Part 20

1. _Use of Coloured Glasses to assist the View in Fogs._--M. Lavini of Turin, in a letter to the editor of _L'Institut_ at Paris, makes the following curious observation, which, if confirmed, may prove to be of great importance:--"When there is a fog between two corresponding stations, so that the one station can with difficulty be seen from the other, if the observer passes a coloured glass between his eye and the eye-piece of his telescope, the effect of the fog is very sensibly diminished, so that frequently the signals from the other station can be very plainly perceived; when, without the coloured glass, even the station itself is invisible. The different colours do not all produce this effect in the same degree, the red seeming to be the best. Those who have good sight prefer the dark-red, while those who are short-sighted like the light-red better. The explanation of this effect seems to depend upon the fact, that the white colour of the fog strikes too powerfully upon the organ of sight, especially if the glass have a somewhat large field. But by the insertion of the coloured glass, the intensity of the light is much diminished by the interception of a part of the rays, and the observer's eye is less wearied, and, consequently, distinguishes better the outlines of the object observed."

2. _Ozone._--Chemists are not yet fully agreed concerning the nature or production of this singular substance, ozone. To Schonbein and Williamson we are indebted for most of our knowledge concerning it. The latter has supposed it to be a compound of oxygen and hydrogen, from the fact, that, when the ozone completely freed from moisture was passed over ignited copper, water was produced. De la Rive produced it by passing a current of electricity through pure dry oxygen gas contained in a receiver. It is also obtained in large quantities by passing oxygen gas over moistened phosphorous, and afterwards drying it. Thus prepared, it is a powerful chemical agent, possesses bleaching properties, oxidises the metals with rapidity, and destroys India-rubber. The hydrogen acids of sulphur are decomposed by it, water being formed by uniting with the hydrogen of the acid, and sulphur being set free. Professor Horsford has observed that ozone, subjected to a heat of 130° Fah., entirely loses its properties. Ozone, like chlorine, precipitates iodine, colouring a solution of iodide of potassium, and starch a deep blue colour. The peculiar smell, prevalent in the vicinity of objects struck by lightning, as well as that occasioned by the excitation of an electrical machine, and by the striking of two pieces of silica together, it is believed to be occasioned by ozone.--_Editors._--_Annual of Scientific Discovery_, p. 219.

_Method of Determining the Amount of Ozone in the Atmosphere._--At the meeting of the American Association, an instrument for determining the relative quantity of ozone in the air was presented by Professor Horsford. It consisted of a tube, containing at one end a plug of asbestus, moistened with a solution of iodide of potassium and starch. This plug within the tube, attached to an aspirator, would, as air passed over it, become blue. If much water flowed from the aspirator, and of course much air flowed over the asbestus before it became blue, the quantity of ozone indicated would be small. If but little water flowed (and this could be measured), the quantity of ozone indicated would be greater. The quantities of ozone would be inversely as the volumes of air passing through the tube before blueness is produced.--_Annual of Scientific Discovery_, p. 219.

HYDROGRAPHY.

3. _On the Phenomena of the Rise and Fall of the Waters of the Northern Lakes of America._--At a meeting of the American Academy, February 1849, Mr Foster, of the United States Mineral Survey in the North-west Territory, presented the result of some observations, undertaken with a view of determining whether the waters of the northern lakes are subject to any movements corresponding to tidal action. The result of these observations had convinced him that these waters do not rise and fall at stated periods, corresponding to the ebb and flow of the tide, but are subject to extraordinary risings, which are independent of the influence of the sun and moon. These risings attracted the attention of the earliest _voyageurs_ in these regions. Charlevoix, who traversed the lakes nearly a century ago, says, in reference to Lake Ontario:--"I observed that in this lake there is a sort of reflux and flux almost instantaneous; the rocks near the banks being covered with water, and uncovered again several times in the space of a quarter of an hour, even if the surface of the lake was very calm, with scarce a breath of air. After reflecting some time on this appearance, _I imagined it was owing to springs at the bottom of the lake, and to the shock of their currents with those of the rivers which fall into them from all sides, and thus produce those intermitting motions_." The same movements were noticed by Mackenzie in 1789; by an expedition under Colonel Bradstreet in 1764; on Lake Erie in 1823, and at various later periods. In the summer of 1834, an extraordinary retrocession of the waters of Lake Superior took place at the outlet of Sault St Marie. The river at this place is nearly a mile wide, and in the distance of a mile falls 18·5 feet. The phenomena occurred about noon. The day was calm, but cloudy. The water retired suddenly, leaving the bed of the river bare, except for a distance of thirty rods, and remained so for nearly an hour. Persons went out and caught fish in pools formed in the depressions of the rocks. The return of the waters is represented as having been very grand. They came down like an immense surge, and so sudden was it, that those engaged in catching fish had barely time to escape being overwhelmed. In the summer of 1847, on one occasion the water rose and fell at intervals of about fifteen minutes during an entire afternoon. The variation was from twelve to twenty inches, the day being calm and clear; but the barometer was falling. Before the expiration of forty-eight hours, a violent gale set in. At Copper harbour, the ebb and flow of the water through narrow inlets and estuaries has been repeatedly noticed when there was not a breath of wind on the lake. Similar phenomena occur on several of the Swiss lakes. Professor Mather, who observed the barometer at Copper harbour during one of these fluctuations, remarks:--"As a general thing, fluctuations in the barometer accompanied fluctuations in the level of the water; but sometimes the water-level varied rapidly in the harbour, while no such variations occurred in the barometer at the place of observation."

