Part 9

What happens to the small house after it has been built? This is a question which should interest both the architect and builder, because from the answer can be had some very important lessons in construction.

To know where the weather, mechanical wear and tear, fire and water, begin the decay of the house is to know where to specify materials which will give the greatest durability to the whole.

This decay is called the natural depreciation of the house, but it is the architect’s duty to make this as insignificant as possible. It is essential to study the local conditions under which the house will have to stand. At the edge of the seashore, where the damp and salty winds are prevalent, one would be foolish to specify metal for screens, gutters, valleys, and leaders, which tended to go to pieces by corrosion. But in a dry locality the specifying of, say, galvanized iron for these parts would save money on the initial cost, and might not cause too great depreciation.

Likewise, the choice of the general materials of which the house is built should be influenced by the experience of the neighborhood. A wooden house in a seashore resort requires painting very often, and perhaps a brick house would in the end be more economical. A wood-shingle roof on a house, tucked away under the dense trees of a lake shore, would have a very short life, and the use of some more permanent material would justify the additional expense.

Indeed, on all hands, in every locality, we have lessons to learn concerning what happens to a house after it has been built, and how it might have been avoided. To stimulate the reader to observe more in this direction we will call attention to some of the most obvious ways in which a house depreciates.

Examine most houses which have stood for ten to twenty years, and it will be found that the foundations in nearly every case have settled unevenly, to a greater or less extent. This may be due to unforeseen causes, such as the action of underground water, frost, and disintegration of mortar, but generally it is the result of foundations built by the rule of the thumb. A wooden house seems so light that the average builder never bothers to consider the footings nor the loadings on them. Many walls are built without any footings at all, even though part of them rest on stone and other parts on earth. Now, of course, nothing serious as a rule comes of this slightly uneven settlement, but, add it to other things, and the depreciation of the property goes on rapidly.

As an example of this, one house might be mentioned which was greatly marred by the settling of the footings under the porch columns. These columns supported the second floor, which projected over the porch. The amount of settlement was only about two inches, but this caused the windows to lose their rectangular shape, making the operation of the sash impossible, destroyed the drainage direction of the gutters, necessitating the relocation of the leaders and the repitching of the gutters, opened up the crack between the floor and the base-board, and made a large crack in the plaster wall and ceiling. The cause of it all was the building of the porch column footings upon filled-in earth, while the foundations of the rest of the house were upon rock. Uneven settlement was sure to take place under such conditions.

This same damaging effect of settlement is often noticeable in wooden frame houses, which have not been properly constructed to avoid uneven distribution of cross-section wood in the walls and partitions. Wherever there is a difference of cross-section of wood in two walls which support the same beams, there is sure to be uneven settling. The wall which has the greatest number of linear inches vertically of horizontally laid timbers will settle the most. This will cause sagging floors, sprung door frames, and open joints.

Many cracked stucco walls on the exterior have been caused by too much cross-section wood in their framing. A balloon-framed wall makes the best backing for an outside wall of stucco, because the studs extend from sill to plate without any horizontal timbers intervening.

But it can always be predicted that the masonry walls and parts of the house will settle before the wooden walls and partitions. The chimney will settle more rapidly than the surrounding partitions of wood, and should, for this reason alone, be built entirely independent of any other part of the structure. Where the wooden framed wall butts into a chimney and the plaster is continuous over the brick of the chimney and the studs of the wall, there is sure to develop a crack at the joint because of the unequal settlement, unless the plaster is reinforced at this point with metal lath. Likewise, it is bad to support any part of the wooden floor upon a girder which bears upon the chimney, not only on account of the excessive sinking of the chimney, but the subsequent danger of fire which it creates.

A very bad method of constructing a chimney was imported from Europe, years ago, which develops serious fire dangers from its manner of settling. Instead of flashing and counter-flashing the joint of the chimney with the roof, this method employed the use of a projecting course of brick begun at the level of the roof. Thus the part of the chimney above the shingle roof was made larger than that underneath, and the outward step was used as a weather lap over the roofing material, and no flashing was needed to make the joint tight. Now, when the chimney settled faster than the roof, as it would, the upper part could not drop, but was caught upon the roof, and lifted from the lower part. This made a crack through which the hot gases could escape to the attic timbers and start a fire.

