CHAPTER XXVII.
ARMAND TROUSSEAU, ONE OF THE LAST OF FRANCE’S GREAT CLINICAL TEACHERS
In the preface to his “_Bibliothèque de Thérapeutique_,” which was published first in 1828, A. L. J. Bayle says that the art of treating diseases has been greatly neglected, in comparison with the enthusiastic efforts made to promote some of the other branches of the science of medicine, especially that of pathological anatomy; and, as a result, this art has in reality actually retrograded. Indeed, he goes on to say, quite a large number of agents which, up to a recent date, had been considered efficient remedies, have been entirely forgotten or even, in some instances, proscribed. This unfortunate tendency, he adds, may be attributed to many different causes. One of the most important of these, he believes, is to be found in the fact that certain physicians have allowed the idea to take root in their minds that the lesions which have been discovered in the different organs of the body at post-mortem examinations were the cause of the symptoms that, taken in the aggregate, constitute the particular disease under consideration; and, acting under the influence of this idea, they have assumed that their therapeutic efforts should be directed solely to these lesions. “Experience has not confirmed the correctness of this theory; on the contrary, it has shown that, if pathological anatomy is useful to the practitioner, it is chiefly so because it throws light upon the course and prognosis of certain diseases, and not because it has furnished a basis upon which the treatment may be built up.”
There is still another equally strong reason, says Bayle, why the art of therapeutics has been prevented from making a satisfactory advance, viz., the propagation of the physiological doctrine (Broussaism), a doctrine which admits the existence of practically only one disease—_irritation_, in its varying degrees of intensity, together with a single class of remedies—_anti-irritants_. Modern therapeutists reject most of these ideas, and experience also shows that, in the matter of therapeutics, these anti-irritants often produce harmful results. “A treatise on therapeutics,” he goes on to say, “should contain the substance of all the good memoirs that have been published on the treatment of the different diseases and on the remedies employed; it should also mention all the circumstances which indicate or contra-indicate the employment of remedial agents, the best forms in which the latter may be administered, all the cases in which they have succeeded in affording relief as well as all those in which they have failed to accomplish this result; all the authors who have written on the subject under consideration; and, finally whatever additional facts may give the practitioner confidence in the reality of the results proclaimed.”
There came under public notice, at about this period of time, a French physician who evidently held very much the same beliefs as were put forward by A. L. J. Bayle and which I have very briefly stated in the preceding paragraph. I refer to ARMAND TROUSSEAU, who was born (1801) in Western France, and who received his early medical training under that prince of physicians, Bretonneau, of Tours. In association with his friend, Hermann Pidoux, he published (in two volumes, Paris, 1836–1839) an excellent treatise on materia medica and therapeutics. The spirit which guided him in the preparation of this treatise is well expressed in his own words as follows:—
Medicine is both a science and an art.... It is an art when it becomes necessary to apply it to a human being who is ill, and this is especially true when the manner of treatment is under consideration. It is in this art that the physician reveals how much talent he possesses; he reveals himself as a true artist by the particular form of remedial preparation which he decides to administer to his patient, by the felicitous choice which he makes between remedies, and by the favorable manner in which he combines them.
Dujardin-Beaumetz then adds the important statement that in his belief Trousseau was—at the time when he gave utterance to these words—the living personification of the truth of what he said, for nobody had carried the therapeutic art to a higher state of perfection than he had. To this statement may be added, with perfect truth, the opinion held by many of his contemporaries to the effect that the publication of the Trousseau-Pidoux treatise promoted effectively the growth of a sound and trustworthy therapeutic code. The mere fact that in 1875 this treatise had already reached its ninth edition furnishes strongly corroborative proof of the correctness of this opinion.
The scantiness of the space which I consider it proper to devote to this single memoir appears to me to justify the omission, from this point onward, of everything that does not add to the description of Trousseau’s career as one of the greatest clinical teachers in the domain of internal medicine in France. I am the more strongly impelled to adopt this course because so many of my personal friends among the physicians who returned to New York, during the years 1860–1864, spoke in such terms of praise of the success attained by Trousseau in this particular branch of medical education.
His profound earnestness as a clinical teacher and his incessant watchfulness over the interests and rights of the patients who served as material for his bedside lectures are brought out so clearly in one of his addresses to the class at the beginning of one of his regular courses that I shall be pardoned, I am sure, for reproducing it here in considerable fulness of detail:—
Gentlemen:—Before making any remarks to you about my service at the hospital I feel impelled to tell you what I understand by the expression ‘clinical instruction’ and to put before you what I consider to be the respective duties of the professor and of those who regularly follow his lessons.—It is for me a very pleasant thing, as you may readily imagine, to see, crowding around the beds in the ward and seated on the benches of the amphitheatre, a large number of pupils; but the consciousness that I am fulfilling a useful mission and am sowing in the minds of these young men ideas that will later be fertilized, affords me a much greater pleasure. However, both as regards the professor and also as regards the pupils who listen to his teaching, there are needed certain conditions in the absence of which the clinical instruction must necessarily prove sterile.
Although clinical instruction represents the crowning stage of your medical studies, I would not have you believe that this particular part of your medical training should not be begun until you reach the last period of your student career. From the very day when a young man decides that he wants to be a physician he should lose no opportunity of visiting hospitals. It is desirable that he should see sick people—not occasionally, but as frequently as possible. The materials which are thus at first stored in one’s memory in a confused and disorderly condition are nevertheless excellent materials. While they may not to-day appear to possess a useful character, you will find them at a later period stored away among the genuine treasures lodged in your memory. To-day I have reached the period of old age, and yet I remember distinctly the patients whom I saw forty-three years ago when I took the very first steps in my career of physician; I recall the most important symptoms, the pathological lesions, even in some cases the patient’s name or the number of the bed which he occupied. The recollections are at times of service to me, they even afford me instruction, and occasionally you may hear me refer to them at our bedside conferences. I therefore urge upon even the youngest among you, the practice of visiting regularly every day the hospital. On the whole I believe that you will find it more profitable to give the preference at first to the medical rather than to the surgical wards.... You will not derive real profit from frequenting the latter until after you have acquired some knowledge in anatomy, whereas the possession of a few superficial conceptions regarding physiology will be found sufficient for the student who is beginning his first medical studies.
Little by little you will find that you are becoming more and more able to judge, from a mere inspection of the patient’s face and expression, how serious is the malady with which he is affected; you will learn how to feel his pulse and to appreciate correctly its different qualities; and you will begin to acquire some knowledge of auscultation and percussion; etc....
I cannot too often repeat to you the fact that a knowledge of anatomy is not to be acquired by listening to lectures upon the subject; in order to gain such knowledge you should have before you, a human cadaver—a cadaver around which sit two or three other students besides yourself, all busily engaged in the work of dissecting, and near you there should be an older and more experienced pupil upon whom you can depend for guidance. Similarly, knowledge of actual disease is to be learned by the student only at the hospital, and with the aid of one of the resident physicians or of a chief of staff, who is competent to teach you how a patient should be questioned and how a systematic examination of the case should be conducted.... And here let me remind you that the patients who are to be found in our wards are poor people, people who are compelled by their suffering and by their lack of money to take refuge in a hospital. A knowledge of this situation of affairs should lead us to show them some consideration and respect. So far as the men are concerned I admit that it is permissible for us to treat them with less delicacy. From the viewpoint of modesty there is very little indelicacy in removing the clothes from a man in order to make an examination of the surface of his body; on the other hand, it is not right to do this if the examination is at all likely to affect his health unfavorably. And now that we are discussing this subject, I am obliged to confess that young men are only too apt to forget that, after the clothing has been removed from a man whose skin is wet with perspiration, it is very dangerous to expose him even for a short time to the contact of a chilly air. It is also not permissible, even in the interest of science, to prolong a physical examination or to carry out the manipulations required in auscultation and percussion if you find that it is exhausting the poor patient’s strength. In the latter case it is better to leave the examination incomplete than to increase the feebleness of a patient who is already in such a state of weakness....