As a general rule, these variations in the water-level indicate the approach of a storm, or a disturbed state of the atmosphere. The barometer is not sufficiently sensitive to indicate the sudden elevations and depressions, recurring, as they often do, at intervals of ten or twelve minutes; and the result of observations at such time may, in some degree, be regarded as negative. Besides, it may not unfrequently happen, that, while effects are witnessed at the place of observation, the cause which produced them may be so far removed as not to influence the barometer. We are, therefore, led to infer that these phenomena result, not from the prevalence of the winds acting on the water, accumulating it at one point and depressing it at others, but from sudden and local changes in the pressure of the atmosphere, giving rise to a series of barometric waves. The water, conforming to the laws which govern two fluids thus relatively situated, would accumulate where the pressure was the least, and be displaced where it was the greatest. It has been remarked by De la Beche, that a sudden impulse given to the particles of water, either by a suddenly increased or diminished pressure, would cause a perpendicular rise or fall, in the manner of a wave, beyond the height or depth strictly due to the mere weight itself. The difference in the specific gravity of the water of the lakes and the ocean may cause these changes to be more marked in the former than in the latter.--_American Annual of Scientific Discovery_, p. 245.

4. _Water Thermometer._--Lieut. Maury states that he has been very much assisted in developing his theory of winds and currents by means of the thermometer used by some vessels for determining the temperature of the water. It was by means of these observations on the temperature of the water that he was enabled to prove that, off the shores of South America, between the parallels of 35° and 40° south, there is a region of the ocean in which the temperature is as high as that of our own Gulf stream, while in the middle of the ocean, and between the same parallels, the temperature of the water is not so great by 22°. Now, this very region is noted for its gales, being the most stormy that the as yet incomplete charts of the South Atlantic indicate. Lieut. Maury says, however, that very few navigators make use of the water thermometer, so that he has experienced some inconvenience in his undertaking. He is the more surprised at this, from the fact that New York owes much of her commercial importance to a discovery that was made by this thermometer. At the time when Dr Franklin discovered the Gulf Stream, Charleston had more foreign trade than New York and all the New England States together. Charleston was then the half-way house between New and Old England. When a vessel, in attempting to enter the Delaware or Sandy Hook, met a north-west gale or snow storm, as at certain seasons she is apt to do, instead of running off for a few hours into the Gulf Stream to thaw and get warm, as she now does, she used to put off for Charleston or the West Indies, and there remained till the return of spring before making another attempt. A beautiful instance this of the importance and bearings of a single fact, elicited by science from the works of nature.--_Annual of Scientific Discovery_, p. 160.

