Part 5

2. Where the difference of forms is considerable, knowledge of the character and opportunities of the writer may sometimes determine the preference of one form to others, as probably the most accurate. A Massachusetts or Connecticut name written by John Eliot or Experience Mayhew--or by the famous interpreter, Thomas Stanton--may safely be assumed to represent the original combination of sounds more exactly than the form given it by some town-recorder, ignorant of the Indian language and who perhaps did not always write or spell his own correctly.

3. The name should be considered with some reference to the topographical features of the region to which it belongs. These may sometimes determine the true meaning when the analysis is doubtful, or may suggest the meaning which would otherwise have been unsuspected under the modern form.

4. Remembering that every letter or sound had its value,--if, in the analysis of a name, it becomes necessary to get rid of a troublesome consonant or vowel by assuming it to have been introduced 'for the sake of euphony,'--it is probable that the interpretation so arrived at is _not_ the right one.

5. The components of every place-name--or to speak more generally, the elements of every Indian synthesis are _significant roots_, not mere _fractions of words_ arbitrarily selected for new combinations. There has been no more prolific source of error in dealings with the etymology and the grammatical structure of the American languages than that one-sided view of the truth which was given by Duponceau[93] in the statement that "one or more syllables of each simple word are generally chosen and combined together, in one compound locution, often leaving out the harsh consonants for the sake of euphony,"--and repeated by Heckewelder,[94] when he wrote, that "in the Delaware and other American languages, parts or parcels of different words, sometimes a single sound or letter, are compounded together in an artificial manner so as to avoid the meeting of harsh or disagreeable sounds," &c. The "single sound or letter" the "one or more syllables," were chosen not as "part or parcel" of a word but because of their _inherent significance_. The Delaware "_Pilape_, a youth," is _not_--as Heckewelder and Duponceau represented it to be[95]--"formed from _pilsit_, chaste, innocent, and _lenape_, a man," but from PIL- (Mass. _pen-_, Abn. _pir-_,) strange, novel, _unused_ (and hence) pure,--and -A[N]PE (Mass. _-omp_, Abn. _a[n]bé_) a male, _vir_. It is true that the same roots are found in the two words PIL-_sit_ (a participle of the verb-adjective _pil-esu_, 'he is pure,') and _len_-A[N]PE, 'common man:' but the statement that "one or more syllables" are _taken from_ these words to form _Pilape_ is inaccurate and misleading. It might with as much truth be said that the English word _boyhood_ is formed from selected syllables of boy-ish and man-hood; or that purity 'compounds together in an artificial manner' fractions of _pur_ify and qual_ity_.

[Footnote 93: Correspondence of Duponceau and Heckewelder, in Trans. Historical and Literary Committee of Am. Philos. Society, p. 403.]

[Footnote 94: Ibid., p. 406.]

[Footnote 95: Preface to Duponceau's translation of Zeisberger's Grammar, p. 21. On Duponceau's authority, Dr. Pickering accepted this analysis and gave it currency by repeating it, in his admirable paper on "Indian Languages," in the Encyclopædia Americana, vol. vi.]

We meet with similar analyses in almost every published list of Indian names. Some examples have been given in the preceding pages of this paper,--as in the interpretation of 'Winnipisiogee' (p. 32) by 'the beautiful water of the high place,' _s_ or _[=e]s_ being regarded as the fractional representative of '_kees_, high.' _Pemigewasset_ has been translated by 'crooked place of pines' and 'crooked mountain pine place,'--as if _k[oo]-a_, 'a pine,' or its plural _k[oo]-ash_, could dispense in composition with its significant base, _k[oo]_, and appear by a grammatical formative only.

6. No interpretation of a place-name is correct which makes _bad grammar_ of the original. The apparatus of Indian synthesis was cumbersome and perhaps inelegant, but it was nicely adjusted to its work. The grammatical relations of words were never lost sight of. The several components of a name had their established order, not dependent upon the will or skill of the composer. When we read modern advertisements of "cheap gentlemen's traveling bags" or "steel-faced carpenters' claw hammers," we may construe such phrases with a latitude which was not permitted to the Algonkins. If 'Connecticut' means--as some have supposed it to mean--'long deer place,' it denotes a place where _long deer_ abounded; if 'Piscataqua' was named 'great deer river,' it was because the deer found _in_ that river were of remarkable size. 'Coaquanock' or, as Heckewelder wrote it, 'Cuwequenaku,' the site of Philadelphia, may mean 'pine long-place' but cannot mean 'long pine-place' or 'grove of long pine trees.' If 'Pemigewasset' is compounded of words signifying 'crooked,' 'pines,' and 'place,' it denotes 'a place of crooked pines,'--not 'crooked place of pines.'