It was my intention to introduce at this point a citation from Trousseau’s “_Clinique de l’Hôtel-Dieu_” of sufficient length to reveal fairly well his manner of conducting clinical instruction at the bedside of a patient. My decision to do this was based upon the assumption that I should find among the printed accounts of these supposedly impromptu lectures one or more which would serve the required purpose. I soon discovered, however, that not a trace of the off-hand character of such instruction remained in these reports. As they appeared in print they were elaborate and quite exhaustive memoirs, suited for the edification of men who had already long since passed the undergraduate stage of medical training, and I was therefore obliged to abandon the plan which I had so much desired to carry out. If I had, from the very first, given more serious thought to the scheme which I had in mind I would have quickly realized the fact that no teacher of wide experience and universally recognized as an authority in the diagnosis and treatment of disease would be likely to commit to print lessons which were meant to be useful to medical students who had only just reached the threshold of their professional career.
Trousseau died on June 23, 1867, in his seventy-second year. The only important treatises which he published are the two which I have already mentioned.
LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT AUTHORITIES CONSULTED
ALIBERT, J. L.: ÉLOGES HISTORIQUES, ETC., Paris, 1806.
BAGLIVI: THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC REDUCED TO THE ANCIENT WAY OF OBSERVATIONS, translated from the Latin, London, 1704.
BARON, JOHN: THE LIFE OF EDWARD JENNER, 2 vols., London, 1838.
BARTHEZ, P. J.: NOUVEAUX ELÉMENS DE LA SCIENCE DE L’HOMME, Montpellier, 1778; Paris, 1806.
—— CONSULTATIONS DE MÉDECINE (ouvrage posthume), Paris, 1820.
BAUDELOCQUE, JEAN-LOUIS: L’ART DES ACCOUCHEMENS, 2 vols., Paris, 1807.
BAYLE, A. L. J.: BIBLIOTHÈQUE DE THÉRAPEUTIQUE, 4 vols., Paris, 1828–1837.
BAYLE, G. L.: TRAITÉ DES MALADIES CANCÉREUSES; OUVRAGE POSTHUME, Vol. I., Paris, 1833.
BÉCLARD, P. A.: ADDITIONS TO THE GENERAL ANATOMY OF XAVIER BICHAT, Translated from the French by George Hayward, M.D., Boston, 1823.
BELL, SIR CHARLES: INSTITUTES OF SURGERY, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1838.
BERNARD, CLAUDE: LEÇONS SUR LES PHÉNOMÈNES DE LA VIE COMMUNS AUX ANIMAUX ET AUX VÉGÉTAUX, Paris, 1878.
BONNET, THÉOPHILE: SEPULCHRETUM, 3 vols., Lyons, 1700.—A still earlier edition (1675) exists.
BORDEU: (See under RICHERAND.)
BOUILLAUD, J.: CLINIQUE MÉDICALE DE L’HÔPITAL DE LA CHARITÉ, 2 vols., Paris, 1837.
BOUILLET, J.: PRÉCIS D’HISTOIRE DE LA MÉDECINE, Paris, 1883.
BRETONNEAU ET SES CORRESPONDANTS, 2 vols., Paris, 1891. (Review in the _Revue Scientifique_ of July 23, 1892.)
BROUSSAIS, F. J. V.: EXAMEN DES DOCTRINES MÉDICALES, troisième edition, 4 vols., Paris, 1829–1834.
BUDD: TYPHOID FEVER, ITS NATURE, MODE OF SPREADING, AND PREVENTION, London, 1873.
BUISSON, F. R.: PRÉCIS HISTORIQUE SUR BICHAT, in Vol. I. of this Author’s Anatomie Générale, Paris, 1801.
CABANIS, P. J. G.: DU DEGRÉ DE CERTITUDE DE LA MÉDECINE, 3d edition, Paris, 1819. (Also contains Richerand’s eulogy of Cabanis.)
CARTER, H. W.: A SHORT ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL HOSPITALS OF FRANCE, ITALY, SWITZERLAND, AND THE NETHERLANDS, London, 1819.
CHEREAU, ACHILLE: NOTICE SUR LES ANCIENNES ÉCOLES DE MÉDECINE DE LA RUE DE LA BÛCHERIE, Paris, 1866.
CHOMEL: LEÇONS SUR LA FIÈVRE TYPHOÏDE, 1834. At a still earlier date (1821) Chomel published a general treatise on Fevers.
CORRY: LIFE OF JOSEPH PRIESTLEY, 1804.
CROSS, JOHN: SKETCHES OF THE MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF PARIS, London, 1815.
CUVIER: ÉLOGES HISTORIQUES LUS DANS LES SÉANCES PUBLIQUES DE L’INSTITUT ROYAL DE FRANCE, 3 vols., Strassbourg, 1819.
DAREMBERG, CHARLES: HISTOIRE DES SCIENCES MÉDICALES, Vol. 2, Paris, 1870.
DEZEIMERIS, OLLIVIER ET RAIGE-DELORME: DICT. HISTORIQUE DE LA MÉD. ANC. ET MOD., 3 vols., Paris, 1828–1837.
DUJARDIN-BEAUMETZ: “LEÇONS DE CLINIQUE THÉRAPEUTIQUE,” Paris, 1883.
DUPUYTREN, see under PAILLARD ET MARX.
EYNARD, THÉODORE: ESSAI SUR LA VIE DE TISSOT, Lausanne, 1839.
FRANK, JOHANN PETER: SYSTEM EINER VOLLSTÄNDIGEN MEDICINISCHEN POLIZEY, 6 vols., Mannheim, 1780–1788.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN: LIFE AND WRITINGS OF, Published by J. M. Dent & Sons, London and New York, 1908.
GAZETTE MÉDICALE DE PARIS, Tome III., 1835.
GILLES DE LA TOURETTE: THÉOPHRASTE RENAUDOT, Plon et Cie., Paris, 1884. Reviewed in _La Revue Scientifique_, April 9, 1892.
GRIBBLE, FRANCIS: LAKE GENEVA AND ITS LITERARY LANDMARKS, Westminster, England, 1901.
GUARDIA, J. M.: LA MÉDECINE À TRAVERS LES SIÈCLES, Paris, 1865.
GUÉNEAU DE MUSSY: CLINIQUE MÉDICALE, Vol. III., Traité Théorique et Pratique de la Fièvre Typhoïde ou Dothiénentérique, Paris, 1884.
GUEYRARD: LA DOCTRINE HOMOEOPATHIQUE EXAMINÉE SOUS LES RAPPORTS THÉORIQUE ET PRATIQUE, Bruxelles, 1834.
HAESER, H.: LEHRBUCH DER GESCHICHTE DER MEDICIN, Zweite Ausgabe, Jena, 1868 (3d edition, 1875).
HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL: ORGANON OF THE RATIONAL ART OF HEALING, translated from the German by C. E. Wheeler; published by C. M. Dent & Sons, London, 1913.
VON HALLER, ALBRECHT: BIBLIOTHECA MEDICINAE, 4 vols.; PRIMAE LINEAE PHYSIOLOGIAE, Goettingen, 1751; and a later edition of this work in two volumes, printed at Lausanne, Switzerland.