5. _On the Falls of Niagara._--If we follow the chasm cut by the Niagara river, down to Lake Ontario, we have a succession of strata coming to the surface of various character and formation. These strata dip south-west or towards the Falls, so that, in their progress to their present position, the Falls have had a bed of very various consistency. Some of these strata, as the shales and medina sandstone, are very soft, and, when they formed the edge of the Fall, it probably had the character of rapids; but, wherever it comes to an edge of hard rock, with softer rock-beds below, the softer beds, crumbling away, leave a shelf projecting above, and then the fall is perpendicular. Such is the case at present; the hard Niagara limestone overhangs in _tables_ the soft shales underneath, which at last are worn away to such an extent as to undermine the superincumbent rocks. Such was also the case at Queenston, where the Clinton group formed the edge, with the medina sandstone below. This process has continued from the time when the Niagara fell directly into Lake Ontario to the present time, and will continue so long as there are soft beds underneath hard ones; but, from the inclination of the strata, this will not always be the case. A time will come when the rock below will also be hard. Then, probably, the Falls will be nearly stationary, and may lose much of their beauty from the wearing away of the edge rendering it an inclined plane. I do not think the waters of Lake Erie will ever fall into Lake Ontario without any intermediate cascade. The Niagara shales are so extensive that possibly, at some future time, the river below the cascade may be enlarged into a lake, and thus the force of the falling water diminished; but the whole process is so slow, that no accurate calculations can be made. The Falls were probably larger, and stationary for a longer time at the "Whirlpool" than anywhere else. At that point there was no division of the cataract, but at the "Devil's Hole" there are indications of a lateral fall, probably similar to what is now called the American Fall. At the Whirlpool, the rocks are still united beneath the water, shewing that they were once continuous above its surface also.[89]--_Agassiz on Lake Superior_, p. 15.

Footnote 89: The data on which these and the previous remarks on the geology of the Falls are founded, are derived from Professor James Hall's investigations in the New York State Survey. A.

6. _On the Existence of Manganese in Water._--At a meeting of the American Academy, in January 1849, Dr Charles T. Jackson stated that he had discovered the presence of manganese in the water of streams, lakes, &c., almost universally. He detected it in water from the middle of Lake Superior, in Cochituate water, and in water from various sources. It has usually been regarded as iron in previous analyses. He considered the observation as having an important bearing in accounting for the deposits of bog manganese at the outlets of ponds, lakes, and in bogs, as well as for the source of the oxide of manganese in the blood.--_Annual of Scientific Discovery_, p. 202.

_On the Presence of Organic Matter in Water._--The following facts relative to the presence of organic matter in water were presented to the British Association, by Professor Forchhammer, as the result of extended observations on the water, near Copenhagen.

_1st_, The quantity of organic matter in water is greatest in summer. _2d_, It disappears, for the most part, as soon as the water freezes. _3d_, Its quantity is diminished by rain. _4th_, Its quantity is diminished if the water has to run a long way in open channels. The hypermanganate of potash or soda is recommended by the Professor as a most excellent test for the presence of organic matter in water.

7. _Arsenic in Chalybeate Springs._--Since the discovery of arsenic in the deposits from certain chalybeate springs, it has been asked whether the poisonous properties of this substance are not neutralized by the state in which it is found. M. Lassaigne has finished a series of experiments connected with this subject, for the purpose of ascertaining the proportion of arsenic contained, in what state of combination it exists, and the nature of the action which these arseniferous deposits exert in the animal economy. The following are M. Lassaigne's conclusions:--1. In the natural deposits of the mineral waters of Wattviller, arsenic exists to the amount of 2·8 per cent. 2. A portion of these deposits, representing 1·76 grains of arsenic acid, or 1·14 grains of arsenic, produced no effect upon the health of a dog. 3. This non-action shews that the poisonous property of the arsenic is destroyed by its combination with the peroxide of iron, and thus confirms what has been before asserted, that peroxide of iron, by combining with arsenious and arsenic acid, destroys their poisonous properties, and consequently becomes an antidote for them.

GEOLOGY.

8. _The Coal Formation of America._--The coal regions of America are, from the explorations which have thus far been made, supposed to be divided into three principal masses; the great central tract, extending from Tuscaloosa, Alabama, to the west of Pennsylvania, and being apparently continued to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; the second tract strikes north-westward from Kentucky, crosses the Ohio, and stretches through Illinois to the Mississippi River; a third region, smaller than the others, lies between the three great lakes--Erie, Huron, and Michigan. Competent geologists affirm that, from a comparison of the coal strata of contiguous basins, these are no more than detached parts of a once continuous deposit.

