Part 3

[11] “By many of the Buddhists it is considered to be an act of great merit to make a vow never to partake of food without giving a portion to the priests.”—_Eastern Monachism_. Spence Hardy.

[12] “The fifth of the twelve sacred observances of the Chinese is called in Sanscrit Khaloupas’ Waddhaktinka, and is said to enjoin that the food obtained by the mendicant is to be divided into three portions: one to be given to any person whom he sees to be suffering from hunger, and a second to be carried to some quiet place in the forest, and placed upon a stone for the birds and beasts. If he does not meet with any one who is in want, he is not to eat the whole of the food that he has received, but two-thirds only. By this means his body will be lighter and more active.... He will be able readily to enter upon the practice of all good works. When any one eats too greedily ... nothing is more harmful to the development of reason.” (Quotation from Remusat’s _Relation des Royaumes Buddhiques_, in Spence Hardy’s _Eastern Monachism_.)

[13] “The alms-bowl which Sakyamuni used is considered a sacred relic, and to be used by each of the hundred Buddhas of the present kalpa. It was first preserved in Vais’ali, whence its emigrations began to Gandhara, to Persia, to China, to Ceylon, to Madhyades’a, up into the heaven Tuchita, and down to the bottom of the ocean, where it is to await (in the palace of Sagara) the advent of Meitreya Buddha.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.

[Chapter 2]

Upon that occasion, the venerable Subhuti[1] occupied a place in the midst of the assembly. Rising from his seat, with cloak arranged in such manner that his right shoulder was disclosed, Subhuti knelt upon his right knee, then pressing together the palms of his hands, he respectfully raised them towards Lord Buddha, saying: “Thou art of transcendent wisdom, Honoured of the Worlds! With wonderful solicitude, Thou dost preserve in the faith, and instruct in the Law, this illustrious assembly of enlightened disciples.[2] Honoured of the Worlds! if a good disciple, whether man or woman,[3] seeks to obtain supreme spiritual wisdom,[4] what immutable Law shall sustain the mind of that disciple, and bring into subjection every inordinate desire?”[5]

The Lord Buddha replied to Subhuti, saying: “Truly a most excellent theme! As you affirmed, I preserve in the faith, and instruct in the Law, this illustrious assembly of enlightened disciples. Attend diligently unto me, and I shall enunciate a Law whereby the mind of a good disciple, whether man or woman, seeking to obtain supreme spiritual wisdom,[6] shall be adequately sustained, and enabled to bring into subjection[7] every inordinate desire.” Subhuti was gratified, and signified glad consent. Thereupon, the Lord Buddha, with majesty of person,[8] and perfect articulation, proceeded to deliver the text of this Scripture,[9] saying:—

[1] “A famous dialectician noted for the subtilty of his intellect. He was a native of Shravasti, a contemporary of Sakyamuni, and figures as the principal interlocutor in the _Prajna-Paramita_.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.

[2] “_Pu-Sa_ or Bodhisattva, literally he whose essence (Sattva) has become intelligence (Bodhi). A being that has only once more to pass through human existence before it attains to Buddhaship. The third class of Buddhistic saints comprehending all who are candidates for Buddhaship as well as those Buddhas who are not yet perfected by entrance into Nirvana. They are also styled Mahasattvas (_Mo-Ho-Sa_). The state of a Bodhisattva is considered as one of the three means of conveyance to Nirvana.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.

[3] “Women began to ask and received permission to take the vows. They were called in India Bikshuni.... Ni is the Sanscrit feminine termination of Bikshu. These female mendicants were subject to the same code of regulations as the males.”—_Chinese Buddhism_. Edkins.

[4] “_ho-ru-to-lo-san-mao-san-pu-ti_ (Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi), literally unexcelled perfect intelligence. Another more painstaking but arbitrary explanation is untarnished and unparalleled (Nuttara) correct view (Sam) and complete wisdom (Myak) with complete possession of the highest sentiments (Sambodhi). This term, one of the sacred phrases of most frequent occurrence, signifies the characteristics which every Buddha possesses.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.

“The unsurpassed, just, and enlightened heart.”—_Kin-Kong-King_. Beal.

[5] “When a man’s heart is disposed in accordance with his roaming senses, it snatches away his spiritual knowledge as the wind does a ship on the waves.”—_Bhagavad-Gita_. J. Cockburn Thomson.

