Chapter 3

The Pottery Trade School at Hohr Grenzhausen, Prussia, is under State control. There are day and evening classes, the former attended for the most part by the sons of manufacturers; the evening classes by men and women who are employed otherwise during the day. There are Sunday classes also. Decorated stoneware is given much attention. The day class boys enter with a fairly good knowledge of drawing and have perhaps attended the Fortbildungsschule. Drawing, descriptive geometry, modeling in clay and wax, new forms of vessels and original ornamentation, painting, designing and decorative art, manufacture of earthenware, lectures and study of collections, make up the curriculum. Any original model made becomes the property of the father of the boy, or of the person financially supporting such boy during his attendance at school. Two duplicates of the model must be left at the school. The courses are three years, daily sessions, Saturdays excepted. The fees are nominal, being only five dollars per year for the day classes, thirty hours weekly, and one dollar for evening work, two hours weekly. Pupils living outside the municipality pay six dollars per year for day instruction.

The Furtwangen, or Black Forest schools are made up of several divisions, giving rather a high class of instruction. Clock making, wood carving, and straw plaiting, are largely carried on.

This paper would not be complete without some mention of the system of apprenticeship in vogue in Germany. The Lehrwerkstaetten or apprentice shops play a considerable part in the industrial life of the Empire. In some instances they are maintained in connection with the trade schools, or again, are semi-private or separate shops. The apprenticeship shops on the one hand, and the continuation schools upon the other, are doing much of the work formerly undertaken by the trade schools proper. While manufacturing upon a larger scale is recognized as possessing advantages over the smaller productive plants, it has seemed wise to hold to the handicrafts, in a measure at least. The apprentice system helps to preserve the traditions and sentiments of the German people, by handing down these handicrafts. The associations, vereins, and guilds of past time, are to-day, through the aid of legislation, coming to the fore, and bringing with them many boys trained in the shops under the masters. To show the power and scope of the guild, and in some cases it is incumbent upon a community to form a guild whether or no, let me give the following quotation:

"Persons carrying on trades on their own account can form guilds for the advancement of their common trade interests. The object of the guild shall be:

1. the cultivation of an esprit de corps and professional pride among the members of a trade;

2. the maintenance of amicable relations between employers and their employes, and the securing of work for unemployed journeymen and their shelter during the period of their nonemployment;

3. the detailed regulations of the conditions of apprenticeship and the care for the technical and moral education of apprentices;

4. the adjustment of disputes between guild members and their apprentices, as contemplated by the law of July 20, 1890, concerning industrial arbitration."

The shops offer about the same lines of work as do the private concerns, aiming however to be more systematic and to cover a wider scope. It is asserted by some that the instruction gained in the shop is superficial, and not to be compared with that obtained from the traveling master-workmen. When the shop is connected with some enterprise or manufacturing interest, a master-workman has one apprentice only under his charge, for which he receives from the state some thirty-five dollars yearly, the boy being given board, lodging and proper training. The master must have attained the age of twenty-four years, and must fulfil certain technical qualifications. The instruction is practical in the highest degree and thus follows the lead of the trade schools in letter and spirit. The fees are mainly paid in by guild members, and those not members even, provided such reside in the district and are connected with the trade for which the school stands. Local and state aid is furnished. While the period of apprenticeship may extend over four years, three years is the usual term.

IV

ART TRADE SCHOOLS

The various types of institutions taken up under this head are of an intermediate grade, standing half way between the trade school on the one hand and the higher technical institutions upon the other. Indeed, they contain many elements in common with the lower group, their scope however being broader and more general or indirect, theoretical work finding a place in their curricula. Owing to a similarity in the instruction given, several classes of schools seem to demand a hearing under this section. We shall begin with the more general trade schools omitted from our previous study.

SCHOOLS FOR THE BUILDING TRADES

(Baugewerkschulen)

The schools for the building trades, of which there are a half hundred in the Empire, are very similar in character throughout. The Munich school, established in 1823, was the first of its kind. Their aim, as indicated in the title, is the giving of training in the trades connected with the various building operations. The majority of these schools offer a course two years in length. The age of admission is fourteen to sixteen years. It is a requisite under some boards, that applicants have had practical experience in the line to be followed, at least two half-years and in some cases two full years, before entrance to the school. They must have also a fair general knowledge of their own language, and of reading and writing as well. The candidate must be a graduate of the Volksschule or must subject himself to an examination. The fees in these schools vary from fifty to two hundred marks per year. These are day sessions only. The governing power is in some cases vested in the municipality, frequently in the State, and again in private enterprise.

