CHAPTER II.

TABLES OF ANALYSIS.

ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF CROPS.

No. I.

+---------+-----------+---------+-------- | Wheat. | Wheat | Rye. | Rye | | Straw. | | Straw. ------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+-------- Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 20 | 60 | 24 | 40 ------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+-------- Silica (_sand_) | 16 | 654 | 5 | 645 Lime | 28 | 67 | 50 | 91 Magnesia | 120 | 33 | 104 | 24 Peroxide of Iron | 7 | 13 | 14 | 14 Potash | 237 | 124 | 221 | 174 Soda | 91 | 2 | 116 | 3 Chlorine | | 11 | | 5 Sulphuric Acid | 3 | 58 | 10 | 8 Phosphoric Acid | 498 | 31 | 496 | 38 ------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------

No. II.

+---------+-----------+---------+--------- | Corn. | Corn | Barley. | Barley | | Stalks. | | Straw. ------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------- Ashes in 1000 dry parts. | 15 | 44 | 28 | 61 ------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------- Silica (_sand_) | 15 | 270 | 271 | 706 Lime | 15 | 86 | 26 | 95 Magnesia | 162 | 66 | 75 | 32 Peroxide of Iron | 3 | 8 | 15 | 7 Oxide of Manganese | | | | 1 Potash | 261 | 96 | 136 | 62 Soda | 63 | 277 | 81 | 6 Chlorine | 2 | 20 | 1 | 10 Sulphuric Acid | 23 | 5 | 1 | 16 Phosphoric Acid | 449 | 171 | 389 | 31 ------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+---------

No. III.

+-----------+--------+--------+---------- | Oats. | Oat | Buck | Potatoes. | | Straw. | Wheat. | ------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+---------- Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 20 | 51 | 21 | 90 ------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+---------- Silica (_sand_) | 7 | 484 | 7 | 42 Lime | 60 | 81 | 67 | 21 Magnesia | 99 | 38 | 104 | 53 Peroxide of Iron | 4 | 18 | 11 | 5 Potash | {262} | 191 | 87 | 557 Soda | { } | 97 | 201 | 19 Chlorine | 3 | 32 | | 43 Sulphuric Acid | 104 | 33 | 22 | 137 Phosphoric Acid | 438 | 27 | 500 | 126 Organic Matter | | | | 750 | | | | Water. ------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+---------

No. IV.

+---------+--------+----------+-------- | Peas. | Beans. | Turnips. | Turnip | | | | Tops. ------------------------+---------+--------+----------+-------- Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 25 | 27 | 76 | 170 ------------------------+---------+--------+----------+-------- Silica (_sand_) | 5 | 12 | 71 | 8 Lime | 53 | 58 | 128 | 233 Magnesia | 85 | 80 | 48 | 31 Peroxide of Iron | 10 | 6 | 9 | 8 Potash | 361 | 336 | 398 | 286 Soda | 91 | 106 | 108 | 54 Chlorine | 23 | 7 | 37 | 160 Sulphuric Acid | 44 | 10 | 131 | 125 Phosphoric Acid | 333 | 378 | 67 | 93 Organic Matter | | |870 Water.| ------------------------+---------+--------+----------+--------

No. V.

+--------+----------+--------+---------- | Flax. | Linseed. | Meadow | Red | | | Hay. | Clover. --------------------------+--------+----------+--------+---------- Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 50 | 46 | 60 | 75 --------------------------+--------+----------+--------+---------- Silica (_sand_) | 257 | 75 | 344 | 48 Alumina (_clay_) | 37? | | | Lime | 148 | 83 | 196 | 371 Magnesia | 44 | 146 | 78 | 46 Peroxide of Iron | 36? | 9 | 7 | 2 Potash | 117 | 240 | 236 | 267 Soda | 118 | 45 | 19 | 71 Chlorine | 29 | 2 | 28 | 48 Sulphuric Acid | 32 | 23 | 29 | 60 Phosphoric Acid | 130 | 365 | 58 | 88 --------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------

No. VI.

Amount of Inorganic Matter removed from the soil by ten bushels of grains, etc., and by the straw, etc., required in their production--estimated in pounds:

+--------+-----------+----------+---------- | | 1200 lbs. | | 1620 lbs. | Wheat. | Wheat | Rye. | Rye | | Straw. | | Straw. -------------------+--------+-----------+----------+---------- Potash | 2.86 | 8.97 | 2.51 | 11.34 Soda | 1.04 | .12 | 1.33 | .20 Lime | .34 | 4.84 | .56 | 5.91 Magnesia | 1.46 | 2.76 | 1.18 | 1.58 Oxide of Iron | .08 | .94 | .15 | .88 Sulphuric Acid | .03 | 4.20 | .11 | .05 Phosphoric Acid | 6.01 | 2.22 | 5.64 | 2.49 Chlorine | | .79 | | .30 Silica | .14 | 47.16 | .05 | 42.25 -------------------+--------+-----------+----------+---------- Pounds carried off | 12 | 72 | 11½ | 66 -------------------+--------+-----------+----------+----------

No. VII.

