Part 6

The seated bull and horseman, the almost invariable devices on Rājpūt copper and billon coins, were introduced by the Brahman kings of Gandhāra, or Ohind (circ. 860-950), who first used them on silver; the commonest of these are the issues of Spalapati-deva (Pl. VI, 12) and Samanta-deva. The later coins of the dynasty, however, degenerate into billon. The name of the king in Nāgarī appears along with the bull on the reverse, and on the obverse of the Ohind coins is an inscription hitherto undeciphered, but probably in some Turanian script. Bull and Horseman coins, either copper or billon, were also struck by the Tomara and Chauhan dynasties of Dehlī (Pl. VI, 11), the Rāṭhors of Kanauj, Amṛitapāla Rāja of Budāyūn (Budāon), and the Rājpūt kings of Narwar (1220-1260; Pl. VI, 13). Some of these last, in imitation of the Muḥammadan invaders, placed dates in the Vikrama era[35] on their coins. The Narwar horseman on later coins is particularly crude in design. The Mahārājas of Kāngra continued to strike degenerate Bull and Horseman coins, from 1315 down to 1625. Deviations from this conventional type are rare. There is a unique coin of Śrī Kamāra, king of Ohind, with a lion on the obverse and a peacock on the reverse, while three kings of the same dynasty issued copper with an elephant obverse and a lion reverse.

[35] The Vikrama era starts in 58 B.C. (See page 24 ante.)

A few copper coins of the Mahākośala kings and of Jayavarma of Mahoba have a figure of Hanumān on the obverse and a Nāgarī legend on the reverse; and a similar legend takes the place of the bull on some copper pieces of Asalla-deva and Gaṇapati-deva of Narwar.

III. THE COINAGE OF KASHMĪR

The early history of Kashmīr as an independent kingdom is obscure; trustworthy annals do not begin till its conquest by Mihiragula in the sixth century. From that time down till about 1334, when it was conquered by the Muhammadans, the country was ruled by four successive dynasties. The earliest coins are considered to be those with the head of a king on the obverse and a vase on the reverse, attributed from the inscription _Khiṅgi_ to a certain Khiṅgila of the fifth century. A number of coins of the eighth century, struck by princes of the Nāga dynasty, are known: these are for the most part of very base gold, and were imitated from the standing king and seated goddess issues of the Little Yueh-chi, who, as we have seen, conquered Kashmīr about the year 475, and the name of the original leader of that tribe, _Kidāra_, still appears written vertically under the king’s arm. The workmanship of these degenerate pieces (Pl. VI, 16) is of the rudest, and the devices would be quite unintelligible without a knowledge of their antecedents. Some copper coins give the name Toramāṇa, but the identification of this prince with the famous Hūṇa chief presents many difficulties.

With the accession of Śaṅkara Varma, the first of the Varma dynasty, in A.D. 833, gold practically disappears. From the middle of the ninth century nearly all the kings whose names are recorded in Kalhaṇa’s great chronicle history of Kashmīr, the _Rājataraṅgiṇī_, of the twelfth century, are represented by copper coins, but the uniform degradation of the fabric deprives them of all interest. Among these are the coins of two queens, Sugandhā and Diddā (980-1003) (Pl. VI, 15), the latter chiefly remarkable for an adventurous career. The flourishing state of sculpture and architecture during the eighth and ninth centuries, and the natural artistic skill of the Kashmīrī people, suggest that this extreme debasement of the coinage may at least be due as much to a conservative dislike and suspicion of innovation as to a lack of cunning in the engravers. Many parallels could be cited, the classical example being the Attic tetradrachm, the archaic style of which continued unchanged at Athens even during the brilliant age of Pheidias.