While those who go out from these schools may, some of them at least, follow the trades as regular laborers, others again are qualified as master-workmen and leaders in their craft. Construction in wood, stone, iron and metals; laws of building; modes of heat, light and ventilation; plumbing; interior fittings; these and other occupations are taken up. The sessions of most schools extend over the winter months only, the students being actively engaged in their several trades during the summer season. These schools holding continuous sessions, are sparsely attended during the summer. When theoretical work is given, such subjects are included as bookkeeping, descriptive geometry, physics and mechanics, German, free-hand and mechanical drawing, design, principles of architecture. The practical programme comprehends a study of building materials and the procuring and working of the same; relative strengths and adaptability to purpose; models of construction; ornamentation; architecture and design; estimates; chemical properties of materials; supports, trusses, arches and the like. In the more advanced institutions, algebra, surveying, mechanics, study of machines and chemistry may be added to the theoretical list given, while the practical studies are more intensive, and of a somewhat higher order. Special departments for engineering, (Tiefbauabteilungen) preparing men to occupy positions as superintendents, managers of public works, construction directors, etc., are sustained in some instances.

Such schools are of an inferior engineering type, and deal with problems of advanced work as related to the construction of roads, water works and railroads; municipal engineering; bridge construction; electro-technics. The theoretical lines are similar to those pursued in other courses.

The schools to which we have just referred illustrate well the statement made in a previous connection, that the grade of instruction rather than the character of the subjects taught, determines the classification of schools into groups. Three classes of trade instruction have just been mentioned, and might well be styled lower, middle and upper schools for trade teaching. Another point of interest lies in the fact, that while we have been speaking of theoretical and practical subjects as forming the curricula of the schools for the building trades, the distinction should rather be drawn on the line of traditional book subjects and applied or laboratory practice. Practical work, per se, is not carried on in the school. Thus we have a close connection between theory and practice; more closely perhaps than is found to exist in other trades.

The following table shows the distribution of building trade schools throughout the Empire, the cities in which such schools are located being given.

Anhalt Zerbst

Baden Carlsruhe

Kaiserslautern Munich Bavaria Nuremburg Ratisbon Wuerzburg

Brunswick Holzminden Hamburg Hesse Luebeck

Neustadt Mecklenburg-Schwerin Sternberg

Mecklenburg-Strelitz Strelitz

Oldenburg Varel Aix-la-Chappelle Berlin Breslau Buxtehude Cassel Cologne Deutsch-Krone Eckernfoerde Erfurt Frankfort-on-the-Oder Prussia Goerlitz Hildesheim Hoexter Idstein Kattowitz Koenigsberg Magdeburg Muenster Nienburg Posen Stettin

Reuss-Schleitz Gera

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Coburg

Weimar Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Stadt-Sulza

Chemnitz Dresden Grossenhain Saxony Leipzig Oschatz Plauen Rosswein Zittau

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Arnstadt

Wurttemberg Stuttgart

SCHOOLS FOR FOREMEN

(Werkmeisterschulen)

The Werkmeisterschulen or schools for foremen, are quite prominent in the scheme of secondary instruction. The courses given in these schools are of a general character, for the most part practical, and the institution, as the name implies, fits men to occupy positions as foremen and overseers. Machine construction is the chief industry for which these schools train. The first school of this character was opened in 1855 at Chemnitz, Saxony. There are at present twenty-one schools of this class in the Empire. Sixteen is the regular age of admission. Candidates must have an elementary education on presenting themselves. Two years is the average length of course, including both winter and summer terms. A requisite for admission also is practical experience in the trade, hence little other than theoretical instruction is given.

To the objection made by some, to extending the course over two years of residence and of including the elementary branches in the curriculum (such opposition favoring a reduction in time given to preparation) the answer comes that the school should give a well grounded education, such as will fit the participant for all the functions of his social and industrial life. Fifty to sixty marks is charged yearly for tuition fees. Certain of these schools have both evening and Sunday classes, the tuition being twenty marks yearly for week day evenings, eight to nine forty-five, and Sundays, eight to ten in the forenoon.