+-------+----------+-------+---------- | | 1620 lbs.| | 700 lbs. | Corn. | Corn | Oats. | Oat | | Stalks. | | Straw. -------------------+-------+----------+-------+---------- Potash | 2.78 | 6.84 | 1.69 | 12.08 Soda | | 19.83 | | Lime | .12 | 6.02 | .39 | 3.39 Magnesia | 1.52 | 4.74 | .64 | 1.59 Oxide of Iron | | .57 | .02 | .78 Sulphuric Acid | | .36 | .66 | 1.41 Phosphoric Acid | 4.52 | 12.15 | 2.80 | 1.07 Chlorine | | 1.33 | .02 | 1.36 Silica | .06 | 19.16 | .18 | 20.32 -------------------+-------+----------+-------+---------- Pounds carried off | 9 | 71 | 6½ | 42 -------------------+-------+----------+-------+----------

No. VIII.

+--------+---------+----------+---------- | Buck | | 660 lbs. | 2000 lbs. | Wheat. | Barley. | Barley | Flax. | | | Straw. | -------------------+--------+---------+----------+---------- Potash | 1.01 | 1.90 | 2.57 | 11.78 Soda | 2.13 | 1.18 | .23 | 11.82 Lime | .78 | .96 | 3.88 | 11.85 Magnesia | 1.20 | 1.00 | 1.31 | 9.38 Oxide of Iron | .14 | .20 | .90 | 7.32 Sulphuric Acid | .25 | .01 | .66 | 3.19 Phosphoric Acid | 5.40 | 5.35 | 1.25 | 13.05 Chlorine | | .01 | .40 | 2.90 Silica | .09 | 3.90 | 28.80 | 25.71 -------------------+--------+---------+----------+---------- Pounds carried off | 11 | 14 | 40 | 100 -------------------+--------+---------+----------+----------

No. IX.

+----------+----------+----------+--------- | | 1120 lbs.| |1366 lbs. | Beans. | Bean | Field | Pea | | Straw. | Peas. | Straw. --------------------+----------+----------+----------+--------- Potash | 5.54 | 36.28 | 5.90 | 3.78 Soda | 1.83 | 1.09 | 1.40 | Lime | 98.98 | 13.60 | .81 | 43.93 Magnesia | .28 | 4.55 | 1.30 | 5.50 Oxide of Iron | .10 | .20 | .15 | 1.40 Sulphuric Acid | .16 | .64 | .64 | 5.43 Phosphoric Acid | 7.80 | 5.00 | 5.50 | 3.86 Chlorine | .13 | 1.74 | .23 | .08 Silica | .18 | 4.90 | .7 | 16.02 --------------------+----------+----------+----------+--------- Pounds carried off | 17 | 68 | 16 | 80 --------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------

No. X.

+------------+----------+-------------+----------- | | 635 lbs. | | 2000 lbs. | 1 Ton | Turnip | 1 Ton | Red | Turnips. | Tops. | Potatoes. | Clover. --------------------+------------+----------+-------------+----------- Potash | 7.14 | 4.34 | 27.82 | 31.41 Soda | .86 | .84 | .93 | 8.34 Lime | 2.31 | 3.61 | 1.03 | 43.77 Magnesia | .91 | .48 | 2.63 | 5.25 Oxide of Iron | .23 | .13 | .26 | .23 Sulphuric Acid | 2.30 | 1.81 | 6.81 | 7.05 Phosphoric Acid | 1.29 | 1.31 | 6.25 | 10.28 Chlorine | .61 | 2.35 | 2.13 | 5.86 Silica | 1.36 | .13 | 2.14 | 5.81 --------------------+------------+----------+-------------+----------- Pounds carried off | 17 | 15 | 50 | 118 --------------------+------------+----------+-------------+-----------

No. XI.

+----------+----------- | 2000 lbs.| 2000 lbs. | Meadow | Cabbage | Hay. | Water 9-10 ----------------------------------+----------+----------- Potash | 18.11 | 5.25 Soda | 1.35 | 9.20 Lime | 22.95 | 9.45 Magnesia | 6.75 | 2.70 Oxide of Iron | 1.69 | .25 Sulphuric Acid | 2.70 | 9.60 Phosphoric Acid | 5.97 | 5.60 Chlorine | 2.59 | 2.60 Silica | 37.89 | .35 ----------------------------------+----------+----------- Pounds carried off | 100 | 45 ----------------------------------+----------+-----------

No. XII.

Composition of Ashes, leached and unleached, showing their manurial value:

+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- | Oak | Oak | Beech | Beech |unleached. | leached. |unleached. | leached. -------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- Potash | 84 | -- | 158 | -- Soda | 56 | -- | 29 | -- Lime | 750 | 548 | 634 | 426 Magnesia | 45 | 6 | 113 | 70 Oxide of Iron | 6 | -- | 8 | 15 Sulphuric Acid | 12 | -- | 14 | -- Phosphoric Acid | 35 | 8 | 31 | 57 Chlorine | | | 2 | -------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------

No. XIII.