On the other hand, wooden framed walls will settle badly, too, when dry rot sets into the sills. This is a very common defect in old houses, and generally, when any remodelling must be done, the sills have to be cut out and new ones set into place. Dry rot in the sills is caused by excessive dampness with no circulation of air. Very often a builder may take great pains to fire-stop his walls around the sill, but forget to leave ventilation space, and the sill is soon attacked by the fungus of rot. Unless timbers which come in contact with masonry are treated with creosote, or painted, they will be subject to dry rot in the average damp, warm climate.

Many porch columns rot at their base and permit the settling of the roof. Solid columns are the least durable in this respect, for in a short time their core will go bad and the lower part will crumble. Wood base blocks for columns should be perforated with holes to permit the seepage of water under them. Cast-iron bases are preferred to the wooden one, when the column is to set upon a masonry porch floor.

Settling causes many other defects besides those mentioned. The house-drain may be broken and the cellar flooded with sewage, if the wall around the pipe has been cemented up and it settles. The pitch of drain-pipes may be altered so much that back-up action of waste water may occur; steps may be caused to sag so that they become unsafe; lintels may be broken.

The movement of the footings by frost is another evil that is noticeable in many old houses. Sidewalks are cracked, porch stairs loosened, drains in areas closed. In most cases like this the footings are not extended far enough below the frost-line, or insufficient cinder foundations are laid.

But the action of freezing water leaves its marks on other parts of the house. Unless some corrugations in leaders are made, the ice in the winter may burst them. The mortar on copings is loosened by this action, and on chimney tops, where heat and gases also help, the brickwork soon breaks down. Many failures of stucco work are directly caused by frost, and sometimes water leaks into the cells of hollow terra-cotta blocks, freezes, and bursts out the shell-like sides. The putty around the window is loosened by the drying action of the wind, and the prying action of the frost. Water-supply pipes in wall near the outside are broken when the cold winds freeze them, and the exposed gas-pipes in the chilly parts of the cellar are often entirely clogged in a severe winter. Leaks around windows in masonry walls are started by frost, and it is common to see tile on the porch floor, or brick borders and bases loosened by the same powerful agent that breaks boulders from the mountainsides.

The heat of the sun is another destroyer of the house. It is death on paint, for it is forever baking it in the steam of the dew of the previous night, and when the body of linseed-oil is gone, the paint is no good. And it dries out the wood too much some days and spoils the jointing. It warps boards up and opens the mitred joints. It causes the wood shingles to crack and shrivel, so that when the next heavy rain comes the ceilings are stained by leaks. Tar for the roof and soft cements are caused to run out of place.

Then, too, there is the deteriorating influence of the artificial heat inside of the house. The fireplace tiles are baked loose from their mortar beds, cast-iron dampers are cracked, chimneys are clogged with soot and catch fire, and thimbles which receive the smoke-pipe of the furnace are broken. But the heat from the radiator does much damage. It blackens the ceiling above it by hurling little particles of dust up against it; it warps and twists the wall-paper; it misshapes the doors and windows, and breaks loose the strips of veneer, and it often spills water over the floor to ruin the ceilings below.

Added to all of the above depreciation is the natural wear and tear caused by the tenants. Floors are worn to splinters where they were of flat-grain wood; thresholds are thinned down, stair tread scooped out. Plaster is broken by moving furniture, and decorations stained by accidents of all varieties. Locks, hinges, and bolts are broken.

Particularly is the mechanical equipment of the house subject to such deteriorating influences. Plumbing fixtures are broken, pipes are clogged, and joints made to leak through the corroding action of strong acids poured down the pipes. Radiator valves are turned out of adjustment, boilers are burned out, and hundreds of other things happen to this part of the house because of careless hands.

Thus we may say that the important factors of depreciation which an architect should keep in mind are unequal settlement, action of frost, washing-out effects of rain-water, corrosion, the heat of the sun, the artificial heat of the furnace, and the foolishness of tenants.

Unequal settlement can be prevented by carefully examining the construction, and the action of frost, heat, and sun can be minimized by the use of proper materials, and the foolishness of tenants can be partly offset by selecting those mechanical devices which are as near fool-proof as human hands can make them.

XIII SELECTING MATERIALS FROM ADVERTISEMENTS

In the planning of the construction of the small house, the architect has many problems of selection, such as the choosing of this brand of roofing material from among many makes or the specifying of this type of furnace from among many patterns, and, in fact, the selection of the best type and the best materials which the market affords in all branches of structural and mechanical devices. If he does not specify any one brand, but merely states that the contractor shall use an approved make of paint or an acceptable brand of hydrated lime, he has merely deferred his ultimate choice in the matter to a later date, for in the end he must decide whether the particular make or brand is acceptable, and in order to do this he must know enough about the various makes and brands on the market to judge wisely and in a fair spirit, for the chief motive in back of the contractor’s choice will be rather one of money than quality.