Table showing location of schools for foremen:

Anhalt Dessau Baden Mannheim Bavaria Four Mechanische Fachschulen

Hamburg Altona Cologne Dortmund Duisburg Elberfeld-Barmen

Prussia Gleiwitz Gorlitz Hanover Magdeburg Iserlohn Reimscheid

Chemnitz Saxony Mittweida Leipzig

The following data were compiled from tables appearing in the Report of the Commissioner of Labor of the United States, for 1902. The hours per week allowed each subject taught in the schools of machinery construction, at Duisburg and Dortmund, Prussia, are given.

| DUISBURG || DORTMUND +------------+------------++------------+------------ | FIRST YEAR | SECOND YEAR|| FIRST YEAR |SECOND YEAR +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------ |First|Second|First|Second||First|Second|First|Second |Half |Half |Half |Half ||Half |Half |Half |Half -----------------------------+-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------ German language and law | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 || 5 | 3 | 2 | -- Arithmetic | 4 | 1 | -- | -- || 5 | 2 | -- | -- Bookkeeping | -- | -- | -- | 2 || -- | -- | -- | 3 Descriptive Geometry | -- | 3 | -- | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- Mathematics | 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 || 7 | 6 | 5 | 2 Experimental Physics | -- | -- | -- | -- || 4 | 2 | -- | -- Physics and Electricity | 4 | 3 | 2 | 2 || -- | 4 | 3 | 3 Experimental Chemistry | 2 | -- | -- | -- || 2 | -- | -- | -- Penmanship | 2 | -- | -- | -- || 1 | -- | -- | -- Drawing | 12 | -- | -- | -- || 17 | -- | -- | -- Machine Drawing | -- | 6 | 8 | 8 || -- | 10 | 8 | 14 Projection | -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | 2 | -- | -- Mechanics | -- | 4 | 4 | 4 || -- | 5 | 5 | 2 Technology of mechanics, | | | | || | | | smelting and refining | -- | -- | 6 | 4 || -- | 2 | 6 | 4 Theory of machines | -- | 6 | -- | -- || -- | 6 | -- | -- Steam boilers and hoist | | | | || | | | machines | -- | -- | 6 | -- || -- | -- | 7 | -- Steam engines and hydraulics | | | | || | | | and small motors | -- | -- | -- | 6 || -- | -- | -- | 8 Heating | -- | 3 | -- | -- || -- | -- | -- | -- Theory of building | | | | || | | | construction | -- | -- | 4 | -- || -- | -- | 2 | 2 Practice in the work shop for| | | | || | | | machinery construction | -- | -- | -- | -- || -- | -- | 4 | 4 Estimated wages | -- | -- | -- | 6 || -- | -- | -- | -- First aid to the injured | -- | -- | 1 | -- || -- | 1 | -- | -- +-----+------+-----+------++-----+------+-----+------ Total | 36 | 36 | 37 | 36 || 41 | 43 | 42 | 42

The following table showing the occupations of one time students at three of the Prussian schools was compiled in April, 1898. This table may be found on page 883 of the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor of the United States.

Columns:

A Duisburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1883 to April 10, 1898 B Dortmund: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1892 to April 10, 1898 C Magdeburg: Graduates from Sept. 29, 1893 to April 10, 1898

+-----+-----+-----+ OCCUPATION | A | B | C | -------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+ Heads of establishments | 54 | 1 | 1 | Other officers of establishments | 237 | 107 | 11 | Machine builders and foremen | 39 | 18 | 1 | Wage-workers | 34 | 9 | | Owners of establishments or shops | 10 | 3 | | Draftsmen and technical experts in offices | 86 | 55 | 83 | Assistant Chemists | 3 | | | Students at other schools | 11 | 1 | 2 | Other than technical work | 4 | 1 | | Military service | 16 | 23 | | Deceased | 11 | | | Unknown | 26 | 21 | 5 | | --- | --- | --- | Total | 531 | 239 | 103 | -------------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+

SCHOOLS FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES

One of the most interesting groups of trade schools are those for the promotion of the textile industry in its various aspects, there existing at the present time no less than seventy-nine such institutions. The fourfold classification of these schools which follow, seems to be in accordance with the spirit of the work attempted.

First; the superior weaving school (Hoehere Webschulen).

Second; the secondary weaving schools (Webschulen).