+-----------+------------+------------ | Birch | Seaweed | Bituminous | leached. | unleached. | Coal | | | unleached. ------------------+-----------+------------+------------ Potash | -- | 180 | 2 Soda | -- | 210 | 2 Lime | 522 | 94 | 21 Magnesia | 30 | 99 | 2 Oxide of Iron | 5 | 3 | 40 Sulphuric Acid | -- | 248 | 9 Phosphoric Acid | 43 | 52 | 2 Chlorine | -- | 98 | 1 ------------------+-----------+------------+------------

No. XIV.

TOBACCO.

Analysis of the ash of the PLANT [Will & Fresedius]--

Potash 19.55 Soda 0.27 Magnesia 11.07 Lime 48.68 Phosphoric Acid 3.66 Sulphuric Acid 3.29 Oxide of Iron 2.99 Chloride of Sodium 3.54 Loss 6.95 ------ 100.00

Analysis of the ash of the ROOT [Berthier]--

Soluble Matter 12.3 Insoluble 87.7

The Soluble parts consist of nearly--

Carbonic Acid 10.0 Sulphuric Acid 10.3 Muriatic Acid (Chlorine, &c.) 18.26 Potash and Soda 61.44 ------ 100.00

No. XV.

Composition of some of the more common Compounds of Acids and Alkalies.

+----------------+------------------ 100 Parts of | Contain of the | Contain of the | Alkalies | Acids --------------------------------------+----------------+------------------ Carbonate of Potash (Pearlash) | Potash 68.09 | Carbonic 31.91 Bi-Carbonate of Potash (Saleratus) | do. 51.62 | Carbonic 48.38 Nitrate of Potash (Saltpetre) | do. 46.56 | Nitric 53.44 Silicate of Potash | do. 50.54 | Silicic 49.46 Carbonate of Soda | Soda 58.58 | Carbonic 41.42 Bi-Carbonate of Soda (Common Soda)[AR]| do. 41.42 | Carbonic 58.58 Nitrate of Soda | do. 36.60 | Nitric 63.40 Sulphate of Soda (Glauber Salts)[AR] | do. 19.38 | Sulphuric 24.85 Silicate of Soda | do. 40.37 | Silicic 59.63 Carbonate of Lime (Limestone) | Lime 56.29 | Carbonic 43.71 Sulphate of Lime (Plaster Paris)[AR] | do. 32.90 | Sulphuric 46.31 Sulphate of Lime (Burned) | do. 41.53 | Sulphuric 58.47 Phosphate of Lime | do. 54.48 | Phosphoric 45.52 Super-Phosphate of Lime | do. 28.52 | Phosphoric 71.48 Silicate of Lime | do. 38.15 | Silicic 61.85 Carbonate of Magnesia | Magnesia 48.31 | Carbonic 51.69 Sulphate of Magnesia (Epsom Salts)[AR]| do. 16.70 | Sulphuric 32.40 Silicate of Alumina | Alumina 17.05 | Silicic 72.95 Sulphate of Iron (Green Vitriol)[AR] | Oxide of | Sulphuric 31.03 | Iron 27.19 | --------------------------------------+----------------+------------------

No. XVI.

Proximate Analyses of Crops, showing the amount of the different Organic Compounds contained in Grain, Roots, Hay, etc.--estimated in pounds:

+--------+---------+---------+----------+-------- | Water. | Husk or | Starch, | Gluten, | Fatty | | Woody | Gum and | Albumen, | Matter. | | Fibre. | Sugar. | Legumin. | +--------+---------+---------+----------+-------- 10 Bushels. | | | | | Wheat 600 lbs. | 90 | 90 | 330 | 87 | 18 Barley 515 lbs. | 77 | 77 | 309 | 70 | 13 Oats 425 lbs. | 68 | 85 | 255 | 70 | 25 Rye 520 lbs. | 62 | 78 | 312 | 65 | 18 Indian Corn 600 lbs. | 84 | 36 | 420 | 72 | 42 Buck Wheat 425 lbs. | 64 | 106 | 212 | 34 | 2? Beans 640 lbs. | 90 | 61 | 256 | 166 | 16 Peas 640 lbs. | 90 | 58 | 320 | 154 | 14 | | | | | 2000 lbs. | | | | | Potatoes | 1500 | 80 | 360 | 40 | 6 Turnips | 1760 | 40 | 180[AS]| 30 | 6 Carrots | 1700 | 60 | 200[AS]| 30 | 8 Mangold Wurtzel | 1700 | 40 | 220[AS]| 40 | ? Meadow Hay | 280 | 600 | 800 | 140 | 70 Clover Hay | 280 | 500 | 800 | 186 | 80 Pea Straw | 250 | 500 | 900 | 246 | 30 Rye Straw | 270 | 900 | 760 | 26 | ? Corn Stalks | 240 | 500 | 1040 | 60 | 34 100 lbs. Fine Wheat Flour | 10 | | 79 | 11 | 100 lbs. Wheat Bran | 13 | | 55 | 19 | 5 --------------------------+--------+---------+---------+----------+--------

No. XVII.