HECKER: GESCHICHTE DER NEUEREN HEILKUNDE, Berlin, 1839.
HIRSCH, AUGUST: GESCHICHTE DER MED. WISSENSCHAFTEN IN DEUTSCHLAND, Muenchen and Leipzig, 1893.
HOLLAENDER, EUGEN: PLASTIK UND MEDIZIN, Stuttgart, 1912.
HUFELAND, CHRISTOPH WILHELM: KUNST DAS MENSCHLICHE LEBEN ZU VERLAENGEREN (MAKROBIOTIK), Berlin, 1823, 5th edition.
HUNTERIAN REMINISCENCES, from notes taken by James Parkinson; London, 1833. (These notes were taken from a course of lectures delivered by the late John Hunter in 1785.)
HYRTL, JOSEPH: LEHRBUCH DER ANATOMIE DES MENSCHEN, Wien, 1873.
JACKSON, SIR GEORGE, K. C. H.: DIARIES AND LETTERS, 2 vols., London, 1872.
J. L. H. P.: SKETCHES OF THE CHARACTER AND WRITING OF EMINENT LIVING SURGEONS AND PHYSICIANS OF PARIS, translated from the French by Elisha Bartlett, M.D., Boston, Mass., 1831.
JAHR: MANUAL OF HOMOEOPATHIC MEDICINE, Vol. I.
KORN, GEORG: DIE HEILKUNDE IM NEUENZEHNTEN JAHRHUNDERT, Berlin, 1899.
LAËNNEC, R. T. H.: TRAITÉ DE L’AUSCULTATION MÉDIATE ET DES MALADIES DES POUMONS ET DU COEUR, deuxième édition, 2 vols., Paris. 1826.
LARREY, BARON: MÉMOIRE SUR LES AMPUTATIONS DES MEMBRES À LA SUITE DES COUPS DE FEU, Paris, 1797.
—— MÉMOIRES DE CHIRURGIE MILITAIRE, ET CAMPAGNES, 3 vols., Paris, 1812.
LAS CASES: MÉMOIRES D’E. A. D., COMTE DE LAS CASES, 1819.
LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT: “OEUVRES DE LAVOISIER PUBLIÉES PAR LES SOINS DE SON EXCELLENCE LE MINISTRE DE L’INSTRUCTION PUBLIQUE ET DES CULTES,” 6 vols., quarto, Paris, 1864.
LITTRÉ: DICTIONNAIRE DE MÉDECINE, DE CHIRURGIE, DE PHARMACIE, DE L’ART VÉTÉRINAIRE ET DES SCIENCES QUI S’Y RAPPORTENT, Paris, 1886.
LONDON LANCET, THE, of NOV. 25, 1837; editorial comparing the management of the large hospitals in the two countries—France and England.
LOUIS, CH. A. P.: RECHERCHES ANATOMIQUES, PATHOLOGIQUES ET THÉRAPEUTIQUES SUR LA MALADIE CONNUE SOUS LES NOMS DE GASTRO-ENTÉRITE, FIÈVRE PUTRIDE, ADYNAMIQUE, ATAXIQUE, TYPHOÏDE, ETC., Paris, 1829.
MAGENDIE, M.: LEÇONS SUR LES PHÉNOMÈNES PHYSIQUES DE LA VIE, Paris, 1855.
MARSHALL HALL: LECTURES ON THE THEORY AND THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, in the _Lancet_, London, Oct. 7, 1837.
MÉMOIRES DE L’ACADÉMIE ROYALE DE MÉDECINE, Vol. I., Paris, 1828.
MIQUEL, A.: LETTRES À UN MÉDECIN DE PROVINCE OU EXPOSITION CRITIQUE DE LA DOCTRINE MÉDICALE DE MONSIEUR BROUSSAIS, 2me édition, Paris, 1826.
MONFALCON, I.: PRÉCIS DE BIBLIOGRAPHIE MÉDICALE, Paris, 1827.
MORGAGNI: DE SEDIBUS ET CAUSIS MORBORUM, 1767. An English version of this work, in 3 volumes, was published at London in 1769, and a French version was issued a few years later.
MUELLER, WILLIBALD: BIOGRAPHIE VON GERHARD VAN SWIETEN, Wien, 1883.
PAGEL, JULIUS: EINFUEHRUNG IN DIE GESCHICHTE DER MEDIZIN, Berlin, 1898.
PAILLARD ET MARX: TRAITÉ DES BLESSURES PAR ARMES DE GUERRE, D’APRÈS LES LEÇONS CLINIQUES DE MONSIEUR LE BARON DUPUYTREN, 2 vols., Paris, 1834.
PETERSEN, JULIUS: HAUPTMOMENTE IN DER GESCHICHTLICHEN ENTWICKELUNG DER MED. THERAPIE, Copenhagen, 1877.
PETIT, J. L.: TRAITÉ DES MALADIES CHIRURGICALES, ET DES OPÉRATIONS QUI LEUR CONVIENNENT, Nouvelle édition, Paris, 1790.
PETTIGREW, THOMAS J.: MEDICAL PORTRAIT GALLERY. (BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS OF THE MOST CELEBRATED PHYSICIANS, SURGEONS, ETC., WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF MEDICAL SCIENCE.) 2 vols., London, 1838.
PINEL: NOSOGRAPHIE PHILOSOPHIQUE, Paris, 1798.
POTAIN: LA MÉDECINE EN PROVINCE (containing certain data relating to Bretonneau, of Tours); in the _Revue Scientifique_ of Nov. 10, 1894.
POTT, PERCIVAL: CHIRURGICAL WORKS, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1819.
PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH: EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON DIFFERENT KINDS OF AIR, 2d edition, London, 1775.
PUSCHMANN, THEODOR: DIE MEDICIN IN WIEN WAEHREND DIE LETZEN 100 JAHRE, Wien, 1884. —— GESCHICHTE DES MEDICINISCHEN UNTERRICHTS, Leipzig, 1889.
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF FOREIGN MEDICINE AND SURGERY, Vol. I., London, 1818–1819.
REVUE SCIENTIFIQUE for March 24, 1894. (Article on the proportion of homoeopathic practitioners to those of the regular school in some of the cities of the United States.)
RICHERAND: OEUVRES COMPLÈTES DE BORDEU, PRÉCÉDÉES D’UNE NOTICE SUR SA VIE ET SUR SES OUVRAGES, 2 vols., Paris, 1818.
RICHET, A.: L’HISTOIRE DE LA CHIRURGIE, in the _Revue Scientifique_, Nov. 19, 1892.
ROKITANSKY, CARL: PATHOLOGISCHE ANATOMIE, 3 vols., 1855. (Illustrations in the edition of 1855, but not in the first edition.)
ROSENTHAL, J., article in the _Revue Scientifique_ of Jan. 10, 1801.
ROUX, P. J.: NARRATIVE OF A JOURNEY TO LONDON IN 1814; Translated from the French, 2d edition, London, 1816.
SCHEUTHAUER, GUSTAV: article on CARL ROKITANSKY, in _Hirsch and Gurlt’s Biographisches Lexikon_.
SCHULTZ, C. H., Article on HOMOEOPATHY in _Hufeland’s Journal der Praktischen Medicin_, Bd. LXIX., No. 5.
VON SIEBOLD: VERSUCH EINER GESCHICHTE DER GEBURTSHUELFE, Berlin, 1845.