KEY TO PLATE IX

1. Bengal: Sikandar Shāh. Fīrozābād. 783 A.H. AR. Wt. 166 grs. Obv., in a circle, _Abu-l-mujāhid_ (“The father of the warrior”) _Sikandar Shāh ibn-i-Ilyās Shāh sult̤ān_; margin, names of the Four Companions in four circles, between these, _Al imāmu-l-a’z̤amu-l-wās̤iqu bi taʾīdu-r-rahman_; cf. Pl. VIII, 7, Obv. Rev., _Yamīni Khalīfatu ’llah naṣīru amīru-l-mominīn ghaus̤u-l-islām wa-l-muslimīn khallada mulkahu_, “The right hand of the Khalif of God, the helper of the Commander of the faithful, the succourer of Islām and the Muslims, may God perpetuate the kingdom”; margin, in segments, _Ẓuriba hazihi-s-sikkatu-l-mubārikatu fī baldati Fīrozābād_, “Struck this blessed coin in the town of Fīrozābād,” followed by date 783 in Arabic words.

2. Bahmanī: ’Alāu-d-dīn Aḥmad II. 850 A.H. AR. Wt. 169 grs. Obv., _As-sult̤ānu-l-ḥalīm ul karīm ur ra’ufi ’alai ’abdu ’llah al ghanīu-l-muhaimin_, “The sultan, the clement, the bountiful, the kind to the servants of God, the rich, the confiding one.” Rev., in a square, _Abu-l-muz̤affar ’Alāu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn Aḥmad Shāh bin Aḥmad Shāh al wālīu-l-bahmanī_ (“The guardian, the Bahmanī”).

3. Mālwā: G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh. 880 A.H. AV. Wt. 170 grs. Obv., in double square, the outer one dotted, _Al wās̤iqu b ’il mulki al multaji abu-l-fatḥ_ (“The truster in the kingdom, and seeking refuge in the Father of victory”) _Ghiyās̤ Shāh_. A star above. Rev., _Bin Maḥmūd Shāh sult̤ānu-l-Khiljī khallada mulkahu 880_.

4. Jaunpūr: Maḥmūd Shāh. 846 (?) A.H. AV. Wt. 175 grs. Obv., within circle, _Fī zamani-l-imāmi nā’ībi amīru-l-mominīn abu-l-fatḥ khuldat khilāfatuhu_. Cf. Pl. VIII, 11. Margin, as on Pl. VIII, 5, but date 846 (?) and mint name missing. Rev., in tughra characters, _As-sult̤ān ṣaifu-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn abu-l-mujāhid Maḥmūd bin Ibrāhīm_.

5. Id: Ḥusain Shāh. 864 A.H. Æ. Wt. 150 grs. Obv., in circle, _Ḥusain Shāh_; margin, _bin Maḥmūd Shāh bin Ibrāhīm Shāh sult̤ānī_. Rev., _Nāʾībi amīru-l-mominīn 864_.

6. Gujarāt: Maḥmūd Shāh III 946 A.H. AV. Wt. 185 grs. Obv., reading upwards, _Nāṣiru-d-dunyā wa-d-dīn abu-l-fatḥ al wās̤iqu bi’ llahi-i-mannān_, “The helper of the world and the faith, the father of victory, the truster in the beneficent God.” Rev., in double square, _Maḥmūd Shāh bin Lat̤īf Shāh sult̤ān_; margin, _946_.

7. Id: Maḥmūd Shāh III. AR. Wt. 112 grs. Obv. and Rev., legends as No. 6, but no date.

8. Ma’bar: ’Ādil Shāh. Æ. Obv., _As-sult̤ān ’Ādil Shāh_. Rev., _As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am_.

9. Kashmīr: Zainu-l-’ābidīn. 842 A.H. AR. Wt. 96 grs. Obv., _As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am Zainu-l-’ābidīn 842_. Rev., in lozenge, _Ẓuriba Kashmīr_; in marginal segments, _Fī shuhūri sina is̤nai wa arb’aina wa s̤amanami’ata_, “In the months of the year two and forty and eight hundred.”