Again--every Indian name is _complete within itself_. A mere adjectival or qualificative cannot serve independently, leaving the real ground-word to be supplied by the hearer. River names must contain some element which denotes 'river;' names of lakes or ponds something which stands for 'lake' or 'pond.' The Indians had not our fashion of speech which permits Hudson's River to be called 'the Hudson,' drops the word 'lake' from 'Champlain' or 'Erie,' and makes "the Alleghanies" a geographical name. This difference must not be lost sight of, in analysis or translation. _Agawam_ or _Auguan_ (a name given to several localities in New England where there are low flat meadows or marshes,) cannot be the equivalent of the Abnaki _ag[oo]a[n]n_, which means 'a smoke-dried fish,'[96]--though _ag[oo]a[n]na-ki_ or something like it (if such a name should be found), might mean 'smoked-fish place.' _Chickahominy_ does not stand for 'great corn,' nor _Pawcatuck_ for 'much or many deer;'[97] because neither 'corn' nor 'deer' designates _place_ or implies fixed location, and therefore neither can be made the ground-word of a place-name. _Androscoggin_ or _Amoscoggin_ is not from the Abnaki '_amaskohegan_, fish-spearing,'[98] for a similar reason (and moreover, because the termination _-h[=e]gan_ denotes always an _instrument_, never an _action_ or a _place_; it may belong to 'a fish-spear,' but not to 'fish spearing' nor to the locality 'where fish are speared.')

[Footnote 96: It was so interpreted in the Historical Magazine for May, 1865 (p. 90).]

[Footnote 97: Ibid. To this interpretation of _Pawcatuck_ there is the more obvious objection that a prefix signifying 'much or many' should be followed not by _ahtuk_ or _attuk_, 'a deer,' but by the plural _ahtukquog_.]

[Footnote 98: Etymological Vocabulary of Geographical Names, appended to the last edition of Webster's Dictionary (1864). It may be proper to remark in this connection, that the writer's responsibility for the correctness of translations given in that vocabulary does not extend beyond his own contributions to it.]

7. The locative post-position, _-et_, _-it_ or _-ut_,[99] means _in_, _at_ or _on_,--not 'land' or 'place.' It locates, not the object to the name of which it is affixed, but _something else_ as related to that object,--which must be of such a nature that location can be predicated of it. _Animate nouns_, that is, names of animate objects cannot receive this affix. 'At the rock' (_ompsk-ut_), 'at the mountain' (_wadchu-ut_), or 'in the country' (_ohk-it_, _auk-it_), is intelligible, in Indian or English; 'at the deer,' 'at the bear,' or 'at the sturgeons,' would be nonsense in any language. When animate nouns occur in place-names, they receive the formative of verbals, or serve as adjectival prefixes to some localizing ground-word or noun-generic.

[Footnote 99: Abnaki and Cree, _-k_ or _-g_,--Delaware and Chippewa, _-ng_; or _-[n]g_,--with a connecting vowel.]