Amount of Ash left after burning 1000 lbs. of various plants, ordinarily dry--

Wheat 20 its straw 50 Barley 30 " 50 Oats 40 " 60 Rye 20 " 40 Indian Corn 15 " 50 Pea 30 " 50 Bean 30 Meadow Hay 50 to 100 Clover " 90 Rye Grass " 95 Potato 8 to 15 Turnip 5 to 8 Carrot 15 to 20 --------------------------------------------------------------

No. XVIII.

MANURES.

HORSE MANURE.

Solid Dung-- Combustible Matter 19.68 Ash 3.07 Water 77.25 ------ 100.00

Composition of the Ash--

Silica 62.40 Potash 11.30 Soda 1.98 Oxide of Iron 1.17 Lime 4.63 Magnesia 3.84 Oxide of Manganese 2.13 Phosphoric Acid 10.49 Sulphuric Acid 1.89 Chlorine 0.03 Loss 0.14 ------ 100.00

No. XIX.

NIGHT SOIL.

Solid (Ash)-- Earthy Phosphates and a trace of Sulphate of Lime 100 Sulphate of Soda and Potash, and Phosphate of Soda 8 Carbonate of Soda 8 Silica 16 Charcoal and Loss 18 --- 150

Urine Urea[AT] 30.10 Uric Acid 1.00 Sal Ammoniac[AT] 1.50 Lactic Acid, etc. 17.14 Mucus .32 Sulphate of Potash 3.71 Sulphate of Soda 3.16 Phosphate of Ammonia[AT] 1.65 Earthy Phosphates 3.94 Salt (Chloride of Sodium) 4.45 Silica 0.03 ------ 67.00 Water 933.00 ------ 1000.00

No. XX.

COW MANURE.

Solid (Ash)-- Phosphates 20.9 Peroxide of Iron 8.8 Lime 1.5 Sulphate of Lime (Plaster) 3.1 Chloride of Potassium trace Silica 63.7 Loss 2.0 ----- 100.0

No. XXI.

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE URINE OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS.

Solid Matter. Organic. Inorganic. Total. Man 23.4 7.6 31 Horse 27. 33. 60 Cow 50. 20. 70 Pig 56. 18. 74 Sheep 28. 12. 40

No. XXII.

GUANO.

Water 6.40 Ammonia 2.71 Uric Acid 34.70 Oxalic Acid, etc. 26.79 Fixed Alkaline Salts. Sulphate of Soda 2.94 Phosphate of Soda .48 Chloride of Sodium (salt) .86 Earthy Salts. Carbonate of Lime 1.36 Phosphates 19.24 Foreign Matter. Silicious grit and sand 4.52 ------ 100.00

For the analysis of fertile and barren soils, see page 72.

FOOTNOTES:

[AR] Contain a large amount of Water.

[AS] Pectic Acid.

[AT] Supply Ammonia.

THE PRACTICAL FARMER.

Who is the _practical farmer_? Let us look at two pictures and decide.

Here is a farm of 100 acres in ordinary condition. It is owned and tilled by a hard-working man, who, in the busy season, employs one or two assistants. The farm is free from debt, but it does not produce an abundant income; therefore, its owner cannot afford to purchase the best implements, or make other needed improvements; besides, he don't _believe_ in such things. His father was a good solid farmer; so was his grandfather; and so is he, or thinks he is. He is satisfied that 'the good old way' is best, and he sticks to it. He works from morning till night; from spring till fall. In the winter, he _rests_, as much as his lessened duties will allow. During this time, he reads little, or nothing. Least of all does he read about farming. He don't want to learn how to dig potatoes out of a book. Book farming is nonsense. Many other similar ideas keep him from agricultural reading. His house is comfortable, and his barns are quite as good as his neighbors', while his farm gives him a living. It is true that his soil does not produce as much as it did ten years ago; but prices are better, and he is satisfied.

Let us look at his premises, and see how his affairs are managed. First, examine the land. Well, it is good fair land. Some of it is a little springy, but is not to be called _wet_. It will produce a ton and a half of hay to the acre--it used to produce two tons. There are some stones on the land, but not enough in his estimation to do harm. The plowed fields are pretty good; they will produce 35 bushels of corn, 13 bushels of wheat, or 30 bushels of oats per acre, when the season is not dry. His father used to get more; but, somehow, the _weather_ is not so favorable as it was in old times. He has thought of raising root crops, but they take more labor than he can afford to hire. Over, in the back part of the land there is a muck-hole, which is the only piece of _worthless_ land on the whole farm.