[6] Chinese commentators are careful to explain that the title of this Sutra, _Po-ro-po-lo-mi_ (_Prajna-Paramita_), means Wisdom, by which we are enabled to reach the other shore (Nirvana).

[7] “Bringing into captivity every thought to the obedience of Christ.”—The Apostle Paul.

[8] Compare the Chinese text of the famous Buddhist tract entitled _Awakening of Faith_, written by _Ma-Ming_ (Asvaghocha), “who flourished A.D. 50, under the Indo-Scythic king, Gondophares.”

[9] “This work contains the germ of the larger compilation _Prajna-Paramita_ in one hundred and twenty volumes. The abstractions of Buddhist philosophy, which were afterwards ramified to such a formidable extent as these numbers indicate, are here found in their primary form, probably as they were taught by Sakyamuni himself.”—_Chinese Buddhism_. Edkins.

[Chapter 3 and 4]

“By this wisdom shall enlightened disciples be enabled to bring into subjection every inordinate desire! Every species of life, whether hatched in the egg, formed in the womb, evolved from spawn, produced by metamorphosis, with or without form or intelligence, possessing or devoid of natural instinct—from these changeful[1] conditions of being, I command you to seek deliverance,[2] in the transcendental concept of Nirvana.[3] Thus, you shall be delivered from an immeasurable, innumerable, and illimitable world of sentient life; but, in reality, there is no world of sentient life from which to seek deliverance. And why? Because, in the minds[4] of enlightened disciples there have ceased to exist such arbitrary concepts of phenomena as an entity, a being, a living being, or a personality.”[5]

“Moreover, Subhuti, an enlightened disciple ought to act spontaneously in the exercise of charity,[6] uninfluenced by sensuous phenomena[7] such as sound, odour, taste, touch, or Law.[8] Subhuti, it is imperative that an enlightened disciple, in the exercise of charity, should act independently of phenomena. And why? Because, acting without regard to illusive forms of phenomena, he will realise in the exercise of charity, a merit inestimable and immeasurable.”

“Subhuti, what think you? Is it possible to estimate the distance comprising the illimitable universe of space?”[9] Subhuti replied, saying: “Honoured of the Worlds! It is impossible to estimate the distance comprising the illimitable universe of space.” The Lord Buddha thereupon discoursed, saying: “It is equally impossible to estimate the merit[10] of an enlightened disciple, who discharges the exercise of charity, unperturbed by the seductive influences of phenomena. Subhuti, the mind of an enlightened disciple ought thus to be indoctrinated.”[11]

[1] “The first of six Paramita—charity, morality, endurance, energy, contemplation, wisdom—cardinal virtues, or means of progressing towards Nirvana. The virtue of religious charity, implying all kinds of self-denying acts, almsgiving, sacrifice, etc.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.

[2] “The kind of craving excitement, which follows on sensation, and causes the delusion of self and the lust of life—creating either delight in the objects that present themselves, or an eager desire to supply a felt want—this eager yearning thirst growing into sensuality, desire of future life, or love of the present world, is the origin of all suffering. Sorrow and suffering will be overcome, extinguished, if this ‘thirst’ be quenched, this lust of life destroyed. ‘He who overcomes this contemptible thirst, sufferings fall off from him like water drops from a lotus leaf.’”—_Buddhism_. T. W. Rhys Davids.

[3] _Fah_, the Chinese equivalent of Dharma—Law, appears to be a generic term for all religious doctrines incidental to Buddhism. The Buddhas are invariably referred to as _Fah-Wang_—Princes of the Law. The Sutras are frequently alluded to as _Fah-Pao_—Jewels of the Law. The monks are usually designated _Fah-Men_—Disciples of the Law. The interminable process of transmigration is depicted by _Fah-Luen_—Wheel of the Law. The dissemination of Buddhistic tenets is typified by _Chuan-Fah-Luen_—Revolving Wheel of the Law. Religious designations consonant with the idea of Law, are held in high esteem amongst the Buddhist ecclesiastical orders. Of such are _Fah-Ai_—Lover of the Law; _Fah-Lien_—Approved in the Law; _Fah-Ming_—Brightness of the Law (compare Eitel’s _Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_.

