Part 5

By the eleventh century the principle of subordination had been carried out into every part of the structure, and some refinement was beginning to be attempted; shafts were substituted for the plain orders of the piers, and a cap and base provided for each (see Fig. 14), and the sharp angles of the orders of the arch were softened by having large roll mouldings wrought upon them. The next step in the progress of development was the subdividing or groining of the vault, so as to admit of windows for the purpose of lighting the upper part of the building, which, with the barrel vault, was found to be very dark. (Fig. 16). Many different plans were tried to improve the lighting of the vault, but without satisfactory result, till recourse was had to the intersecting vault of the Romans, still visible in many structures then surviving. This mode of vaulting consisted in the introduction of a vault crossing the structure between each set of piers at right angles to the main vault, and it had at once the desired effect, as it enabled the side walls containing windows to be carried up as high as the top of the vault, thus giving ample light. Other very important consequences followed from this improvement of the vaulting. Hitherto, with the barrel vault, the pressure had been uniform over the side walls, which were made very solid to resist it; but with the introduction of the groined vaulting, the weight of the vault was concentrated on the points where the groins rested. This necessitated the strengthening of these points, which was managed by means of buttresses. These are simply portions of wall set at right angles to the building in order to receive the weight and thrust of the arches and carry them down to the ground. The portion of the side wall between the buttresses was thus relieved from any pressure beyond its own weight. It is evident that an entire change in the principles of the construction of the edifice would thus be created. The buttresses now became important members both in the construction and the appearance of the building. The side walls, being now mere enclosing screens, might be reduced from their previous massive condition, and made as thin and light as desired, while the windows in them might be enlarged to any extent. The same remarks apply to the side aisles, the vaulting of which was also groined and supported on buttressed points like the main vaults. With the solid materials of the Romans, the groins or lines of meeting of the intersecting arches formed simple curved lines or angles; but with the smaller materials of the mediæval architects this construction could not easily be accomplished, and it became usual to construct the groins with a solid stone rib, at first plain, but in later examples enriched with a roll moulding.

The development of mediæval architecture reached the point above described during the course of the twelfth century. The Romanesque architecture of Lombardy, Germany, and Burgundy had wrought out the arrangement of the groined vaulting and the distribution of the forces arising therefrom, and the designing and construction of the necessary buttresses. The subordination of the various members, the division of the piers and arches into orders, each performing a distinct function, the erection of a vaulting shaft at each pier to receive the ribs of the vaults, the construction of ribs to form the groins and carry the panels of the vaults, had all been fully accomplished. Each shaft was supported on a base and crowned with a cap to receive its load, and each order of the arches received an appropriate moulding or enrichment. Thus far were the constructional features of a genuine arched style of construction, in stone, wrought out during the course of the eleventh and early part of the twelfth centuries.

The forms of the ornament kept pace with the development of the construction. In the earlier centuries the Romanesque style had become stereotyped, the general features being regarded as wrought out, and invention limited itself to the elaboration of details and ornaments. Hence it arose that much of the Romanesque ornament was overloaded and inapplicable to its position. But as advances were made in the direction of improving the vaulting and other constructional elements, the builders’ energies were also directed towards improvement of the decorative features, the heavy unsuitable ornaments were discarded, and lighter and more appropriate forms introduced.

This new phase of architecture was adopted by the Normans with their usual energy, and during the twelfth century was carried out by them, both in Normandy and England, to an advanced state of development, thus constituting the well-known Norman style.

NORMAN STYLE.

This style is easily recognised by its simple and massive forms and its semi-circular arches. The exterior (Fig. 17) is generally plain, with broad and slightly projecting buttresses attached to the building, and sometimes

crowned with pinnacles. The doorways are, however, generally treated in a more ornamental manner. They are often deeply recessed, and have the jambs decorated with a series of round shafts set in square nooks or recesses, and furnished with richly-carved caps and bases. The arch

mouldings, which are also numerous, are arranged in square steps or orders, and frequently ornamented with much carving of special kinds of enrichments. Of these the chevron, or zig-zag, is most abundantly used, together with the billet, the bird’s head, &c. The windows are wide in proportion to their height, and are covered in with round arches.

In the interior (Fig. 18) the Norman piers consist of simple cylindrical columns of great size, frequently carved with large zig-zags or spiral lines carried round them, and finished with bold caps and bases. The most frequent caps are of the “cushion” form, which resembles one or more spherical figures having portions cut off perpendicularly. The caps are also sometimes carved with human or other figures. The abacus is always solid, and generally square in shape. In some examples, especially in France, the capitals of the piers are frequently carved in rude imitation of the Corinthian form and foliage.