SIGMOND, GEORGE G.: ON THE EFFECTS OF MERCURY, in the _Lancet_, London, Nov. 11, 1837.
SIMPSON: HOMOEOPATHY, ETC., 3d edition, 1853.
SPALLANZANI: MÉMOIRES SUR LA RESPIRATION; traduits de l’Italien par Jean Senebier, Genève, 1803.
SPIESS, G. A.: J. B. VAN HELMONT’S SYSTEM DER MEDICIN, Frankfort am Main, 1840.
SPRENGEL, KURT: HISTOIRE DE LA MÉDECINE, Paris, 1815. (Traduite de l’Allemand par A. J. L. Jourdan.)
SUDHOFF, KARL: J. C. REIL VON DER LEBENSKRAFT, Leipzig, 1910.
TENON, M.: MÉMOIRES SUR LES HÔPITAUX DE PARIS, Paris, 1816.
TROUSSEAU, ARMAND: CLINIQUE MÉDICALE DE L’HÔTEL-DIEU DE PARIS, 3d edition, 3 vols., Paris, 1868.
TROUSSEAU ET PIDOUX: TRAITÉ DE THÉRAPEUTIQUE ET DE MATIÈRE MÉDICALE, 9th edition, 2 vols., Paris, 1875.
VELPEAU: TRAITMENT DES MAUX DE GORGE ET DE QUELQUES INFLAMMATIONS DES AUTRES MEMBRANES MUQUEUSES PAR LE SULFATE D’ALUMINE ET DE POTASSE, in the _Gazette Médicale de Paris_, 4 avril, 1835.
WUNDERLICH UND ROSER: ARCHIV FUER PHYSIOLOGISCHE HEILKUNDE, Bd. I., 1841.
GENERAL INDEX
A
ABDOMINAL TYPHUS, one of the early names given to typhoid fever, 202
ABERNETHY, JOHN, celebrated English surgeon of the 18th and early 19th centuries, 131
ABRAHAM, long life of, 31
“ADVERSARIA ANATOMICA,” the title of Morgagni’s first published treatise, 92
ALBERTINI, HYPPOLYTE, 92
ALBINUS, 35
ALCOHOL, how death is produced by, 148
ALLGEMEINE KRANKENHAUS, the, at Vienna, reorganized by the Emperor, Joseph II., 74
ALLOPATHS, the, 26
ALSTON, 130
AMBULANCE, field, invented by Baron Larrey, 244
AMPUTATION OF LIMBS, circular, credited by the English to Cheselden, 151 credited by the French to J. L. Petit, 151
AMPUTATIONS, primary, highly recommended by Baron Larrey in military surgery, 248
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, great stress laid by Sir Benjamin Brodie on the importance, to surgeons, of an intimate knowledge of, 149
ANIMALCULES found in infusions, 93
ARCHIV FÜR PHYSIOLOGISCHE HEILKUNDE, founded in 1842, 54
ARSENIC, how death is produced by, 148
AUENBRUGGER, 189, 194 novum inventum of, 76
AURICLE, voluntary movements of, 87
AUSCULTATION, difficulties encountered by the physician in his efforts to interpret correctly the significance of certain sounds heard during, 198 modern method of, 195, 210
AUTENRIETH, associated with Reil in editing the Archives of Physiology, 20
AUTHORITIES quoted, list of, 271
“AVIS AU PEUPLE,” title of Tissot’s most popular medical treatise, 99
AYEN, DUKE OF, an enthusiastic botanist, 171
AZOTE, lifeless matter, 123
B
BAGLIVI, GIORGIO, celebrated Italian physician of the 17th century, 91
BALFOUR, a distinguished physician of Calcutta, attempted in 1818 to establish the idea that gonorrhoea is a disease distinct from syphilis, 153
BARON, DR., biographer of Sir Edward Jenner, 111
BARTHEZ, PAUL-JOSEPH, Chancellor of the University of Montpellier, 198
BARTLETT, ELISHA, of Boston, Mass., translator of J. L. H. P.’s biography of Dupuytren, 227
BASSI LAURA, distinguished Italian scientist, 93
BAUDELOCQUE, Professor of Obstetrics at _La Maternité_ in Paris, 254, 260 chosen to take charge of the accouchement of the Empress, Marie Louise, 256
BAYLE, A. L. J., author of a treatise entitled “_Bibliothèque de Thérapeutique_,” 265
BAYLE, GASPARD LAURENT, distinguished French physician, 182 (Portrait 182)
BEER, GEORG JOSEF, celebrated ophthalmologist of Vienna, Austria, 77, 231
BELL, BENJAMIN, 153
BELL, SIR CHARLES, 153 becomes one of the most celebrated surgeons of London, 154 demonstrates an important law concerning the nature of the spinal cord nerves, 154 first person to establish the law governing centrifugal and centripetal nerve impulses, 79 (Portrait 154)
BELL, JOHN, distinguished English anatomist, 155
BENEDICT, T. W. G., 77
BERNARD, CLAUDE, on the nature of vital force, 21 (See also under Claude Bernard)
BICHAT, MARIE FRANÇOIS-XAVIER, 162, 164, 210 devotes much time to experimental physiology, 166 (Portrait, 162)
BILLROTH, 50
BLUMENBACH, 45
BOER, Professor of Obstetrics at Vienna, 75
BOERHAAVE, 18, 35, 60 “Aphorisms,” 61 “Institutions of Medicine,” 63
BONE FORMATION, as explained by Prochaska, 80
BONNET, THÉOPHILE, author of the famous treatise on pathological anatomy, entitled “_Sepulchretum_,” 93
BORDEU, THÉOPHILE, one of the earliest French physicians to engage in research work, 159, 160 on the position of the glands and their action, 160 suffered greatly from gout, 161
BORSIERI, Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine at Pavia, 102
BOTANY, reasons for the enthusiastic love for this branch of science which some men appear to possess, 172
BRAIN, injuries of, Sir Benjamin Brodie’s observations on the treatment of, 149
BRASQUET demonstrated the erroneous nature of Broussais’ statistics, 212
BRETONNEAU, proposed the name “_Dothiénentérite_” for typhoid fever, 203
BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS, Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in the Royal College of Surgeons, London, 147 one of the leading English experimental physiologists, 148 (Portrait, 148)
BROUSSAIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH VICTOR, physician connected with the Military Hospital at Val-de-Grâce, and, later, Professor of General and Special Pathology and Therapeutics at the University of Paris, 55, 207 misstatements made by, hastened his downfall, 211 (Portrait, 208) profound contempt of, for the _vis medicatrix naturae_, 211 propositions belonging to the domain of physiology, 208 propositions belonging to the domain of pathology, 209
BROUSSAISM, 208 according to A. L. J. Bayle, Broussaism greatly hindered the art of therapeutics from making a satisfactory advance, 265 important part played by, in hindering the real advance of medical science, 208
BRUNONIANISM, 23, 47
BUREAU D’ADRESSE OU DE RENCONTRE, 5
C
CABANIS, PIERRE-JEAN-GEORGES, 175
CAMERARIUS, ELIAS, 35
CARDIAC AND PULMONARY DISEASES, pathological anatomy of, 197
CAROTID ARTERY, first ligated by Sir Astley Cooper, 137
CATARACT operations by Prof. Beer at the _Allgemeine Krankenhaus_ in Vienna, 77
CAVENDISH, the English chemist who confirmed Priestley’s discovery that atmospheric air is composed of water and different acids, 120
CHARITÉ, LA, one of the larger Paris hospitals, 261
CHEREAU, 258
CHESELDEN credited by the English with having been the first to perform the circular amputation of limbs, 151
CHEST, auscultation of, 196
CHESTERFIELD, EARL OF, 44
CHOMEL, 202
CHOPART, FRANÇOIS, widely known by his advocacy of the operation called “Chopart’s amputation” of the foot, 220, 260
CINCHONA bark, remedial effects of, suggested to Hahnemann the doctrine of _similia similibus_, 22