[4] “Subhuti, can the western, or southern, or northern regions of space be measured? or the four midway regions of space (_i.e._, N.E., S.E., S.W., N.W.), or the upper and lower regions: can either of these be accurately measured or defined?”— _Kin-Kong-King_. Beal.

[5] “Of all the modes of acquiring merit, that of almsgiving is the principal; it is the chief of the virtues that are requisite for the attainment of the Buddhaship; it is the first of the four great virtues, _viz_.: almsgiving, affability, promoting the prosperity of others, and loving others as ourselves; it is superior to the observance of the precepts—the path that all the Buddhas have trod—a lineage to which they have all belonged.... The giving of alms softens the mind, and brings it into subjection, by which the ascetic is prepared for the exercise of the rites he is afterwards to practise.... The faithful are required to give in alms of that which they have honestly earned by their own personal exertions.... There must be a willing mind respecting that which they offer, from the time that the intention of making the offering is formed to the time when it is presented, as well as after it has been made.... When the gift, the giver, and the receiver are all pure, the reward is proportionately great.”—_Eastern Monachism_. Spence Hardy.

[6] “Let his livelihood be kindliness, His conduct righteousness, Then in the fulness of gladness He will make an end of grief.”—_Buddhism_. T. W. Rhys Davids.

[1] Discoursing upon illusory ideas concerning the world of sentient life, the Lord Buddha stated that these were already eliminated from the minds of his enlightened disciples. The reference in the text is to disciples in process of instruction, and these the Lord Buddha commanded to relegate to oblivion the deceptive idea of the reality of sentient life, to dissolve within their minds its nauseous dregs, to put away its horrid stain, and cause it to vanish like snow in a glowing furnace.—_Chinese Annotation_.

“The very nature of phenomena demonstrates that they must have had a beginning, and that they must have an end.”—_Lay Sermons_. Huxley.

[2] By adopting the term _Mieh-Tu_, Chinese Buddhists appear well prepared to refute a prevalent notion that their concept of deliverance is equivalent to annihilation. _Mieh_ usually means annihilation, but _Tu_—to cross over in safety, is the antithesis of annihilation. After due consideration of the significance of the terminology, perhaps it will be generally conceded that English renderings of _Mieh-Tu_ as Deliverance or Salvation, are not without some degree of justification.

“All these I command and exhort to enter on the state of the unsurpassed Nirvana (Pari Nirvana), and for ever to free themselves from the conditions of being to which they severally belong.”—_Kin-Kong-King_. Beal.

[3] “The dewdrop slips into the shining sea.”—_Light of Asia_. Sir Edwin Arnold.

“The dewdrop re-becomes the shining sea.”—_Chioh-Hsien_ (a Chinese monk).

“The popular exoteric systems agree in defining Nirvana negatively as a state of absolute exemption from the circle of transmigration as a state of entire freedom from all forms of materiality, from all passion and exertion, mentally and emotionally, a state of indifference therefore alike to joy and pain. Positively they define Nirvana as the highest stage of spiritual liberty and bliss, as absolute immortality through absorption of the soul into itself. Individuality is preserved, and Buddhas who have entered Nirvana occasionally reappear again to intervene on behalf of the faithful.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.

[4] The able commentator _Ti-Ching_ observes that many people, like Ananda—a favourite disciple of Buddha—are in error when they suppose their minds to be located within their material bodies. This interesting aspect of Buddhist psychology is made tolerably clear in the familiar narrative known generally as _The Enlightenment of Ananda_. Therein the Lord Buddha endeavours to prove that as objects within ourselves are invisible, the illuminating mind cannot be asserted to inhabit exclusively our material bodies. He also indicates that it cannot be affirmed to occupy any appointed sphere outside ourselves, it being usually understood that we observe only those objects by which we are environed. The Lord Buddha also controverts the theory, enunciated by Ananda, that the mind is secreted somewhere within the organs of sense; which assumption is based upon a notion that the seeing eye, and differentiating mind, are mysteriously correlated.