10. Bījāpūr: ’Ādil Shāh. Lārīn. Wt. about 71 grs. Obv., _’Ādil Shāh_, followed by 3 strokes. Rev., blurred.

KEY TO PLATE X

1. Bābur: Lāhor. 936 A.H. AR. Wt. 69 grs. Obv., in circle, the Kalima; margin, in segments, portions of _Abābakri-ṣ-ṣadīq_ (“A, the faithful witness”), _’Umru-l-fārūq_ (“’U, the discriminator between right and wrong”), _’Us̤mān abu Nūrain_ (“’U, the father of two lights”), _’Alīu-l-murtaẓa_ (“’A, the pleasing to God”).

Rev., within flattened mihrābi area, _Z̤ahīru-d-dīn Muḥammad Bābur bādshāh ghāzī, 936_; above, _As-sult̤ānu-l-a ’z̤amu-l-khāqānu-mukarram_, “The most great sultan, the illustrious emperor”; below, _Ḵẖ̱allada allaha ta’ālā mulkahu wa salt̤anatuhu_, “May God Most High perpetuate the kingdom and sovereignity” and, _Ẓuriba Lāhor_ “Struck at Lāhor.”

2. Humāyūn. AV. Wt. 16 grs. Obv., in circle, the Kalima. Rev., _Ḵẖ̱allada allaha ta’ālā mulkahu ... Muḥammad Humāyūn bādshāh ghāzī_.

3. Sher Shāh. Āgra. 948 A.H. AR. Wt. 175 grs. Obv., in square, the Kalima; margins as on No. 1. Rev., in square, _Sher Shāh sult̤ān khallada allāhu mulkahu 948_; below in Nāgarī, _Śrī Sēr Sāhī_ (an attempt at Sher Shāh’s name). Margins, _As-sult̤ānu-l-’ādil abu-l-muz̤affar_ (“The just sultan, the father of the victorious”) _Farīdu-d-dīn ẓuriba Āgrah_.

4. Islām Shāh. Qanauj. 95—. Æ. Wt. 315 grs. Obv., _Fī ’ahdi-l-amīru-l-ḥāmiu-d-dīni wa-d-dayān 95_—“In the time of the prince, the defender of the faith of the requiter.” Double bar, with knot in centre, bisects the legend. Rev., _Abu-l-muz̤affar Islām Shāh bin Sher Shāh sult̤ān ẓuriba Shergarh ’urf Qanauj ḵẖ̱allada allāhu mulkahu_, “The father of the victorious, Islām Shāh, son of Sher Shāh, sultan, struck (this coin) at Shergarh alias Qanauj; may God perpetuate the kingdom.”

5. Sikandar Sūr. 962. AR. Wt. 174 grs. Rev., in square, _Sult̤ān Sikandar Shāh Isma’īl Sūr 962_. Margins illegible.

6. Akbar. Āgra. 981. AV. Wt. 167 grs. Obv., in dotted border, the Kalima. Names of the four companions and _981_. Rev., _Ḵẖ̱allada mulkahu Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad Akbar bādshāh g̱ẖāzī ẓuriba baldatī Āgrah_ (“Struck at Āgra town”).

7. Id: Aḥmadābād. 982. AR. Wt. 175 grs. Rev., within dotted square border, _Jalālu-d-dīn Muḥammad Akbar bādshāh g̱ẖāzī, 982_; margins, portions of _As-sult̤ānu-l-a’z̤am ḵẖ̱allada allāhu ta’ālā mulkahu wa salt̤anatahu ẓuriba daru-s-salt̤anati Aḥmadābād_ (“Struck at the seat of sovereignty Aḥmadābād”).

8. Id: Āgra.[36] 50 R. AR. Wt. 175 grs. Obv., in octagonal border, on ornamental ground, _Allāhu Akbar jalla jalālahu_, “God is great, eminent is his glory.” Rev., within similar border, _Ẓarb-i-Āgrah Amardād Ilāhī 50_, “Struck at Āgra, Amardād Ilāhī year 50.”