Now, let us look at the barns and barn-yards. The stables are pretty good. There are some wide cracks in the siding, but they help to ventilate, and make it healthier for the cattle. The manure is thrown out of the back windows, and is left in piles under the eaves on the sunny side of the barn. The rain and sun make it nicer to handle. The cattle have to go some distance for water; and this gives them exercise. All of the cattle are not kept in the stable; the fattening stock are kept in the various fields, where hay is fed out to them from the stack. The barn-yard is often occupied by cattle, and is covered with their manure, which lies there until it is carted on to the land. In the shed are the tools of the farm, consisting of carts, plows--not deep plows, this farmer thinks it best to have roots near the surface of the soil where they can have the benefit of the sun's heat,--a harrow, hoes, rakes, etc. These tools are all in good order; and, unlike those of his less prudent neighbor, they are protected from the weather.

The crops are cultivated with the plow, and hoe, as they have been since the land was cleared, and as they always will be until this man dies.

Here is the 'practical farmer' of the present day. Hard working, out of debt, and economical--of dollars and cents, if not of soil and manures. He is a better farmer than two thirds of the three millions of farmers in the country. He is one of the best farmers in his town--there are but few better in the county, not many in the State. He represents the better class of his profession.

With all this, he is, in matters relating to his business, an unreading, unthinking man. He knows nothing of the first principles of farming, and is successful by the _indulgence_ of nature, not because he understands her, and is able to make the most of her assistance.

This is an unpleasant fact, but it is one which cannot be denied. We do not say this to disparage the farmer, but to arouse him to a realization of his position and of his power to improve it.

But let us see where he is wrong.

He is wrong in thinking that his land does not need draining. He is wrong in being satisfied with one and a half tons of hay to the acre when he might easily get two and a half. He is wrong in not removing as far as possible every stone that can interfere with the deep and thorough cultivation of his soil. He is wrong in reaping less than his father did, when he should get more. He is wrong in ascribing to the weather, and similar causes, what is due to the actual impoverishment of his soil. He is wrong in not raising turnips, carrots, and other roots, which his winter stock so much need, when they might be raised at a cost of less than one third of their value as food. He is wrong in considering worthless a deposit of muck, which is a mine of wealth if properly employed. He is wrong in _ventilating_ his stables at the cost of _heat_. He is wrong in his treatment of his manures, for he loses more than one half of their value from evaporation, fermentation, and leaching. He is wrong in not having water at hand for his cattle--their exercise detracts from their accumulation of fat and their production of heat, and it exposes them to cold. He is wrong in not protecting his fattening stock from the cold of winter; for, under exposure to cold, the food, which would otherwise be used in the formation of _fat_, goes to the production of the animal heat necessary to counteract the chilling influence of the weather, p. 50. He is wrong in allowing his manure to lie unprotected in the barn-yard. He is wrong in not adding to his tools the deep surface plow, the subsoil plow, the cultivator, and many others of improved construction. He is wrong in cultivating with the plow and hoe, those crops which could be better or more cheaply managed with the cultivator or horse-hoe. He is wrong in many things more, as we shall see if we examine all of his yearly routine of work. He is right in a few things; and but a few, as he himself would admit, had he that knowledge of his business which he could obtain in the leisure hours of a single winter. Still, he thinks himself a _practical_ farmer. In twenty years, we shall have fewer such, for our young men have the mental capacity and mental energy necessary to raise them to the highest point of practical education, and to that point they are gradually but surely rising.

Let us now place this same farm in the hands of an educated and understanding cultivator; and, at the end of five years, look at it again.

He has sold one half of it, and cultivates but fifty acres. The money for which the other fifty were sold has been used in the improvement of the farm. The land has all been under-drained, and shows the many improvements consequent on such treatment. The stones and small rocks have been removed, leaving the surface of the soil smooth, and allowing the use of the sub-soil plow, which with the under-drains have more than doubled the productive power of the farm. Sufficient labor is employed to cultivate with improved tools, extensive root crops, and they invariably give a large yield. The grass land produces a yearly average of 2½ tons of hay per acre. From 80 to 100 bushels of corn, 30 bushels of wheat, and 45 bushels of oats are the average of the crops reaped. The soil has been analyzed, and put in the best possible condition, while it is yearly supplied with manures containing every thing taken away in the abundant crops. The analysis is never lost sight of in the regulation of crops and the application of manures. The _worthless_ muck bed was retained, and is made worth one dollar a load to the compost heap, especially as the land requires an increase of organic matter. A new barn has been built large enough to store all of the hay produced on the farm. It has stables, which are tight and warm, and are well ventilated _above_ the cattle. The stock being thus protected from the loss of their heat, give more milk, and make more fat on a less amount of food than they did under the old system. Water is near at hand, and the animals are not obliged to over exercise. The manure is carefully composted, either under a shed constructed for the purpose with a tank and pump, or is thrown into the cellar below, where the hogs mix it with a large amount of muck, which has been carted in after being thoroughly decomposed by the lime and salt mixture.