CIRCULAR amputation of limbs, 151
CISALPINE REPUBLIC, formation of, 104
CLAUDE BERNARD, 125 on the nature of vital force, 21
CLAUDE CHASTILLON, architect of the _Hôpital Saint-Louis_ at Paris, 263
CLAVICLE, fracture of, Desault’s bandage in the treatment of, 164, 223
CLINICAL teaching inaugurated in the Vienna Medical School, 66
CONDILLAC favors Locke’s philosophy, 53
COOPER, SIR ASTLEY, distinguished English surgeon of the 18th and early 19th century, 135 (Portrait 136)
CORVISART, JEAN-NICOLAS, 76, 186, 188, 191, 260 appointed “First Physician” to Napoleon Bonaparte, 191 refuses to wear a wig while on duty at the Necker Hospital, 188 translator of Auenbrugger’s treatise, 186 (Portrait 188)
COW-POX VIRUS, 114
CRANTZ, HEINRICH, 65
CROSS, DR. JOHN, personal observations of the service rendered at _La Maternité_ hospital in Paris, 253, 262 testimony of, with regard to Dupuytren, 229
CRYSTALLINE LENS, method of extracting perfected by the French surgeon, Daviel, 151
CURE, Law of, by Hahnemann, 23
CUVIER, the naturalist, x explains why some men become so enamored with the science of botany, 172
D
DAUBENTON, celebrated French naturalist, 177
DAVIEL, 151
DE HAEN, ANTON, 53 his treatise, “_Ratio Medendi_,” 65
DELPECH, JACQUES, 233 assassinated by a former patient, 235 became famous as an authority in orthopedic surgery, 234
DEMOSTHENES, distinguished eye surgeon of Marseilles, France, 231
DEMOURS, famous French ophthalmologist, 231
DENMAN, THOMAS, English author of a treatise on obstetrics, 255
DENTAL SURGERY, distinguished French authorities in, 236
DEPHLOGISTICATED air (oxygen) discovered by Joseph Priestley, 120
DESAULT, PIERRE-JOSEPH, distinguished French surgeon, 163, 221 established a clinical school at Hôtel-Dieu of Paris, 225 introduced the practice of ligating the exposed ends of the larger arteries immediately after an amputation, 224 inventor of Desault’s bandage, for use in the treatment of fractures of the clavicle, 164, 223
DESCARTES, French philosopher, advocates _à priori_ reasoning in preference to realistic philosophy, 52
DESCEMET, distinguished French botanist and anatomist, 231, 232 also successful as a practitioner in maladies of the eye, 233
“DESCEMET’S MEMBRANE,” according to Hyrtl, should be named “Duddel’s membrane,” 87
“DE SEDIBUS ET CAUSIS MORBORUM,” the title of Morgagni’s famous work, 92
DESGENETTES, AIMÉ-NICOLAS DU-FRICHE, a distinguished French military surgeon, 241 in the retreat of the French Army from Russia, he was taken prisoner, but was immediately released by order of the Emperor Alexander, 242 (Portrait 242)
DESRUELLES, one of Broussais’ pupils, did not employ mercury in his treatment of syphilis, but applied leeches locally, 211
DEVAUX, JEAN, a learned French surgeon of the 17th century, 237
DEZEIMERIS, 37, 42, 97
DIDEROT favors Locke’s philosophy, 53
DIEFFENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, 48
DIMSDALE and TRONCHIN, the two earliest European advocates of inoculation in small-pox, 108
“DOCEO UT DISCAM,” Seneca’s motto, 159
“DOTHIÉNENTÉRITE” the name proposed by Bretonneau for typhoid fever, 203
DOUGLASS, JAMES, distinguished Scotch anatomist and surgeon of the 18th century, 35, 132
DOUGLASS, JOHN, younger brother of James, revived the supra-pubic operation for stone in the bladder, 132
DROWNING, case of recovery, 29
DUBLIN LYING-IN HOSPITAL, 255
DUDDEL, E., an Englishman, was the first to describe the membrane commonly known as “Descemet’s membrane,” 87
DUMAS, CHARLES LOUIS, Dean of the Faculty of Medicine at Montpellier, 174
DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME, one of the great surgeons at the Hôtel-Dieu of Paris, 226 founder of the _Musée Dupuytren_, 229 (Photograph of the Museum, 260) (Portrait 226) very successful as a clinical teacher, 228
DUVERNEYS, father and son, 35
E
ÉCOLE DE MÉDECINE, the old, of Paris, has now been transformed into a sort of social hall for the use of all the university students, 259 (Picture of device, 262) (Views, 258, 260)
ÉCOLES DE SANTÉ, in France, 259
ELI, the High Priest, long life of, 31
ELISHA, long life of, 31
ENGEL, DR., of Vienna, 62
ENTERIC FEVER, one of the first names given to typhoid fever, 202
ESMARCH, 49, 50
F
FACE, articulations of the bones of the, 159
FACULTÉ DE MÉDECINE, the, of Paris, was housed in 1808 in the quarters of the _Collège de l’Académie de Chirurgie_, 258
FAUCHARD, PIERRE, author of a treatise on the surgery of the mouth, 237
FEMUR, ununited fracture of, 149 Dr. Physick’s treatment of, 149
FERRAND, distinguished French surgeon of the 18th century, 224
FISTULA IN ANO, operation for, 151
FORLI, the Academy of, 92
FOTHERGILL, JOHN, one of the most distinguished English physicians of the 18th century, 129 Benjamin Franklin’s estimate of the man, 130 bequeathed his entire fortune to the poor, 130
FOUR-YEAR course adopted by Vienna School of Medicine toward end of 18th century, 74
FRANCO, PIERRE, of Lausanne, Switzerland, and Orange, France, 151, 231
FRANK, JOHANN PETER, founder of the first treatise distinctly devoted to hygiene and medico-legal science, 17, 44
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, remarks of, concerning inoculation, 109
FRENCH PHYSICIANS, types of, who flourished about the time of the “Reign of Terror,” 171
FRENCH REVOLUTION, Medicine at the height of the, 170
FRÈRE CÔME, 151
FRÈRE JACQUES, 151
G
GALERIA COPIALA, long life of, 30
GALVANI, ALOYSIUS, lecturer on anatomy at the University of Bologna, 103
GALVANISM, 104
GANGRENE, hospital, 235
GARIOT, JEAN-BAPTISTE, dentist to the King of Spain during the 18th century, 238 author of a treatise on diseases of the mouth, 238
GASSER, LORENZ, 65
GASSERIAN GANGLION, a term invented by A. R. B. Hirsch, 65
GASTRITIS, one of the first names given to the disease now commonly called “typhoid fever,” 202
GASTRO-ENTERO-CEPHALITIS, one of the first names given to typhoid fever, 202
GAZETTE DE FRANCE, founding of the, 6
GERMANS, cultured, obliged to think, speak and write in French at the end of the 18th century, 53
GERMANY, low state of medical affairs in, at the beginning of the 18th century, 15, 52
GIANT, the famous Irish, whose skeleton was secured by John Hunter for his museum in London, 145
GILLES DE LA TOURETTE, 10
GIMBERNAT, a distinguished Spanish surgeon, 137
GLANDS, position of, and their action, 160
GOETTINGEN, University of, 37
GONORRHOEA, during the 18th century, commonly believed to be one of the manifestations of syphilis, 153
GOUDAREAU, author of a French translation of J. P. Frank’s treatise, 45