9. Id: Āgra. [50 R.] AV. Wt. 182 grs. Obv., within dotted circle, on ornamented ground, a duck to right.

10. Id: Dehlī. 43 R. Æ. Wt. about 640 grs. Obv., _Tankah-i-Akbar Shāhī ẓarb-i-Dehlī_, Tankah of Akbar Shāh. “Struck at Dehlī.” Rev., _Māh Dī Ilāhī 43_, “In the month Dī, Ilāhī year 43.”

11. Id: Mintless. 43 R. AR. Wt. 87 grs. Half rupee. Obv., within square dotted border, legend as on No. 8. Rev., _Shahrīwar Ilāhī 43_.

12. Jahāngīr. 1014-1 R. AR. (A “Ḵẖ̱air qabūl.”) Obv., within dotted border _Jahāngīr bādshāh ghāzī 1_. Rev., _Khair qabūl_, “May these alms be accepted.”

[36] With the introduction of the Ilāhī coins, Persian gradually supersedes Arabic in the inscriptions.

The one break in this monotonous Kashmīrī series occurs in the reign of the tyrant Harsha-deva (1089-1111), who struck both gold and silver in imitation of the ornate gold of Koṅgudeśa (Pl. VII, 5) in Southern India, with an elephant’s head on the obverse. The same king also issued a gold coin with a Horseman obverse and the usual seated goddess on the reverse (Pl. VI, 14).

The sparseness and inferiority of the coinage during the period under discussion in this chapter must be attributed chiefly to the general insecurity, caused by the continual quarrels between the numerous petty states. This state of unrest, together with the previous impoverishment of the country at the hands of the Huns, doubtless accounts for the small output of gold. It must be remembered that mercantile contracts in India have always been carried on largely by notes of hand (_hundīs_), and in times of disturbance these could be conveyed more safely from city to city than coined money.

The scarcity of silver was due to other causes. At this period the world supply of this metal seems to have been drawn chiefly from Central Asia. The rise of the Arab power and the consequent disturbances in Central Asia interrupted trade between India and the west by land and sea, and must have curtailed, if they did not cut off completely, the import of silver from abroad. So we find the Rājpūt states reduced to employing an alloy, billon, which was almost certainly used by them as a substitute for the more precious metal.

It is a most illuminating fact that gold, formerly exported from India, disappears from the coinage of Europe at about this very period, while silver is reduced to the meagre Carolingian _penny_ standard.

VI

THE COINAGE OF SOUTHERN INDIA

The difficulties of the historian in tracing the fortunes of the numerous clans and dynasties which contended for sovereignty in the south from the third to the fourteenth century have been enumerated by Vincent Smith in his _Oxford History of India_. Even fewer guide-posts mark the path of the numismatist. Legends on South Indian coins are rare, and, when they occur are short, giving simply the ruler’s name or title: dates are rarer still. As in the early coinage of the Greeks, the heraldic symbol or cognizance serves as the stamp of authority; the fish, for example, is so used by the rulers of the Pāṇḍya dynasty. But in India we receive little help from contemporary records; and the habit, which conquerors indulged, of incorporating on their issues the cognizance of vanquished peoples, and the extensive imitation of popular and well-established types, worse confounds the confusion. In assigning coins to dynasties reliance has often to be placed upon the evidence of find-spots, a dubious method at all times, but least unsatisfactory for copper, which seldom circulates freely beyond the country of its origin. Again, the isolation of the southern peninsula is as marked in the development of the coinage as in political history. With the sole exception of the elephant pagodas of the Gajapati dynasty, imitated by Harsha-deva of Kashmīr, there is no certain point of contact between the south and the north after the third century A.D. Finally, the currency of the south has not received that attention from scholars which has been bestowed upon the more attractive money of the north. A careful systematic study, in conjunction with the historical material now available, would doubtless throw considerable light upon it and its strikers.