The extent of this enormous coal field is, in length, from north-east to south-west, more than 720 miles, and its greatest breadth about 180 miles; its area, upon a moderate calculation, amounts to 63,000 square miles! In addition to these, there are several detached tracts of anthracite in Eastern Pennsylvania, which form some of the most remarkable coal tracts in the world. They occupy an area of about 200 square miles.

The strata which constitute this vast deposit comprehend nearly all the known varieties of coal, from the dryest and most compact anthracite to the most fusible and combustible common coal. One of the most remarkable features of these coal-seams is their prodigious bulk. The great bed of Pittsburgh, extending nearly the entire length of the Monongahela River, has been traced through a great elliptic area, of nearly 225 miles in its longest diameter, and of the maximum breadth of about 100 miles, the superficial extent being 14,000 square miles, the thickness of the bed diminishing gradually from 12 or 14 feet to 2 feet. In 1847 the anthracite coal regions of Pennsylvania furnished 3,000,000 tons, and 11,439 vessels cleared from Philadelphia in that year, loaded with the article. The produce in 1848 and the present year, is of course larger.

The bituminous coal area of the United States is 133,132 square miles, or one 17th part of the whole. The bituminous coal area of British America is 18,000 square miles, or one 45th part; Great Britain, 8139 square miles; Spain, 3408 square miles, or one 52d part; France, 1719 square miles, or one 118th part; and Belgium, 518 square miles, or one 122d part. The area of the Pennsylvania anthracite coal formations is put down at 437 square miles; and that of Great Britain and Ireland anthracite and culm, at 3720 square miles. The anthracite coal of Great Britain and Ireland, however, is not nearly so valuable an article of fuel as the anthracite coal of Pennsylvania, nor does a given area yield so much as the latter.--_New York Express._ _American Annual of Scientific Discovery_, p. 271.

9. _River Terraces of the Connecticut Valley._--At the meeting of the American Association in August, President Hitchcock of Amherst College, read a paper "On the River Terraces of the Connecticut Valley, and on the Erosions of the Earth's Surface." He stated that his paper must be considered as containing a few facts and suggestions and not a finished theory. He has examined the valley from its mouth to Turner's Falls, and carefully measured the heights of the terraces. "As you approach the river you find plains of sand, gravel, or loam, terminated by a slope sometimes as steep as 35°, and a second plain, then another slope and another plain, and so on, sometimes to a great number. I find that these terraces occur in successive basins, formed by the approaches of the mountains upon the banks at intervals. Sometimes the basin will be 15 or 20 miles in width, but usually much narrower; and it is upon the margins of these basins that the terraces are formed. I have rarely found terraces more than 200 feet above the river, which would be in Massachusetts, about 300 feet above the ocean, and at Hanover, N.H., about 560 feet. Nowhere do they exist along any river, unless that river has basins. As to the materials of which they are formed they appear exceedingly artificial. The outer or highest terrace is generally composed of coarser materials than the inner ones. They are all composed of materials which are worn from the rocks, but the outer terrace oftener is full of pebbles, some of them as large as 12 inches, while the materials of the inner seem reduced to an impalpable powder, like the soil of a meadow which is overflowed during high water. Whence did these materials originate? The materials were first worn from solid rocks, and afterwards brought into these valleys. The outer terrace appears to have been often in part the result of the drift agency. Afterwards, the river agency sorted the materials, and gave them a level surface, the successive basins having at that time barriers. The inner terrace appears to have been, at least in its upper part, the result of deposition from the river itself.

"I will now mention a few facts which I have observed. The terraces do not generally agree in height upon the opposite sides of the valley. The higher ones oftener agree, perhaps, than the lower ones. If formed, as I suppose, from the rivers, we should expect this. The terraces slope downwards in the direction of the stream. The same terrace which, near South Hadley, is 190 feet above the river, slopes until, at East Hartford, it is only 40 feet above the river, thus sloping 150 feet more than the slope of the river itself, in a distance of 40 or 50 miles. This shows that they could not have been formed by the sea or by a lake, for they would then have been horizontal. The greatest number of terraces observed is eight or nine. Generally there are but two or three." President Hitchcock then gives his view of the precise mode in which these terraces were formed, illustrating them by references to other parts of our country, and concludes by a notice of the erosions of the earth's surface.--_Annual of Scientific Discovery_, 1850, p. 229.

ZOOLOGY.