8. Finally,--in the analysis of geographical names, differences of _language_ and _dialect_ must not be disregarded. In determining the primary meaning of roots, great assistance may be had by the comparison of derivatives in nearly related languages of the same stock. But in American languages, the diversity of dialects is even more remarkable than the identity and constancy of roots. Every tribe, almost every village had its peculiarities of speech. Names etymologically identical might have widely different meanings in two languages, or even in two nations speaking substantially the same language. The eastern Algonkin generic name for 'fish' (_nâma-us_, Del. _namai-s_) is restricted by northern and western tribes to a single species, the sturgeon (Chip. _namai´_,) as _the_ fish, par excellence. _Attuk_, in Massachusetts was the common fallow-deer,--in Canada and the north-west the caribou or reindeer. The Abnaki Indian called his _dog_ (_atié_) by a name which the Chippewa gives his _horse_ (_oti-un_; _n'di_, my horse).[100] The most common noun-generic of river names in New England (_-tuk_, 'tidal river') occurs rarely in those of Pennsylvania and Virginia, where it is replaced by _-hanne_ ('rapid stream'), and is unknown to western Algonkin tribes whose streams are undisturbed by tides. The analysis of a geographical name must be sought in the language spoken by the name-givers. The correct translation of a Connecticut or Narragansett name is not likely to be attained by searching for its several components in a Chippewa vocabulary; or of the name of a locality near Hudson's River, by deriving its prefix from an Abnaki adverb and its ground-word from a Chippewa participle,--as was actually done in a recently published list of Indian names.

[Footnote 100: Both words have the same meaning,--that of 'a domestic animal,' or literally, 'animate property;' 'he who _belongs_ to me.']

INDIAN NAMES.