Late examples show the piers subdivided into the clustered form, which became universal in the subsequent periods. In the transition from Norman to Early Pointed, many of the features of the latter style are gradually introduced. Hence a mixture of the round and pointed arch, and a lightening of the mouldings, and a new kind of carving of foliage are observable in the latter half of the twelfth century. The earlier Norman edifices are extremely plain, scarcely any ornament being used. The figure sculpture is almost entirely confined to the period after 1135.

NORMAN STYLE IN SCOTLAND.

Of the cathedrals, monasteries, and churches erected in Scotland during the twelfth century, only a few portions now exist, nearly all of them having been reconstructed or altered at later times.

The Cathedral of Dunblane still retains a tower of the foundation of King David; and in the nave of the Cathedral of Kirkwall, commenced 1136, we yet possess a noble Norman structure, which, however, we owe to the piety of the Norwegian occupants of the Orkneys.

Of the monastic foundations of St. Margaret and her sons we still retain the venerable Norman nave of Dunfermline, and portions of the Norman edifices of Holyrood, Dryburgh, and Jedburgh.

Kelso Abbey Church, although only a fragment, is a fine specimen of the late style of the twelfth century. Arbroath Abbey, founded by William the Lion in 1178, still shows in its ruins some late work of the same period. Holyrood, Jedburgh, and St. Andrews contain much work of the period of transition from the Norman to the First Pointed style, which came into use about the beginning of the thirteenth century.

Of the twelfth century parish churches, those of Dalmeny and Leuchars are nearly complete and very beautiful examples, the former having nave, choir, and apse, and both exhibit much of the arcaded and ornamental work of the more florid period of the style. Portions of Norman work are found, as was to be expected in this great church-building epoch, in every county, and are represented here by a tower, there by a chancel arch, elsewhere by a door or a window, or other fragmentary relic--rarely by a whole nave or chancel. In some examples the Norman plan is still complete so far as the outline of the walls is concerned, but these are generally considerably altered and interfered with, as, for example, at Duddingston, Stobo, and Uphall. The parish churches were usually of small size, and consisted of an oblong nave and chancel, separated by a chancel arch generally ornamented with chevron enrichments. Frequently there was a semi-circular apse beyond the chancel, also entered by an enriched semi-circular arch. Side aisles were rarely introduced. The only Norman parish church of cruciform plan was that of St. Nicholas, Aberdeen, now greatly altered.

FIRST POINTED STYLE.

The Norman style of architecture continued to prevail in England till near the close of the twelfth century, and in Scotland for some time thereafter. At that period a further and completer development awaited the architecture of the Middle Ages. We have seen that the “subordination” of all the parts had been achieved, together with the use of the groined vault, with its accompanying buttresses and pinnacles, in the round arched style. The employment of the round arch was, however, found to involve many practical difficulties in connection with the vaulting. The bays of the nave, so long as they were _square_ in plan, could be conveniently vaulted with intersecting semi-circular groins; but when they were of an oblong form, the width being greater than the length (as was often found necessary in order to suit the vaulting of the side aisles), the round arch was found very inconvenient in consequence of the large arch which spanned the nave rising to a greater height than the smaller arch of the side walls. It was endeavoured to overcome this difficulty by stilting the arch of the side vault so as to make its apex of the same height as the main transverse vault; but this scheme interfered with the lines of the groins or intersection of the vaults in such a manner as to render it unworkable. It therefore became necessary to seek for a more flexible form of arch, which would enable the apex of all the arches of the vaults, whatever their span, to rise to any required height. This useful form was discovered in the pointed arch, which had long been in use in Provence, and which the builders of the North of France now found themselves forced to adopt by the exigencies of their vaults, and which ultimately led to the development of the pointed style.

The new life and growth of architecture which, as we have seen, sprung into existence in the twelfth century, had been adopted with eagerness by the builders of the Royal Domain of France. Not being trammelled by the traditions of an ancient and long-used system, these architects had thrown themselves with energy into the new development of architecture, and it was in this locality that the application of the pointed arch to the difficulties of the vaulting seems to have been first successfully carried out.