[5] “This belief in self is regarded so distinctly as a heresy that two well-known words in Buddhist terminology have been coined on purpose to stigmatise it. The first of these is Sakkayaditthi, ‘the heresy of individuality,’ the name given to this belief as one of the three primary delusions (the others being doubt, and belief in the efficacy of rites or ceremonies) which must be abandoned at the very first stage of the Buddhist path of holiness. The other is Attavada, ‘the doctrine of soul or self,’ which is the name given to it as a part of the chain of causes which lead to the origin of evil. It is there classed—with sensuality, heresy (as to eternity and annihilation), and belief in the efficacy of rites and ceremonies—as one of the four Upadanas, which are the immediate cause of birth, decay, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair.”—_Buddhism_. T. W. Rhys Davids.

[Chapter 5]

The Lord Buddha interrogated Subhuti, saying: “What think you? Is it possible that by means of his physical body,[1] the Lord Buddha may be clearly perceived?” Subhuti replied, saying: “No! Honoured of the Worlds! It is impossible that by means of his physical body, the Lord Buddha may be clearly perceived. And why? Because, what the Lord Buddha referred to as a physical body, is in reality not merely a physical body.” Thereupon the Lord Buddha addressed Subhuti, saying: “Every form or quality of phenomena is transient and illusive. When the mind realises that the phenomena of life are not real phenomena, the Lord Buddha may then be clearly perceived.”[2]

[1] “Primitive Buddhism distinguished a material, visible, and perishable body (_Seh-Shen_—_lit_., the Body of Form) and an immaterial, invisible, immortal body (_Fah-Shen_—_lit_., the Body of Law) as the constituents of every personality. This dichotomism, taught, as it seems by Sakyamuni himself, was ever afterwards retained as regards the nature of ordinary mortals. But in later ages, when the combined influence of Sivaism, which ascribed to Siva a threefold body (called _Dharmakaya_—essence, _Sambhogakaya_—reflex intelligence, and _Nirmanakaya_—practical issue of his intelligence), and that of Brahmanism with its Trimurti, gave rise to the Buddhist dogma of a Triratna (_San-Pao_—the precious Buddha, the precious Law, and the precious Priesthood), trichotomism was taught with regard to the nature of all Buddhas. Again they ascribed to every Buddha a triple form of existence, viewing him: [1] as having entered Nirvana; [2] as existing in reflex in the world of form; [3] as existing or having existed on earth.”—_Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_. Eitel.

[2] The spiritual Buddha must be realised within the mind, otherwise there can be no true perception of the Lord Buddha.—_Chinese Annotation_.

[Chapter 6]

Subhuti enquired of the Lord Buddha, saying: “Honoured of the Worlds! In future ages, when this scripture is proclaimed, amongst those beings destined to hear, shall any conceive within their minds a sincere, unmingled faith?”[1]

The Lord Buddha replied to Subhuti, saying: “Have no such apprehensive thought! Even at the remote period of five centuries subsequent to the Nirvana of the Lord Buddha,[3] there will be many disciples observing the monastic vows,[3] and assiduously devoted to good works.[4] These, hearing this scripture proclaimed, will believe in its immutability, and similarly conceive within their minds a pure, unmingled faith. Besides, it is important to realise that faith[5] thus conceived, is not exclusively in virtue of the insular thought of any particular Buddha, but because of its affiliation with the concrete[6] thoughts of myriad Buddhas, throughout infinite ages. Therefore, amongst the beings destined to hear this Scripture proclaimed, many, by momentary reflection, will intuitively[7] conceive a pure and holy faith.”

“Subhuti, the Lord Buddha by his prescience,[8] is perfectly cognisant of all such potential disciples, and for these also there is reserved an immeasurable merit. And why? Because, the minds of these disciples will not revert to such arbitrary concepts of phenomena as an entity, a being, a living being, a personality, qualities or ideas coincident with Law, or existing apart from the idea of Law. And why? Because, assuming the permanency and reality of phenomena, the minds of these disciples would be involved in such distinctive ideas as an entity, a being, a living being, and a personality. Affirming the permanency and reality of qualities or ideas coincident with Law, their minds would inevitably be involved in resolving these same definitions. Postulating the inviolate nature of qualities or ideas which have an existence apart from the Law, there yet remain to be explained these abstruse distinctions—an entity, a being, a living being, and a personality. Therefore, enlightened disciples ought not to affirm the permanency or reality of qualities or ideas coincident with Law, nor postulate as being of an inviolate nature, qualities or ideas having an existence apart from the concept of Law.”