Third; the apprentice shops for weaving and knitting (Webereilehrwerkstaetten).

Fourth; instruction by traveling or itinerant masters. (Wanderlehrer)

Not only does Germany rank high in the character of her textile schools, but instruction is exceedingly wide spread. Then again all lines of the industry are taken up, from the most elementary to the most technical processes known. It will thus be seen that men are trained for the lower as well as for the higher branches of the art. In the highest classes of institutions weaving is almost exclusively carried on. The general Government assumes the control of these schools notwithstanding that in the beginning, many such institutions were put on foot through the initiative of associations and guilds. In each of the several classes the work is both theoretical and practical. The age of admission is usually fourteen years and the course of two years duration.

The Webschulen train, not for specialists as do the schools just mentioned, but rather aim to turn out foremen and bosses. The apprenticeship shops come more closely in touch with the workmen of small means and those using hand machinery, while the Wanderlehrer schools are moveable. In the latter instance, the home becomes the school when the teacher is present; that is a competent instructor is employed to travel from place to place, visiting the small factories or home manufacturers, and giving such instruction as he deems wise and necessary. Much good work is still done in the rural homes of Germany, and through the means mentioned the standards are kept up.

The work of these textile schools is largely specialized, depending upon the the location of the school. In some localities wool, in others linen or cotton, or again in others silk will be given the chief attention. Both theory and practice have a place in the school instruction. Work in the various courses includes a study at first hand of the materials used, cost of production, relative values, various processes of manipulation, chemistry, drawing, designing, painting, lectures on fabrics, elements of weaving and machinery used, and original design and practical work.

The distribution of textile schools is shown in the following table.

+---+---+----+----+---+---+----------------------- | Superior Textile | | | Secondary Weaving | | | | | Primary Weaving | | | | | | | Weaving, Knitting and Trimming | | | | | | | | | Spinning, Weaving and Knitting STATE | | | | | | | | | | | Spinning and Weaving | | | | | | | | | | | | | Primary Knitting | | | | | | | ----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+----------------------- Alsace-Lorraine | | | | | | 1 | Bavaria | | 3 | | | | | Hesse | | 1 | | | | | Prussia | 8 | 8 | 22 | | | | Reuss-Greitz | | 1 | | | | | Reuss-Schleitz | | 1 | | | | | Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach | | | | | | | 1 Saxony | | | | 27 | | | Wurttemberg | | | | | 1 | | ----------------------+---+---+----+----+---+---+-----------------------

The Prussian superior textile schools are located as follows:

Aix-la-Chappelle Bremen Berlin Crefeld Cottbus Muelheim-on-Rhine Muenchen-Gladbach Sorau

The Berlin textile schools may be taken as fairly representing the higher and more completely equipped institutions of this class. The age of admission is sixteen years, a secondary education being necessary to entrance. Several courses are offered as follows:

knitting, one year; weaving, one and one-half years; designing, two years; passementerie making, one year; dyeing, one year; embroidery, one-fourth year.

There are day, evening and Sunday classes. The accompanying table shows the subjects taught in each course and the number of hours given to each subject, reckoned on the basis of the entire length of course.

+-------------------------------------------- | For manufacturers and | superintendents, 1 1/2 yrs. | | | Designing, 2 yrs. | | | | | Knitting, 1 yr. | | | SUBJECTS | | | | Passementerie making, 1 yr. | | | | | | | | | Dyeing, 1 yr. ---------------------------+----+----+----+----+----------------------- Theory of weaving | 4 | 3 | 6 | 6 | 2 Design transfer | 13 | 9 | 3 | 8 | Materials | 1 |1/2 | 1 | 1 | Hand and power looms | 3 | 2 | | | Motors | 1 | | | | Preparing apparatus | 1 | | | | Finishing apparatus | 1 | | | | Practical exercises | 8 | 6 | 18 | 12 | 33 Dyeing | 2 | | 2 | 2 | Analysis and production of | | | | | knitting goods | | | 4 | | Chemistry of fibers | | | | | 2 Chemistry and physics | | | | | 4 Drawing | 8 | 23 | 2 | 5 | Arithmetic and bookkeeping | 2 | | 3 | 3 | Jurisprudence | 2 | | 1 | 1 | Lecture | | | 2 | | ---------------------------+----+----+----+----+-----------------------