As early as 1144 the pointed vaulting of the side chapels of the Cathedral of St. Denis was completed by the Abbé Suger. Some time elapsed until the effect of this new system of vaulting was fully realised, either in France or England; but when its advantages were at last seized, the pointed arch was speedily adopted. At first it was applied in both countries, for the sake of strength, to the main bearing arches; but gradually the round arch was superseded, and the pointed form adopted, for the sake of harmony, in all wall openings. The pointed style thus became completed in its main elements towards the close of the twelfth century. The pointed form of the vaulting gradually ruled every other feature. The large windows of the clerestory, being near the vaults, naturally assumed the same pointed form as the wall ribs, and the other windows and the doorways speedily followed, in sympathy with the general movement.

The fresh vigour of the mouldings and foliage begun under the Normans went on improving in the pointed style, and the energy and devotion of the builders in France and England wrought out in each country a separate pointed architecture, each founded on the use of the pointed arch, but each showing original and distinct elements.

In France there is visible, in the early pointed architecture, a constant effort to attain to some new development--a restless striving after novel and more expanded forms, leading to great magnitude and height in the churches, many of which were, in consequence, never finished. In England, while novelties of design are sought after, there is more contentment and completeness in the architecture. There is not the same soaring ambition and striving after spacious buildings and lofty vaults; consequently, the English cathedrals and large churches are more frequently finished, a greater amount of attention being devoted to rendering the structure complete and varied in its different parts than in the production of one great and striking result. The English cathedrals are thus more picturesque, while those of France are grander in appearance. The former effect is produced by the multiplicity and variety, as well as the completeness, of all the parts, many of the English cathedrals (as Salisbury, Fig. 19) having double transepts, eastern lady chapels, large vaulted cloisters, detached chapter-houses, &c.; while the grand effect of the French cathedrals arises from their great size and height, and the apparent unity and simplicity of the design. In one respect the cathedrals and churches of the two countries greatly differ. Owing to

their immense height, the French churches require a vast quantity of lofty buttresses and pinnacles, which, to the eye accustomed to those of England, produce a feeling of confusion and unrest. The great flying

buttresses of the multangular chevet of the French cathedrals tend to increase this feeling, and to give the impression of an unfinished building still surrounded with huge piles of scaffolding. The plain rectangular east end of most of the English cathedrals, and the comparative simplicity of the easily intelligible buttresses and pinnacles, give an air of repose and peacefulness to these edifices which is sought for in vain in most French examples. The portals of France are amongst the chief glories of its churches. The doorways of the English churches, although sometimes beautiful in detail, never attempt to reach the magnitude or splendour of those of France. But the side porches of the English churches are often of great size and beauty.

When attention is directed to the details of pointed architecture, constructional characteristics are found to pervade their design. In France, there is visible in every element of early pointed work a continuous effort to indicate its intention and purpose. Constructional utility rules everything, each member is designed to perform its function in the most perfect manner, and ornament is employed to express that idea. By means of the square or angular abacus of the caps and bases of the shafts, which are always set so as to show what member they carry, an effort is made to express the motive of the design, and the caps are carved with spirited foliage, signifying by its upward tendency the vigour with which they perform their duty. (Fig. 20.) The shafts of the piers, also, are so arranged and grouped and set at such heights as to declare at once the function they perform in supporting certain ribs and mouldings of the arches and vaults, and the tracery of the windows gives expression to the ideas which have guided its design. The constructional principles of the French architecture are especially distinct in the naked, but vigorous, churches of the early Cistercians in France.

The details of the early English work, while equally beautiful with French work, are not quite so expressive of growth and vigour. The foliage is conventional in the extreme, and less suggestive of vitality and development. The abacus of the caps, which is almost invariably round, does not so fully express their purpose in the design, while the mouldings with which the caps are usually ornamented fail to show the life and spirit of the carved and foliaged caps of France. (Fig. 21.) In the same way the introduction of tracery in the English windows lags behind that of France. In the latter country window tracery was fully developed by 1250, while in England the lancet form, single or grouped, was still adhered to. In variety of clustered columns and in richness of mouldings, however, the English style held its own.