Abagadusset, Abequaduset, 39

Abnaki, 7

-ACADIE, 26, 27

_Acawme-_, 10

Accomack, 10

-ADCHU, -ACHU, 20

-ADENÉ, 21

Agamenticus, 10

Agoncy, 28

AHQUEDNE, 23

_Akoode-_, 28

Alleghany, 12

-AMAUG, 18

Amessagunticook, 25

Amoskeag, 25

_Anasqui-_, 41

Androscoggin, 25

Anmesookkantti, 25, 42

Annis-squam, 18

Aquednet, -nesit, 23

_Ashawi-_, 33

Ashawog, 33

ASHIM, 34

Ashimuit, 34

_Assini-_, 20

-AÛKE, 6

Baamcheenunganoo, 40

Bagadoose, 38

-BIK, 18

_Boonamoo-_, 27

Capawonk, 29

Cappowonganick, 29

Catumb, 19

Caucomgomoc, 17

Chabanakongkomuk, 35

CHABENUK, 35

Chawonock, 7

Chebegnadose, 39

Chippaquiddick, 23

Cobbosseecontee, 26, 42

Cobbscook, 42

-COMACO, 21

Connecticut, 8

Cuppacommock, 21

_-Ehtu_, _-ettu_, 23, 24

_Eshqua-_, 41

-GAMI, 17

Ganshow-hanne, 12

Gonic, 42

Hackensack, 30

-HAN, -HANNE, 8, 12

_Hassuni-_, 19

Higganum, 19

-HITTUCK, 8

Hoccanum, 30

HOCQUAUN, 30

Ishquagoma, 41

_Kabassé-_, 42

-KAMIGHÉ, 21

-KAOODI, 28

-KANTTI, 22

Katahdin, 21

_Kauposh-_, 42

Kearsarge, 20

_Keht-_, _kit-_, 12, 19, 21

Kehtetukqut, 12

Kennebec, 15

Kenjua, 43

Kenosha, 43

Ketumpscut, 19

-KI, 6

Kinougami, 17

Kiskatamenakook, 7

Kittanning, 12

Kittatinny, 21

Kitchigami, 17

Kitchi-sipi, 7

-KOMUK, 21

-KONTU, 23

Kunckquachu, 20

_Kuppo-_, 21, 29

Lackawanna, 12

Lenapewi-hittuck, 8

Machigamig, 17

Manati, 22

Manhasset, 23

Manhatan, 22

Manisses, 22

Manussing, 23

_Massa-_, _Masha-_, 15

Massachusetts, 20

Massapaug, 15

Massaugatucket, 32

Mashenips, 38

Maskinonjé, 43

Mattabeset, 35

Mattammiscontis, 25

Mattapan, -ient, 34

Mattapony, 35

Mattapoiset, 35

Matchebiguatus, 39

Mauch-chunk, 20

MENAN, 22

Mennewies, 23

Meesucontee, 25

Mianus, 37

Michigan, 17

Missinippi, 15

Missisaking, 31

Mississippi, 7

Misquamacuck, 42

Mistassini, 20

Miste-shipu, 7

Mitchigami, 17

Mohicannittuck, 8

Montauk, 23

Moosup, 37

Moshenupsuck, 38

-MSK (for -OMPSK), 18

Munhansick, 23

MUNNOH-HAN, 22

Mushauwomuk, 5, 35

Mystic, 8

NÂ[=I]AG, 29

Namasket, 42

Nameaug, 38

Namelake, 38

Narragansett, 29

Nashauekomuk, 21

NASHAUÉ, 21, 33

Nashua, Nashaway, 33

Natchaug, 33

Na[=u]mkeag, 43

Nayatt, Nayot, 29

_Nessaooa-_, 22

Newichawanock, 12

Nimpanickhickanuh, 37

NIPPE, NEBI, 14

Nippissing, 15

Noank, 29

_Nó[=e]u-_, 11

Norwottock, 11

Noyaug, 29

_Nunni-_, 16

Nunnepoag, 16

Nunkertunk, 29

Nyack, 29

Occoquan, 30

_Ogkome-_, 10

OGQUIDNE, 23

Ohio, 13

-OHKE, -OKE, 6

Okhúcquan, 30

Olighin-sipoú, 13

-OMPSK, 18

Oswego, 31

Ouschankamaug, 18

Pacatock, 8

_Paguan-_, 40

_Pahke-_, 16, 40

Pahquioque, 39

Paquabaug, 16, 40

Paquiaug, 39

Pascoag, 11

Pasquotank, 11

Passamaquoddy, 26, 43

Patuxet, -ent, 9

-PAUG, 15

_Pauqui-_, 39

Pauquepaug, 16

Pauat-, 9

Pautuck, 9

Pawating, 9

Pawcatuck, 8

Pawtucket, 8, 9

Pemadené, 41

_Pemi-_, 40

Pemaquid, 41

Pemetiq, 41

Pemigewasset, 41

_Pemiji-_, 40

Pemijigomé, 40

_Pen-_, 19

Penobscot, 19

Pequabuck, 16

Pequannoc, 40

_Pescatum-_, 26, 43

_Peske-_, 10

Pesquamscot, 11

Pettiquamscut, 18

Petuckquapock, 16

_Petukqui-_, 16, 18

Pikanghenahik, 30

_Pimé-_, 40

-PISK, -PSK, 18

Piscataqua, -quog, 11

Piscataway,-aquis, 11

Poaetquessing, 9

_Pohqui-_, 39

_Ponamo-_, 27

Poquannoc, 40

Poutaxat, 9

Powhatan, 10

Pymatuning, 38, 41

Pyquaag, 39

_Pummeecke-_, 40

Quansigamaug, 18

Quilutamende, 36

_Quinni-_, 8, 15

Quinnihticut, 8

Quinebaug, 16

Quinepoxet, 16

Quinnipiac, 15

-QUODDY, -KANTTI, 26, 27

Quonshapang, 43

Qussuk, 16

Quunkwadchu, 20

Saco, 30

Sagadahock, 30

Saganaw, 31

Saguenay, 31

Saquatucket, 32

Saugatuck, 32

Saukunk, 31

Segoonumakaddy, 27

Segubbunakaddy, 26

SEPU, SEIP, SIPI, 7

Shaume, 34

Shawmut, 36

Shawwunk, 33

Shubenacadie, 26

Shumuit, 34

Sicaiook, Suckiaug, 7

Soakatuck, 32

_Sonki-_, 16

Sonkipaug, 16

Sowanohke, 7

Squam, 18

Squamacut, 42

Squammagonic, 42

Squamscot, 18

_Sucki-_, 7

Swamscot, 18

-TCHUAN, 12

Temigami, 17

Tetiquet, Titicut, 11

Tomheganomset, 19

Tracady, -die, 28

-TUK, 8

UHQUÔN, 30

WADCHU, 20

Wampanoags, 6

_Wanashqué-_, 18, 41

Wangunbog, 16

Wapanachki, 7

Werowocomoco, 21

Winnepesaukee, 32, 33

Winnesquamsaukit, 18

Winnisimmit, 34

Wnogquetookoke, 30

Wonasquatucket, 41

WONKUN, WONGUN, 29

Wongattuck, 29

Wonkemaug, 18

Wongunpaug, 16

Wonnesquam, 18

Wuskowhánanaukit, 7