The problem, therefore, which confronts the architect in acting as judge of materials and brands as to their quality is very serious and extremely full of pitfalls, and outside of his personal experience and that of his friends, the choice must be made upon the claims of the manufacturers as presented in advertisements. Now, of course, the difficulties which advertising literature presents are the overstatements which are found in them and the suppression of facts which appear to the makers as derogatory of their product. But if the circulars of information and advertising statements are collected for any one type of mechanism or any one type of material or system of construction, it will be found that the truth of the matter will be implanted in the accumulated statements of the various concerns manufacturing these mechanisms or materials. What one manufacturer does not say another will, and very often a rival firm will reveal the defects of its competitor’s products by its advertisements. In fact, if you want to find out what is the “nigger in the wood-pile,” read the advertisements of a rival manufacturer. Of course it is not good taste in advertising to knock the other fellow’s products, but general statements are made which are enough to enlighten the alert reader as to what should be the good points to look for.

For example, suppose the architect knew little or nothing about what should be the good qualities of a hot-air furnace of the pipeless type, but had before him the advertisements of various makers which we will designate as _A_, _B_, _C_, _D_, and _E_, although the quotations which are given are accurately taken from real advertisements of well-known firms, the identity of which we have purposely concealed under the assumed titles of the letters of the alphabet.

Let us pick up advertisement of (_A_) manufacturer, and select what appear to be the important statements which occur in it. We read: “The grate is slightly cone-shaped, which breaks up all clinkers and makes the fuel roll toward the wall of the fire-pot, where air is mixed with the gas. This generates a much greater degree of heat than it is possible to obtain with the old duplex and flat grates, and clinkers that would form and be wasted in other furnaces are thereby consumed.” From this the architect has learned to consider the question of the grate, and certainly he has definitely found out what is the disadvantage of the furnaces which use the old duplex or flat grates. It ought to be his aim to ask the manufacturer of furnaces using these types of grates what they have to say in defense of this indictment.

But let us continue to read: “The ash-pit is large and roomy on the inside, and is provided with a very large door, which makes it convenient for the removal of ashes.” It is evident from this that there are furnaces on the market which have this defect of too small an ash-pit and door. The architect can then mentally pigeonhole this as a point to be considered in examining a furnace.

Continuing our reading we come across this statement: “The (_A_) radiator is cast in one piece, with no joints to be cemented or bolted together.” This is evidently a reflection upon the weaknesses of other makes which have radiators that are bolted and cemented together, and on investigation we soon learn that furnaces often have leaky radiators which permit the coal-gas to escape into the warm air delivered through the house. Here is a definite defect to be remembered.

Suppose we turn now to advertisement (_B_), and here we read the following: “Insulating air-chamber acts as a positive division between the bodies of warm and return air.” This is certainly a hint of a possible defect in a furnace. Perhaps not all of the furnaces are adequately insulated at this division between the bodies of returning cold air and the outgoing warm air, with the resulting loss of efficiency and sluggishness of circulation.

Reading on in the same advertisement we find the following: “The (_B_) smoke-plate is an added precaution against the leakage of smoke and gas.” Evidently there is some possibility of smoke leaking into the warm air, or else this device would not have been suggested, and probably there are some furnaces where this is a very serious objection.

Turning to the next advertisement, (_C_), we read: “Only the best grade of iron goes into the casting.” This is another consideration; for evidently, from the following, certain types of furnaces do not use the best castings, and give trouble. “Breakdowns and imperfections are reduced to a minimum. The endless series of treatments and repairs is never required.”

A further reading tells us that “the humidifier is ample capacity,” which statement suggests the possibility that not all humidifiers are large enough.

But look what advertisement (_D_) informs us: “No heat lost by being radiated through casing into cellar.” This is certainly an interesting point to consider. And reading on we learn: “Long fire-travel in radiator insures a cool smoke-pipe and there is no fuel wasted.” This is surely a matter of design that ought to be observed in good furnaces.

Still another fact is brought to light by “Fire-pot—one piece, heavy-ribbed for purposes of increasing its radiating surface and to give it greater power of resistance against expansive force of the fire.”

But here is something none of the other advertisements have told us: “Steel radiators are preferable for the use of hard coal; cast-iron radiators for soft or hard coal or wood.” Also: “Radiators can be turned in either direction, thereby permitting smoke-pipe to be connected with chimney from the most advantageous point.”