They are thus protected against all loss, and are prepared for the immediate use of crops. No manures are allowed to lie in the barn-yard, but they are all early removed to the compost heap, where they are preserved by being mixed with carbonaceous matter. In the tool shed, we find deep surface-plows, sub-soil plows, cultivators, horse-hoes, seed-drills, and many other valuable improvements.

This farmer takes one or more agricultural papers, from which he learns many new methods of cultivation, while his knowledge of the _reasons_ of various agricultural effects enables him to discard the injudicious suggestions of mere _book farmers_ and uneducated dreamers.

Here are two specimens of farmers. Neither description is over-drawn. The first is much more careful in his operations than the majority of our rural population. The second is no better than many who may be found in America.

We appeal to the common sense of the reader of this work to know which of the two is the _practical farmer_--let him imitate either as his judgment shall dictate.

FINIS.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS.

ABSORB--to soak in a liquid or a gas.

ABSTRACT--to take from.

ACID--sour; a sour substance.

AGRICULTURE--the art of cultivating the soil.

ALKALI--the direct opposite of an _acid_, with which it has a tendency to unite.

ALUMINA--the base of clay.

ANALYSIS--separating into its primary parts any compound substance.

CARBONATE--a compound, consisting of carbonic acid and an alkali.

CAUSTIC--burning.

CHLORIDE--a compound containing chlorine.

CLEVIS--that part of a plow by which the drawing power is attached.

DECOMPOSE--to separate the constituents of a body from their combinations, forming new kinds of compounds.

DIGESTION--the decomposition of food in the stomach and intestines of animals (agricultural).

DEW--deposit of the insensible vapor of the atmosphere on cold bodies.

EXCREMENT--the matter given out by the organs of plants and animals, being those parts of their food which they are unable to assimilate.

FERMENTATION--a kind of decomposition.

GAS--air--aeriform matter.

GURNEYISM--see _Mulching_.

INGREDIENT--component part.

INORGANIC--mineral, or earthy.

MOULDBOARD--that part of a surface plow which turns the sod.

MULCHING--covering the soil with litter, leaves, or other refuse matter. See p. 247.

NEUTRALIZE--To overcome the characteristic properties of.

ORGANIC MATTER--that kind of matter which at times possesses an organized (or living) form, and at others exists as a gas in the atmosphere.

OXIDE--a compound of oxygen with a metal.

PHOSPHATE--a compound of phosphoric acid with an alkali.

PROXIMATE--an organic compound, such as wood, starch, gum, etc.; a product of life.

PUNGENT--pricking.

PUTREFACTION--rotting.

SATURATE--to _fill_ the pores of any substance, as a sponge with water, or charcoal with ammonia.

SILICATE--a compound of silica with an alkali.

SOLUBLE--capable of being dissolved.

SOLUTION--a liquid containing another substance dissolved in it.

SATURATED SOLUTION--one which contains as much of the foreign substance as it is capable of holding.

SPONGIOLES--the mouths at the ends of roots.

SULPHATE--a compound of sulphuric acid with an alkali.

VAPOR--gas.

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MODERN ATLAS OF THE EARTH.

With an Alphabetical Index of the Latitudes and Longitudes of 18,000 places. Thirty-four beautifully engraved and colored maps, with Temperature Scales. 4to. size, bound in 1 vol., royal 8vo. Price $3.50.

This is the only complete portable Modern Atlas yet published. The maps are engraved on steel, and executed with great clearness, distinctness and accuracy. The delineations of mountainous districts, the sources of rivers and boundary lines, have been made with great care. It is designed for the table of the Student and the office of the Professional Man, and is issued in a very finished and elegant style, and embraces extensive details of all the important parts of the Earth.

_D. APPLETON AND CO.'S PUBLICATIONS._

Popular Science.

The Chemistry of Common Life.

BY JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, M.A., F.R.S.S. L. & E., &c.

Author of "Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," a "Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," &c.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The common life of man is full of wonders, Chemical and Physiological. Most of us pass through this life without seeing or being sensible of them, though every day our existence and our comforts ought to recall them to our minds. One main cause of this is, that our schools tell us nothing about them--do not teach those parts of modern learning which would fit us for seeing them. What most concerns the things that daily occupy our attention and cares, are in early life almost sedulously kept from our knowledge. Those who would learn any thing regarding them, must subsequently teach themselves through the help of the press: hence the necessity for a Popular Chemical Literature.