GRAECO-LATIN terminology adopted by physicians in conversation with their patients not approved by Kant, the metaphysician, 74
GRIESINGER, WILHELM, 55
GURLT, VON, 50
GUY PATIN, 9
H
HAEN, ANTON DE, 53, 64
HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL, 22
HALL, MARSHALL, 204
HALLÉ, JEAN-NOËL, distinguished French Physician, 178 very successful in overcoming the opposition in France and Italy to vaccination, 180
HALLER, ALBRECHT VON, 19, 34 (Portrait 34) treatises published by, 38
HEART AND LUNGS, diseases of, full discussion of, by Laënnec, 197
HEAT-PRODUCTION in living animals, Lavoisier’s theory of, 124
HERNIA, different kinds of, 137
HIRSCH, AUGUST, 15, 52, 74 exposed the perniciousness of Broussais’ treatment, 212
HIRSCH, A. R. B., invented the term “Gasserian ganglion,” 65
HOFFMANN, FRIEDRICH, of Halle, Prussia, 19, 53
HOFRATH, Aulic Councillor, 46
HOLY LAND, Prince Louis’ crusade to, in 1147, 98
HOMOEOPATHY, 22 in the city of New York in the years 1850–1870, 26
HÔPITAL SAINT-LOUIS, at Paris, 262 (Illustration, 264)
HOSPITAL work in Vienna reorganized toward end of 18th century, 74
HOSPITALS, Parisian, 261
HOSTEL DES CONSULTATIONS CHARITABLES, 8
HÔTEL-DIEU, the great hospital of Paris, 4, 261 (Illustration, 258)
HUETER, 50
HUFELAND, CHRISTOPH WILHELM, 16, 28 author of “The Art of Prolonging Life,” 16 (Portrait 28)
HUNTER, JOHN, the English anatomist and biologist, 40, 95 (Portrait 144) younger brother of William, and a great anatomist, physiologist and operating surgeon; also the founder of Hunter’s Museum in London, 141
HUNTER, WILLIAM, distinguished English surgeon and anatomist, 139 founder of the anatomical schools of Great Britain, 141 (Portrait 140)
HYGIENE, first journal devoted to, 17
HYPOTHESES, rather than facts, should not serve as the basis of doctrines in either pathology or therapeutics, 33
HYRTL, JOSEPH, distinguished Professor of Anatomy at the Vienna Medical School, 85 on the changes which take place in an artery after it has been ligated or divided with the knife, 86 on voluntary movements of the auricle, 87
I
INFLAMMATION believed by Broussais to be at the bottom of most of the pathological phenomena encountered in the practice of medicine, 210
INOCULATING for the small-pox, 108
INSOMNIA defined by A. von Haller, 39
IRRITABILITY AND SENSIBILITY, distinction between these terms, 38
ISAAC, long life of, 31
ISHMAEL, long life of, 31
ITALY, Medicine in, 89
J
JACQUIN, NICOLAUS JOSEPH, 65
JAEGER, F., one of the distinguished Vienna ophthalmologists, 77
JAHR’S Manual of Homoeopathic Medicine, 26
JENNER, SIR EDWARD, discoverer of vaccination as a means of protection against small-pox, 110 (Portrait 110) receives a grant of £10,000 from the English Parliament, 115
JESUIT ORDER gradually excluded from the control of affairs in the Vienna University, 66
J. L. H. P., sketches of French medical men by, 207
JOINTS, diseases of, researches of Sir Benjamin Brodie respecting, 148, 149
JONET, MARIE, _Sage-Femme Jurée_ at the Chatelet Hospital in Paris, 256
JOSEPH, FATHER—Leclerc du Tremblay, 8
JOSEPH, son of Jacob, long life of, 31
JOSEPH II., EMPEROR, successor of his mother, Maria Theresa, 71
JOSHUA, long life of, 31
JOURDAIN, ANSELME-LOUIS-BERNARD-BRECHILLET, distinguished French dental surgeon of the 18th century, 238
K
KANT, IMMANUEL, the famous Prussian metaphysician, 74
KATZENJAMMER, 35
KAUNITZ, PRINCE, Imperial Austrian Chancellor, 62
KORN, GEORG, 48, 52
L
LACHAPELLE, VEUVE, Associate Midwife-in-Chief of Hôtel-Dieu, 256
LAËNNEC, RENÉ THÉOPHILE HYACINTHE, inventor of the modern method of auscultation, 195 on the pathological anatomy of diseases of the chest, 83 treatise of, on auscultation, 197 (Portrait 196)
LANGENBECK, VON, 48, 49
LARREY, BARON JEAN-DOMINIQUE, distinguished French military surgeon, and inventor of an improved type of field ambulance, 243, 244 advocated strongly primary amputations in military surgery, 248 great resourcefulness of, under difficulties, 247 highly commended by the Emperor Napoleon, 247 (Portrait 244) showed his high character when the French troops retreated during the Russian campaign, 245
LASSUS, 260
LATIN, barbaric, employed by the Germans in their university lectures at the end of the 18th century, 53
LAUGIER, ROBERT, 65
LAUSANNE, in 1765, still recognized the Bernese Government as its overlord, 100
LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT, invented the term “oxygen” and described its full significance, 120, 122. (For portrait see Frontispiece.) discovered the important fact that all organic bodies are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, 123 credited with having formulated the chemical theory of respiration, 125 discovered also that all the acids contain oxygen, 120 formulates the theory of heat-production in living animals, 124 Government collector of taxes in the early part of his career, 122 guillotined on May 8, 1794, 124 maintains that combustion represents simply the combination of the two elements, carbon and oxygen, 123 one of the first to cultivate experimental physiology, 168 proves that the act of respiration in animals is a species of combustion, in the course of which oxygen combines with certain elements of the body to form water and carbonic acid, 123 proves also that Stahl’s doctrine of animism, as well as the phlogiston theory, is untenable, 123
LE CLERC, biographer of Dupuytren, 226
LECLERC DU TREMBLAY, Capucin monk, known as “His Gray Eminence,” 4
LE DRAN, distinguished French surgeon, 36
LEIPZIG, battle of, 21
LEMONNIER, LOUIS GUILLAUME, a French physician who ardently cultivated the science of botany, 171 life saved from the violence of the mob in 1782, 173
LIARD, value of the, 6
“LIFE, THE ART OF PROLONGING,” title of famous treatise written by Hufeland, 28
LITHOTOMIA DOUGLASSIANA, 133
LIVIA, long life of, 30
LIVRE, value of the, 8
LOANING money to the poor at a low rate of interest (Renaudot’s saggestion), 5
LOCHER, MAXIMILIAN, 68
LOCKE, JOHN, the English philosopher, 52
LONGEVITY, instances of exceptional, 30
LOUDON, Western France, birthplace of Renaudot, 3 (Views of city and vicinity, 4)
LOUIS, ANTOINE, celebrated Parisian surgeon, 203
LOUIS, CHARLES A. P., Chief of Clinic at the Paris _École de Médecine_, 187, 203, 210 (Portrait 204)
LOUIS PHILIPPE, Duke of Orleans, 109
LOUIS XIII, 4, 6
LOUVAIN, High School of, 59
LUCEIA, long life of, 30
LUECKE, 50
M
MACKENZIE, the distinguished ophthalmologist, 77
MAGENDIE, one of the first French scientists to cultivate experimental physiology, 168 on the difficulties of interpreting correctly the significance of certain sounds heard during auscultation, 198