The characteristics of the first or early pointed style in France and England are as distinct and apparent as those of the Norman. The general effect of the exterior (Fig. 22) is lighter than in the latter style, though still solid. The buttresses have greater projection and less breadth than the Norman ones, and are often lightened by having the outer angles chamfered. The water tables of the set-offs are also steeper, the pinnacles are thinner and loftier, and the buttresses are crowned with gablets and finials. In late examples the flying buttress is introduced. The windows are invariably pointed. They are narrow and lofty, and from their acute shape are known as “lancet” windows. Each single window is distinct, but sometimes two or three are brought close together and are included within one arch head, so as to form a group. As the style advanced the arch head of such a group was perforated with a trefoil or quatrefoil figure. Circular windows are also common, and these came to be filled with

radiating shafts and trefoiled arch heads. Out of these two forms there gradually arose a simple kind of tracery towards the close of the period. The trefoiled head of the lancet is also a distinct evidence of early pointed work. The doorways are deeply recessed, and have generally free shafts in the jambs, with mouldings between. The arch mouldings are usually in square orders and boldly cut. In the interior the piers of the arches are much less massive than the Norman piers, and are often composed of clustered shafts standing free, and set round a circular or octagonal pillar. The Norman square abacus continued to

be used in transition and early first pointed work; but later, in England, the caps of each shaft have a round abacus, and the cap itself usually consists of mouldings, with a bell-shaped form beneath. When foliage is employed it is invariably of the conventional form above referred to; but in France the cap-à-crochet is almost universal. The arch mouldings are deeply cut, and their lighter form is easily distinguished from the heavy Norman rolls.

The ornaments of the mouldings are also very distinctly marked, the dog-tooth being conspicuous in all early pointed work.

Tall towers and spires supersede the more massive and lower towers of the Normans. In the vaults, the ribs are simple--only the cross springers and diagonal ribs being used--a longitudinal and transverse ridge rib is, however, occasionally employed.

FIRST POINTED STYLE IN SCOTLAND.

In Scotland, as might be expected, from its remoteness from the centre of origin, and from the fact that the pointed style was imported into this country through England, pointed architecture is not only somewhat later in appearing, but is to some extent modified in its developments. The main characteristics of the early pointed style of this country are, however, founded on those of England, and show no traces of any direct influence from France.

The principal difference between Scottish and English work is that the former is later and not so completely and purely pointed in style as the latter, the round arch and other Norman forms lingering with us in some cases long after the pointed style had been adopted.

During the thirteenth century the importation and settlement of Anglo-Normans in Scotland, begun in the previous century, still continued, and amicable relations between England and Scotland were fairly maintained. The Norman Conquest, which had been effected with so much violence in England, proceeded by more gentle means in Scotland, at least for a time. The ancient Culdee ecclesiastics having been absorbed or displaced and their revenues appropriated, the Church became gradually settled and established under the authority of Rome, and a stream of Englishmen continued to flow in to fill all the posts of honour and emolument in the ecclesiastical sphere; cathedrals, monasteries, and parish churches arose under the fresh and vigorous impulse of the new order of things. The style of architecture practised in England during the thirteenth century was introduced into Scotland, and the edifices erected here could scarcely be distinguished in character of design from those of the early English period in England.

The pointed Gothic style, which, as we have seen, had its origin in the North of France about the middle of the twelfth century, appeared in England about 1170, but can scarcely be said to have reached Scotland till after the close of the twelfth century. The Abbey of Arbroath, founded by William the Lion in 1178, contains a few traces of transition work, passing later into first pointed; and other structures containing a good deal of Norman design were erected in Scotland as late as 1210. The Anglicising process, begun in the twelfth century, was continued in the thirteenth century. The Orders of the Cathedrals were founded on those of England. “Thus the Chapter of Glasgow took that of Salisbury as its guide; Dunkeld copied from the same type, venerable in its associations with the name of St. Osmund, whose ‘use of Sarum’ obtained generally throughout Scotland. Elgin or Murray sent to Lincoln for its pattern, and transmitted it, with certain modifications, to Aberdeen and Caithness. So it was also with the Monasteries--Canterbury was the mother of Dunfermline, Durham of Coldingham; St. Oswald’s at Oxstall, near Pontefract, was the parent of Scone, and through that house of St. Andrews and Holyrood. Melrose and Dundrennan were daughters of Rievaux in the North Riding; Dryburgh was the offspring of Alnwick, Paisley of Wenlock.”[56]

Building in Scotland appears to have gone on in the thirteenth century as busily and with the same enthusiasm as in the previous century. But being far from the seat of the origin of the pointed style, and having received the principles of that style at second hand through England, time was required for its adoption in the North, and even when cordially welcomed there, some of the features of the earlier Romanesque still lingered and were slowly dispossessed.