to recall that he

Mr. B., who it is expected will soon visit America

=Kind of.= Not to be used as a substitute for _rather_ (before adjectives and verbs), or except in familiar style, for _something like_ (before nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: "Amber is a kind of fossil resin;" "I dislike that kind of notoriety." The same holds true of _sort of_.

=Less.= Should not be misused for _fewer_.

He had less men than in the previous campaign

He had fewer men than in the previous campaign

_Less_ refers to quantity, _fewer_ to number. "His troubles are less than mine" means "His troubles are not so great as mine." "His troubles are fewer than mine" means "His troubles are not so numerous as mine." It is, however, correct to say, "The signers of the petition were less than a hundred," where the round number _a hundred_ is something like a collective noun, and _less_ is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount.

=Like.= Not to be misused for _as_. _Like_ governs nouns and pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is _as_.

We spent the evening like in the old days.

We spent the evening as in the old days.

He thought like I did.

He thought as I did (like me).

=Line, along these lines.= _Line_ in the sense of _course of procedure_, _conduct_, _thought_, is allowable, but has been so much overworked, particularly in the phrase _along these lines_, that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.

Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines.

Mr. B. also spoke, to the same effect.

He is studying along the line of French literature.

He is studying French literature.

=Literal, literally.= Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor.

A literal flood of abuse.

A flood of abuse.

Literally dead with fatigue

Almost dead with fatigue (dead tired)

=Lose out.= Meant to be more emphatic than _lose_, but actually less so, because of its commonness. The same holds true of _try out_, _win out_, _sign up_, _register up_. With a number of verbs, _out_ and _up_ form idiomatic combinations: _find out_, _run out_, _turn out_, _cheer up_, _dry up_, _make up_, and others, each distinguishable in meaning from the simple verb. _Lose out_ is not.

=Most.= Not to be used for _almost_.

Most everybody

Almost everybody

Most all the time

Almost all the time

=Nature.= Often simply redundant, used like _character_.

Acts of a hostile nature

Hostile acts

Often vaguely used in such expressions as a "lover of nature;" "poems about nature." Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.

=Near by.= Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English, though the analogy of _close by_ and _hard by_ seems to justify it. _Near_, or _near at hand_, is as good, if not better.

Not to be used as an adjective; use _neighboring_.

=Oftentimes, ofttimes.= Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The modern word is _often_.

=One hundred and one.= Retain the _and_ in this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English times.

=One of the most.= Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula, as, "One of the most interesting developments of modern science is, etc.;" "Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of Europe." There is nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble.

A common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative clause following this or a similar expression, when the relative is the subject.

One of the ablest men that has attacked this problem.

One of the ablest men that have attacked this problem.

=Participle for verbal noun.=

Do you mind me asking a question?

Do you mind my asking a question?

There was little prospect of the Senate accepting even this compromise.

There was little prospect of the Senate's accepting even this compromise.

In the left-hand column, _asking_ and _accepting_ are present participles; in the right-hand column, they are verbal nouns (gerunds). The construction shown in the left-hand column is occasionally found, and has its defenders. Yet it is easy to see that the second sentence has to do not with a prospect of the Senate, but with a prospect of accepting. In this example, at least, the construction is plainly illogical.

As the authors of _The King's English_ point out, there are sentences apparently, but not really, of this type, in which the possessive is not called for.

I cannot imagine Lincoln refusing his assent to this measure.

In this sentence, what the writer cannot imagine is Lincoln himself, in the act of refusing his assent. Yet the meaning would be virtually the same, except for a slight loss of vividness, if he had written,

I cannot imagine Lincoln's refusing his assent to this measure.

By using the possessive, the writer will always be on the safe side.

In the examples above, the subject of the action is a single, unmodified term, immediately preceding the verbal noun, and the construction is as good as any that could be used. But in any sentence in which it is a mere clumsy substitute for something simpler, or in which the use of the possessive is awkward or impossible, should of course be recast.

In the event of a reconsideration of the whole matter's becoming necessary

If it should become necessary to reconsider the whole matter

There was great dissatisfaction with the decision of the arbitrators being favorable to the company.

There was great dissatisfaction that the arbitrators should have decided in favor of the company.

=People.= _The people_ is a political term, not to be confused with _the public_. From the people comes political support or opposition; from the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage.

=Phase.= Means a stage of transition or development: "the phases of the moon;" "the last phase." Not to be used for _aspect_ or _topic_.

Another phase of the subject

Another point (another question)

=Possess.= Not to be used as a mere substitute for _have_ or _own_.

He possessed great courage.

He had great courage (was very brave).

He was the fortunate possessor of

He owned

=Prove.= The past participle is _proved_.

=Respective, respectively.= These words may usually be omitted with advantage.

Works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors.

Works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors.

The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings respectively.