MAHON, P. A. O., 260
MAKROBIOTIK, the Art of Prolonging Life, Hufeland’s famous treatise, 16, 28
MARIA THERESA, Empress of Germany, 61 beneficent interference on the part of, in behalf of a higher standard of medical education, 66, 68, 94
MARIANNE, ARCHDUCHESS, 61
MARSHALL, HALL], 204
MATERNITÉ, LA, the great French midwifery school at Paris, 253
MEDICAL literature, German, low state of, at the beginning of the 18th century, 15
MEDICAL periodical, the first French, 7
MEDICI, MARIE DE’, 4
MEMBRANA DESCEMETII erroneously so named, 87
MERCURIAL SALIVATION, frequency of, before Van Swieten’s time, 68
MERCURY, red oxide of, when heated, produces oxygen (Priestley), 120
MIDWIFERY as taught at _La Maternité_, the great French midwifery school, 253
MILITARY SURGERY, 241
MONRO, 130
MONTPELLIER, views of, 198, 200, 202
MONTS-DE-PIÉTÉ, when first established at Paris, 5
MONUMENT erected in Hôtel-Dieu in honor of Desault and Bichat, 167, 192
MORGAGNI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, one of the greatest anatomists of the 18th century, 91 teachings of, 210
MOSES, long life of, 31
MOUSE, alive, case of swallowing of, 32
MOUTH, surgery of the, 237
MUELLER, JOHANNES, 154
MUELLER, WILLIBALD, author of Van Swieten’s biography, 63
N
NAPOLEON at the University of Pavia in 1805, 96
“NATURE cures disease” (Hufeland), 33
NECKER, MADAME, founder of a hospital in Paris, 188
NEWSPAPER, the, first founded in Paris, France, 5
NORTON, MRS. CHARLES F., Librarian, Transylvania College, Lexington, Kentucky, ix
“NOSOGRAPHIE PHILOSOPHIQUE,” Pinel’s celebrated treatise, 202
“NOVUM INVENTUM,” the, of Auenbrugger, 76
O
O’BRIEN, the celebrated Irish giant, 145
OFFICIERS DE SANTÉ, 259
OPHTHALMOLOGY, one of the first specialties to take root in Vienna, 77
“ORGANON of the Rational Art of Healing,” Hahnemann’s great work, 22, 23, 25
ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY, 234
OS UNGUIS, perforation of, by Woolhouse, 151
OXYGEN, the full significance of which term was made known to the world by Lavoisier some time after Priestley’s discovery, 120
P
PAGEL, statement of, with regard to Broussais, 207
PALATE, the art of remedying defects of the, 237
PANNUS, first correct description of, by Beer, of Vienna, 78
PARÉ, AMBROISE, 224
PATHOGENIC fever, one of the early names given to typhoid fever, 202
PATHOLOGICAL propositions advanced by Broussais, 209
PAVIA, University of, 45 Maria Theresa, Empress of Germany, takes a strong interest in its prosperity, 94
PERCUSSION method of Auenbrugger, 193
PÈRE POTENTINE, 188
PETERSEN, 55
PETIT, J. L., famous surgeon of Paris, 162, 215 credited by the French with having been the first to perform the circular amputation of limbs, 151 (Portrait 216) successful treatment of a case of hemicrania, 217 trephining of skull for subdural abscess resulting from middle-ear inflammation, 217
PETIT, MARC-ANTOINE, celebrated French surgeon, 162
PETIT-RADEL, 183
PHLOGISTON theory of Stahl, 120
PHYSICK, DR., of Philadelphia, treatment of ununited fracture of the femur by, 149
PHYSIOLOGICAL propositions advanced by Broussais, 208
PHYSIOLOGY, animal and vegetable, 95 experimental, cultivated largely by Bichat, 166 experimental, first cultivated by Albrecht von Haller, 168
PIARROU DE CHAMOUSSET, who built a hospital in which every patient had a bed to himself or herself, 263
PINEL, PHILIPPE, author of the work entitled “_Nosogrophie Philosophique_,” 202, 260
POLICE, Medical, 44
POPE’S description of travelling among the Alps, 121
POTT, PERCIVAL, famous English surgeon, the first to publish a complete memoir of the disease now commonly known as “Pott’s disease of the spine,” 133
PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH, discoverer of “dephlogisticated air” (oxygen), 120 also discovered that respiration takes place more easily, and that combustion progresses more actively, in the presence of this gas, 120 house at Birmingham, England, burned by rioters, 122 in 1794 emigrates to Pennsylvania, 122
PRIMAE LINEAE PHYSIOLOGIAE, the title of the first systematic treatise on physiology, 38
PROCHASKA, GEORG, 79 his explanation of bone formation, 80 ideas of, with regard to the nature of vital force, 79
PULMONARY and cardiac diseases, pathological anatomy of, 177
PUSCHMANN, 3, 45, 75, 85
PUTRIDITY alone, according to Peter Frank, not the cause of typhoid fever, but rather the vehicle of a special _contagium vivum_, 203
PYTHAGORAS, views of, with regard to eating, physical exercise, etc., 31
R
RASORI’S THERAPEUTIC METHOD resembles that of Broussais, 212
“RECHERCHES PHYSIOLOGIQUES SUR LA VIE ET LA MORT” (Bichat), 167
REIL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN, 17, 19 on the diagnosis and treatment of fevers, 20 on “vital force,” 20
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS, tolerance of, increased by the French Revolution, 53
RENAUDOT, THÉOPHRASTE, founder of the first French newspaper, 3 his sons, Isaac and Eusebius, 8, 10 (Statue, 8)
RESPIRATION, Lavoisier’s chemical theory of, 125
RICHELIEU, CARDINAL, 4 (Portrait, 6)
RICHET, A., opinion of, with regard to J. L. Petit’s qualifications as a surgeon, 215
ROKITANSKY, CARL, Professor of Pathological Anatomy in the Vienna Medical School, 81, 92, 93 called by Rudolf Virchow “the Linnaeus of pathological anatomy,” 84 contributions of, to medical literature, 82
ROSAS, ANTON, the distinguished Vienna ophthalmologist, 77, 231
ROUX, well-known French surgeon, report of, regarding the condition of English surgery in the early part of the 19th century, 151
ROUX, PROFESSOR, member of the Paris _Faculté de Médecine_, visits London in 1814 for the purpose of ascertaining by personal observation how the English surgeons are dealing with the more important problems in surgery, 150
S
SABATIER, RAPHAËL-BIENVENU, distinguished French surgeon of the 18th century, 218, 260
SACOMBE, DR., charges Baudelocque with criminal practice in performing the operation of Caesarian section, 255 both the courts and public opinion promptly judged this charge to be an infamous calumny, 255
SAINT-LOUIS, HÔPITAL, at Paris, 262
SALIVATION, mercurial, frequency of, before van Swieten’s time, 68
SALPÉTRIÈRE, LA, one of the larger hospitals at Paris, 261
SANITATION, house and municipal, first treatise upon, published in Germany toward the end of the 18th century, 44
SANTÉ, ÉCOLES DE, 259
SANTÉ, OFFICIERS DE, 259
SARAH, Abraham’s wife, long life of, 31
SCARPA, ANTONIO, the Italian anatomist, 46, 96 refusal of, to take the oath of allegiance to the newly established Cisalpine Republic, 96