It is with a view to meet this want of the Public, and at the same time to supply a Manual for the Schools, that the present work has been projected. It treats, in what appears to be their natural order, of THE AIR WE BREATHE and THE WATER WE DRINK, in their relations to human life and health--THE SOIL WE CULTIVATE AND THE PLANT WE REAR, as the sources from which the chief sustenance of all life is obtained--THE BREAD WE EAT AND THE BEEF WE COOK, as the representatives of the two grand divisions of human food--THE BEVERAGES WE INFUSE, from which so much of the comfort of modern life, both savage and civilized, is derived--THE SWEETS WE EXTRACT, the history of which presents so striking an illustration of the economical value of chemical science--THE LIQUORS WE FERMENT, so different from the sweets in their action on the system, and yet so closely connected with them in chemical history--THE NARCOTICS WE INDULGE IN, as presenting us with an aspect of the human constitution which, both chemically and physiologically, is more mysterious and wonderful than any other we are acquainted with--THE ODOURS WE ENJOY AND THE SMELLS WE DISLIKE; the former because of the beautiful illustration it presents of the recent progress of organic chemistry in its relations to comforts of common life, and the latter because of its intimate connection with our most important sanitary arrangements--WHAT WE BREATHE FOR and WHY WE DIGEST, as functions of the body at once the most important to life, and the most purely chemical in their nature--THE BODY WE CHERISH, as presenting many striking phenomena, and performing many interesting chemical functions not touched upon in the discussion of the preceding topics--and lastly, THE CIRCULATION OF MATTER, as exhibiting in one view the end, purpose, and method of all the changes in the natural body, in organic nature, and in the mineral kingdom, which are connected with and determine the existence of life.

It has been the object of the Author in this Work to exhibit the present condition of chemical knowledge and of matured scientific opinion upon the subjects to which it is devoted. The reader will not be surprised, therefore, should he find in it some things which differ from what is to be found in other popular works already in his hands or on the shelves of his library.

The Work is being published in 5 or 6 NUMBERS, price 25 cents each, in the following order, forming 1 vol. 12mo. of about 400 pages.

1. The AIR we Breathe and 2. The WATER we Drink. 3. The SOIL we Cultivate and 4. The PLANT we Rear. 5. The BREAD we Eat and 6. The BEEF we Cook. 7. The BEVERAGES we Infuse. 8. The SWEETS we Extract. 9. The LIQUORS we Ferment. 10. The NARCOTICS we Indulge in. 11. The ODOURS we Enjoy and 12. The SMELLS we Dislike. 13. What we BREATHE and BREATHE FOR, and 14. What, How, and Why we DIGEST 15. The BODY we Cherish, and 16. The CIRCULATION of MATTER, a Recapitulation.

WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, THE HORSE, & DOG.

_Published by D. Appleton, & Co._

THE FARMER'S HAND-BOOK

Being a Full and Complete Guide for the Farmer and Emigrant. Comprising--The Clearing of Forest and Prairie Lands; Gardening; Farming Generally; Farriery; The Management and Treatment of Cattle; Cookery; The Construction of Dwellings; Prevention and Cure of Disease; with copious Tables, Recipes, Hints, &c., &c. By JOSIAH T. MARSHALL. One volume, 12mo., illustrated with numerous wood engravings. Neatly bound. Price $1; paper cover, 62½ cents.

"One of the most useful books we ever saw."--_Boston Post._

RURAL ECONOMY,

In its relations with Chemistry, Physics, and Meteorology; or, Chemistry applied to Agriculture. By J. B. BOUISSANGAULT. Translated, with Notes, etc., by George Law, Agriculturist. 12mo, over 500 pages, $1 50.

"The work is the fruit of a long life of study and experiment, and its perusal will aid the farmer greatly in obtaining a practical and scientific knowledge of his profession."--_American Agriculturist._

THE FARMER'S MANUAL:

A Practical Treatise on the Nature and Value of Manures, founded from Experiments on various Crops, with a brief account of the most Recent Discoveries in Agricultural Chemistry. By F. FALKNER and the Author of "British Husbandry." 12mo, 50 cts.

THE FARMER'S TREASURE:

Containing "Falkner's Farmer's Manual," and "Smith's Productive Farming," bound together. 12mo, 75 cents.

STABLE ECONOMY:

A Treatise on the Management of Horses, in relation to Stabling, Grooming, Feeding, Watering, and Working. By JOHN STEWART, Veterinary Surgeon. With Notes and Additions, adapting it to American Food and Climate, by A. B. ALLEN. 12mo, illustrated with 23 Engravings, $1.

"No one should build a stable or own a horse without consulting the excellent directions for stabling and using the horse, in this book of Stewart's. It is an invaluable _vade mecum_ for all who have the luxury of a stable."--_Eve. Mirror._

THE HORSE'S FOOT; AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND.

With Illustrations by WILLIAM MILES, Esq., from the Third London Edition, with 23 plates. Price 25 cents.

This work has received the unqualified recommendation of the Quarterly, the Edinburgh, and the Reviews generally, of England. The price of the English copy is $3.

"It should be in the hands of every owner or friend of the horse."

DOGS: THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES.

Directions as to their general Management. With numerous original anecdotes. Also Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By H. D. RICHARDSON. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings. 1 vol. 12mo, 25 cts. paper cover, 38 cts. cloth.

This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever published on the Dog.