Finally, when we read in advertisement (_E_) the following, “Grate-bars are quickly removed and replaced. No bolts used,” we wonder whether other furnaces use bolts, and whether there is a real objection to them.

Taking the information given in these advertisements, we can now make the following list of points to be considered in selecting any one make:

1. Is the grate so designed that clinkers will not form?

2. Are the grate-bars easily removable?

3. Is the ash-pit large and roomy and is the door amply large?

4. Is the radiator in one piece or so well fastened that it is gas-tight?

5. Is the radiator steel or a high grade of cast-iron?

6. Is the inner casing so well insulated that it prevents premature heating of the descending air-currents?

7. What protection is there to prevent the chance passage of smoke into the warm air-chamber?

8. Is the outer casing properly insulated to prevent the waste of heat into the cellar?

9. Is the humidifier of ample capacity?

10. How is the fire-pot designed to increase the efficiency of its radiating surface and how is it strengthened against the expansive force of the fire?

11. Is there a long enough passage for fire-travel, so that no waste of heat is lost up the chimney?

12. Is the radiator flexible enough to permit of the connection of the smoke-pipe from the most advantageous point?

Most certainly this is an array of matters to be considered in the selection of a furnace which no one, except an expert, would think of, but they are all drawn from the advertisements, and this process of study is open to any one who is interested in learning the technical difficulties involved in the selection of this particular mechanical device. Perhaps not all of the knowledge gained is scientific, but at least there are stimulating bits of information that should be investigated.

Let us take one more example of this amusing game of comparing advertisements as applied to roofing materials. Here we will find many conflicting statements, but out of the whole battle of words we can glean some interesting truths.

Turn to advertisement (_A_) and we read the following: “Nearly every objection to wood shingles as a roof-covering is applicable to slates, which have still other adverse features. Slates are not fireproof. Ask the underwriter how the insurance companies regard them, and especially how, in comparison with clay tiles, they are not permanent, though more so than wood shingles.... Slates attract lightning, and while the sun warps shingles and the wind rips them off, slates are easily broken, and if there is even a slight settlement or vibration, repairs are necessary. Moisture gets under them, and during the winter months especially causes them to lift up and break off. When the ice thaws, the broken pieces slide out, leaving a defective place in the roof. This will happen every winter with a slate roof, and to keep such a roof in perfect condition it must be gone over each spring and the broken slates replaced with new ones.”

Turning to advertisement (_B_) for asbestos shingles we read a different point of view: “Unfortunately, however, slate, particularly that which is obtainable on the market at present, does not last much longer than _clay tile_ or tin shingles.”

But reading from advertisement (_C_) we are amused at the following: “Slate being solid rock, they simply cannot wear out. They cannot rust, decay, crack, tear, warp, shrink, disintegrate, melt, burn, or smoulder. They will not contract or expand under the influence of heat or cold. They never need painting. They will not attract lightning—nor will they permit the growth of moss or decaying vegetable matter.... One of the most important advantages is from the insurance standpoint. Many roofs (not alone wooden shingles) are highly inflammable; but a slate roof will not ignite from sparks from fire in an adjacent building, from passing locomotives, or from any other cause. This fact is so well recognized that insurance companies allow a very substantial reduction in rates on slate-roofed buildings.”

The contradictory statements here are very amusing, but the truth can be seen between the lines, that the makers of clay tile really believe that slate is their real rival, and have searched very hard to pick flaws in it as a material for roofing. And when the advertisement of the asbestos shingle manufacturer is read, we learn that slate does not last much longer than clay tile. But both are insistent upon the opinion of the fire underwriters, and for this reason we naturally turn to see what they have to say, and we find that both slate and tile are under Class A roofing materials, with little difference made between them. As for the point of attracting lightning, why is slate used for switchboards if it is as good a conductor of electricity as a statement of the above type would imply? It is quite evident that one’s opinion of slate after all this controversy will be about on a par with one’s opinion of clay tile, and that one will realize that poor grades of either slate or tile, or poor workmanship, are rather more the causes of failure than the material itself.

Many more examples might be given of this interesting method of learning the truth from advertisements, but the principle in all cases remains the same, so that further quotations would only amuse rather than instruct.

XIV ROOFING MATERIALS

A roofing material should not be judged by its first appearance, but rather by its condition after four or five winters have passed over it. And in choosing the roof for the small house, this is a statement which applies with even greater emphasis, since the temptation is magnified to select that material which is low in cost and bright upon its first appearance.