SCHEELE, WILLIAM, also mentioned as a discoverer of oxygen, 120
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN CAMPAIGN, 48
SCOPOLI, 46
SENEBIER, JEAN, of Geneva, Switzerland, 95
SENECA’S MOTTO, “_Doceo ut discam_,” 159
SENSIBILITY AND IRRITABILITY, the distinction between these terms, 38
“SEPULCHRETUM,” title of Bonnet’s famous treatise, 93
SIMILIA SIMILIBUS, believed by Hahnemann to be a general law of healing, 22
SIMPSON, JAMES J., Professor of Midwifery in the University of Edinburgh, 25
SINGLE BEDS, the establishment of, as the only desirable ones in hospitals, 263
SLEEP, von Haller’s definition of the term, 39
SLOW NERVOUS FEVER, one of the first names given to typhoid fever, 202
SMALL-POX, earliest mention of, by Rhazes, in A. D. 922, 107 measures adopted for the control of, 107
SOMNAMBULISM DEFINED by von Haller, 40
“SORE-THROAT, PUTRID,” epidemic of, in 1746, 130
SPALLANZANI, LAZARUS, distinguished Italian biologist, 93 letter of, concerning Dr. Tissot, 102
SPINA BIFIDA first successfully treated by Sir Astley Cooper, 138
SPRENGEL, 42, 155, 255
STAGNANT WATER, minute organisms found in, 95
STAHL, GEORG ERNST, 53 phlogiston theory of, 120
STAHLISM, 23
STANISLAS AUGUSTUS, King of Poland, a great admirer of Dr. Tissot, 99
STENO, DUCT OF, operation for perforating, 151
STETHOSCOPE, as perfected by Laënnec, 196
STOERCK, ANTON, 65, 71
STOLL’S “APHORISMS,” 190
STONES, shape of, affected by running water, 94
STROMEYER, 48
SUDHOFF, on character of Johann Christian Reil, 21
SUPERSTITION diminished by the French Revolution, 53
SUPRAPUBIC OPERATION for stone in the bladder revived by John Douglass, 132
SURGEONS, ENGLISH, pleasant relations among, 152
SURGERY, the golden age of, in France, 213
SURGICAL ANATOMY taught with great success by Desault, 223
SWISS PHYSICIANS of prominence during the 18th century, 34
SYLVIUS, attempt of, to inaugurate clinical teaching at the University of Leyden, 67
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES, 166
SYPHILIS affecting an entire family, 200
T
TENON’S CRITICISMS on _Hôtel-Dieu_ and _Hôpital Saint-Louis_ at Paris, 263
TERENTIA, long life of, 30
THÉOPHRASTE RENAUDOT, founder of the first French newspaper, 3
THORACENTESIS very frequently performed by Auenbrugger of Vienna, 76
TISSONI, original name of Tissot, 97
TISSOT, SAMUEL-AUGUSTE-ANDRÉ-DAVID, Swiss physician of Italian origin, 41, 97, 135 amusing incident at Lausanne relating to, 101 visit to Paris, 101
TRANSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY at Lexington, Kentucky, IX
TRAUBE, LUDWIG, 54
TRAUTSON, ARCHBISHOP, 66
TRENDELENBURG, 50
TRONCHIN, THÉODORE, of Geneva, Switzerland, 98, 108
TROUSSEAU, ARMAND, author of the treatise entitled “Clinique de l’Hôtel-Dieu,” 269; and also (in association with Hermann Pidoux) of a treatise on materia medica and therapeutics, 266 (Portrait 266)
TUBERCULOUS DEPOSITS in the lungs, diagnosed by auscultation, 210
TYPHOID FEVER, the term finally decided upon for this disease, 203 contagiousness of, 204 early studies of, 202 first names given to the disease, 202
V
VACCINATION, for the prevention of small-pox, introduced by Jenner in 1796, 110 picture of a medal commemorating the discovery of, 108
VALLISNIERI, ANTONIO, distinguished Italian naturalist, 93
VALSALVA, ANTONIUS, 92
VAN SWIETEN, GERHARD, 19, 59 as a medical reformer, 63 commentaries of, on Boerhaave’s teachings, 61 composition of, 69 contributions of, to medical literature, 68, 69 liquor, use of, in the treatment of syphilis, 68 (Portrait 60)
VARICOSE VEINS of the leg, Sir Benjamin Brodie’s treatment of, 149
VARIOLAE VACCINAE, an inquiry into the causes and effects of the, 114
VEGETABLE POISONS, experiments made by Sir Benjamin Brodie on the different modes in which death is produced by, 148
VELPEAU (Portrait 268)
VENTES _à grâce troque ou rachapt_, 5
VESALIUS, 83
VICQ-D’AZYR, FELIX, distinguished French anatomist and physiologist, 130, 177
VIENNA, revival of medical science at, in early part of the 18th century, 16
VIENNA SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, 57 reorganization of, 64 scheme of teaching adopted by, in 1780, 73
VITAL FORCE, memoir on, by Reil, 20 explained by Prochaska, 79 nature of, 21
VOLTA, 46
VOLTAIRE, 263 advocates the teachings of John Locke, 52
VON GRAEFE, C. F., the distinguished ophthalmologist, 77
VON GRAEFE, KARL, director of the Surgical Clinic of Berlin, 48
VON HALLER, ALBRECHT, 19, 34, 38, 95, 101 the first to cultivate experimental physiology, 168
VON LANGENBECK, 48, 49
VON WALTHER, PHILIP, 77
W
WAKEFULNESS DEFINED by von Haller, 39
WATER, INFECTED, drinking of, mentioned by Galen as the cause of various epidemic fevers, 202
WHEELER, translator of Hahnemann’s “Organon,” 22
“WHITE INFLAMMATION,” Boerhaave’s, 183
WILLIAMS MEMORIAL PUBLICATION FUND, VII
WINSLOW, distinguished anatomist, 36
WOOLHOUSE, the first surgeon to perform the operation of perforating the _os unguis_, 151
WUNDERLICH, KARL AUGUST, 54
Z
ZIMMERMANN, JOHANN GEORG, 41
Footnotes
Footnote 1:
The _liard_ was a small copper coin worth at that time one-quarter of a _sou_. The latter coin was about as large as a silver quarter of a dollar or a one-shilling piece (English money).
Footnote 2:
The view of the small town of Loudun (see opposite page 4), which has been copied from a photograph of quite recent date, shows that Gilles de la Tourette’s hope has already been realized.
Footnote 3:
See Haller’s comments on Boerhaave’s personality, at bottom of page 445 of “The Growth of Medicine.”
Footnote 4:
In the city of Leipzig alone there were no fewer than 30,000 wounded and sick soldiers belonging to all the different nations engaged in the war.
Footnote 5:
The following quotations are from Wheeler’s English Translation of the Organon.
Footnote 6:
Several weeks after I had sent my completed manuscript to New Haven I received, from a London dealer in second-hand books, a catalogue in which the following item appears:—
Haller (Albrecht von) First Lines of Physiology. Translated from the Third Latin Edition. To which is added a Translation of the Index composed for the Edinburgh Edition printed under the Inspection of Dr. William Cullen. Edinburgh, 1801.
It is evident, therefore, that I was in error when, after a very limited search, I was led to believe that no English version of the “_Primae Lineae_” exists, and accordingly I ventured to translate a few brief selections of the text.—A. H. B.
Footnote 7:
To make sure that any errors rightly chargeable to me as translator shall not be imputed to von Haller I will add here the original Latin text.—A. H. B.