THE BOOK OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE:

A Cyclopædia of Six Thousand Practical Receipts, and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, and Trades; including Medicine, Pharmacy, and Domestic Economy, designed as a compendious Book of Reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, Amateur, and Heads of Families. By ARNOLD JAMES COOLEY, Practical Chemist. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings. Forming one handsome volume, 8vo, of 464 pages. Price $2 25, bound.

TREATISE ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING:

ADAPTED TO NORTH AMERICA, WITH A VIEW TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES--

Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying Out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments of the House and Grounds, the Formation of pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, etc., with remarks on Rural Architecture. A new edition, enlarged, revised and newly illustrated.

By A. J. DOWNING, author of "Designs for Cottage Residences," etc.

A new and improved edition, 8vo., illustrated, $3 50.

"Insult not Nature with absurd expense, Nor spoil her simple charms by vain pretense; Weigh well the subject, be with caution bold, Profuse of genius, not profuse of gold."

RIKER, THORPE & CO., 129 Fulton st., New York.

"There is no work extant which can be compared in ability to Downing's volume on this subject. It is not overlaid with elaborate and learned disquisition, like the English works, but it is truly practical."--_Louisville Journal._

"Mr. Downing's works have been greatly influential in recommending among us that life which has always seemed to us the perfection of human existence--the life of men of education, living upon and cultivating their own farms."--_Cour. and Enq._

"The principles he lays down are not only sound, but are developed on a uniform system, which is not paralleled in any English work."--_Prof. Lindley's Chronicle, London._

=RUGGLES, NOURSE, MASON & CO.=,

_MANUFACTURERS AT WORCESTER_,

And Wholesale and Retail Dealers in

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES,

=Garden, Field and Flower Seeds=,

FRUIT AND ORNAMENTAL TREES, SHRUBS, ROSES, VINES AND PLANTS,

GUANO, BONE DUST, PHOSPHATES, POUDRETTE, &c.

Also, Agricultural and Horticultural Publications, and Agents for Principal Nurseries,

AT THE

QUINCY HALL

=AGRICULTURAL WAREHOUSE AND SEED STORE=,

OVER QUINCY MARKET, SOUTH MARKET ST.,

=BOSTON, MASS.=

WAGENER'S AMERICAN SEED

=HARVESTER.=

HIGHEST PREMIUMS AWARDED

=At the World's Fair Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, 1853.=

ALSO BY THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, NEW YORK.

VARIOUS OTHER APPROBATIONS HAVE BEEN RECEIVED.

This Machine consists of a simple frame and box mounted on wheels, in front of which is a cylinder, set with spiral knives, acting in concert with curved spring teeth, in combination with a straight knife, which forms a perfect shear, and severs the head from the stalk; the heads are at the same time discharged into the box. The teeth being made to spring and vibrate, not a particle of clover, however stalky or thick, can possibly escape being cut, or allow the teeth to become clogged. The Cylinder and Knives are protected by an adjustible guard plate, thus allowing only the heads to pass to the Knives, retaining the head, and the head only--thus leaving the stalk to enrich the soil. The machine is so constructed that it can be made adjustible to the height of the Clover and Timothy.

To be seen at the Crystal Palace. Price of the machines moderate.

The Farmer will find that by this process, he may save two crops of Timothy per year. When the seed is ripe the tops can be clipped, and the straw left until fall to mature. You now have your seed and hay in two crops of equal value; in case of clover, you mow the first crop for hay, the second for seed; you in both cases get better seed and hay with less labor and expense than grain crops, at the same time leaving the soil clothed with a coat of straw, for the coming season, which will increase the value of the soil for crops, make fine pastures and fine stock, while it fits the land for fine grain. In this way lands in our states have been raised in production from five to twenty-five or thirty bushels of wheat per acre, in the course of a few years.

This is within the reach of every farmer, without money or labor, as organic matter accumulates from the atmosphere and is deposited in the soil.

Manufactured and for sale by the Patentee and Proprietor,

JEPTHA A. WAGENER. _Office 348 West Twenty-Fourth Street, New York._

All orders for Machines this season should be sent in immediately, in order to have them in readiness for harvest time.

=Price of Machines, $100 and $110, two sizes, at the Manufactory.=

--> Rights of States and Counties on favorable terms.

"Wagener's Clover and Timothy Seed Harvester has been in successful operation two seasons, and has received the premium at the World's Fair and at the Fair of the American Institute, and various other testimonials of superior value. They are manufactured and for sale by the inventor, Jeptha A. Wagener, at 348 West 24th street, New York."--_U. S. Journal._

The Grain Harvester is in course of preparation, and will soon be offered for sale.

THE WORKING FARMER,

PUBLISHED ON THE FIRST OF EACH MONTH,

At 143 Fulton St., (upper side,) a few doors east of Broadway, New York.

TERMS.

One year, _payable in advance_, $1 00 Clubs of six subscribers, 5 00 Clubs of twelve subscribers, 10 00 Clubs of twenty-five subscribers, 20 00 Single copies, 10