“Thus, we are enabled to appreciate the significance of those words which the Lord Buddha invariably repeated to his followers: ‘You disciples must realise that the Law which I enunciated, was presented before your minds in the simile of a raft.[9] If the Law—having fulfilled its function in bearing you to the other shore (Nirvana)[10]—with its coincident qualities and ideas must inevitably be abandoned,[11] how much more inevitable must be the abandonment of qualities or ideas which have an existence apart from the Law?’”

[1] Compare the question addressed by Jesus to His disciples, “When the Son of Man cometh, shall He find faith on the earth?”

[2] “In fulness of the times—it fell The Buddha died, the great Tathagata, Even as a man ’mongst men, fulfilling all: And how a thousand thousand lakhs since then Have trod the Path which leads whither he went Unto Nirvana, where the Silence lives.”—_The Light of Asia_. Sir Edwin Arnold.

[3] When a novice seeks admission to a monastic order, an ordination service is conducted by a chapter of monks, at which the following vows are administered. “I take the vow not to destroy life. I take the vow not to steal. I take the vow to abstain from impurity. I take the vow not to lie. I take the vow to abstain from intoxicating drinks, which hinder progress and virtue. I take the vow not to eat at forbidden times. I take the vow to abstain from dancing, singing, music, and stage plays. I take the vow not to use garlands, scents, unguents, or ornaments. I take the vow not to use a high or broad bed. I take the vow not to receive gold or silver.” (Compare _Buddhism_. T. W. Rhys Davids.)

[4] “The primary motive for doing good, and worshipping Buddha, according to these scriptures (the Buddha scriptures of Nipal), is the hope of obtaining absorption into the nature of the god, and being freed from transmigrations.”—_China_. Sir John Francis Davis.

[5] “And is thy faith so much to give, Is it so hard a thing to see, That the Spirit of God, whate’er it be, The Law that abides and changes not, ages long, The Eternal and Nature-Born—these things be strong?”—_The Bacche_. Euripides (translated by Gilbert Murray).

[6] “The elements of faith, like the flowers, appear to have their roots in eternity.”—_Chang-Ming_ (a Chinese monk).

[7] “Were it possible for a Yogi and a Rahat from India, a Greek philosopher from one of the schools holding the power of intuition, an ascetic from the wilds of Syria or the mountains of Egypt, a heretic from the school at Alexandria, a monk from one of the monasteries of Europe, a schoolman of the Middle Ages, and a modern German metaphysician of the school of Schelling to meet together, and were it possible for them to forget their sectarian subtleties and nice distinctions, they would find that there was a vast mass of speculation about the main principles of which they were agreed. They would be of one mind relative to the four following propositions: [1] That there is an objective potency of intellect; [2] That this potency can be rendered subjective by concentrated thought, ascetic exercises, or determined effort; [3] That this potency can only be acquired by the initiated; [4] That the initiated may enlarge this potency to a limitless extent. As to the efficient cause of the potency, there would be a difference of opinion; some would ascribe it to intuition alone, while others would attribute it to an alliance with higher spirits or with God; but of its existence there would be no doubt.”—_Eastern Monachism_. Spence Hardy.

[8] “For now I know, by what within me stirs, That I shall teach compassion unto men And be a speechless world’s interpreter.”—_The Light of Asia_. Sir Edwin Arnold.

[9] “(By me) is made a well-constructed raft,—so said Bhagavat—I have passed over (to Nibbana), I have reached the further bank, having overcome the torrent (of passions); there is no (further) use for a raft: therefore if thou like, rain, O sky!”—_Sutta-Nipata_. Fausböll.

[10] Compare an idea expressed by the apostle Paul, “wherefore the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ.” Note, also, the similarity of a metaphor employed in Christian anthology, “We shall meet on that beautiful ‘shore.’”

[11] “Our little systems have their day, They have their day and cease to be; They are but broken lights of Thee, But thou, O Lord, art more than they.”—Tennyson.

“Reposing on eternal truth ... when thy mind shall have worked through the snares of delusion, then wilt thou attain to indifference to the doctrines, which are either (already) received, or have yet to be received.”—_Bhagavad-Gita_. J. Cockburn Thomson.

[Chapter 7]