Certain marked characteristics belong to the coinage of the south, which, in spite of foreign irruptions and their consequent innovations, have persisted until recent times. Gold and copper were the metals used almost exclusively; of the former there were two denominations, the _hūn_, _varāha_ or _pagoda_[37] (50 to 60 grains) and the _fanam_ (five to six grains), based respectively on the weights of two seeds, the _kaḷanju_ or molucca bean (_Cæsalpina bonduc_) and the _mañjāḍi_ (_Adenathera pavonina_). Copper coins were called _kāsu_, of which the English corruption is “cash,” while the rare silver coins appear to have followed the gold standard. The Travancore silver _chakram_ was equal in weight to the fanam. The gold coin had an independent development in the south, the various stages of which can be marked. The earliest specimens—the age of these is doubtful—are spherules of plain gold with a minute punch-mark on one side (Pl. VII, 1); these developed into the cup-shaped “padma-ṭaṅkas,” stamped with punches, first on one side only, later on both obverse and reverse. Finally came die-struck pieces, of which the small thick Vijayanagar pagodas are the typical southern form. Another characteristic is the preference for tiny coins: this is particularly evident from about the sixteenth century, when copper coins tend to decrease in size, and the fanam acquired a wide popularity; the silver _tārēs_ of Kalikat (Calicut), which weigh only one or two grains, must be the smallest known currency.[38] A great variety of devices and symbols, usually Hindu gods and emblems, also characterizes the copper currency, especially after the fifteenth century, and this feature adds considerably to the difficulty of correct attribution.

[37] _Hūn_ is a Hindustānī corruption of _honnu_, Kanarese for “a half pagoda”; _Varāha_ is probably derived from the boar (varāha) cognizance on Eastern Chālukya coins; the origin of _Pagoda_, as introduced by the Portuguese and applied to this coin, is obscure, cf. Yule and Burnell, _Hobson-Jobson_ under “Pagoda.” The considerable variation in the weight of the pagodas issued by different dynasties may be due simply to different local standards; but if the Chālukyas were, as is supposed, of Gurjara origin, the heavier weights of their coins may reflect the influence of the “dramma.”

[38] The silver _hemitetartemoria_ of Athens weighed 1·4 grs. each.

The dynasties of the south may be divided into two territorial groups—(1) the kingdoms of the Deccan—all the country between the river Narbadā on the north and the Kṛishṇa and Tuṅgabhadrā on the south—and the Mysore country; Telugu was the language of the former, Kanarese of the latter. (1) The remainder of the peninsula, where Tamil and its cognate dialects were spoken, the country of the Pāṇḍyas, Cheras, Choḷas, Pallavas and their successors.

During the first two centuries of the Christian era, and even after the disappearance of the silver punch-marked coins, perhaps about A.D. 200, the currency of the south consisted chiefly of imported Roman gold[39] along with the spherules already mentioned. A certain quantity of Roman silver must also have been in circulation, while the small copper pieces bearing Roman devices and legends—one of them seems to give the name of the Emperor Theodosius (A.D. 393)—were probably local productions.

Conjecture has assigned the earliest coins connected with a local dynasty to the Kurumbas, a pastoral tribe inhabiting the present Arcot district. One type of these copper pieces with a two-masted ship on the obverse is evidently derived from the similar Andhra issues struck for the Coromandel coast, and so may belong to the third century A.D.

[39] In 1850 a large number of Roman aurei, amounting, it is said, to five coolie loads, were unearthed near Kannanur: most emperors between Augustus, 29 B.C., and Antoninus Pius, A.D. 161, were represented. Cf. “Remarks on Some Lately Discovered Roman Coins,” _J.A.S.B._, 1851, p. 371.

I. COINAGE OF THE DECCAN AND MYSORE

The first great dynasty to dominate Southern India was that of the Chālukyas (a foreign tribe probably of Hūṇa-Gurjara origin), founded by Pulakeśin I in the middle of the sixth century, whose capital was at Bādāmī in the Bījāpūr district. His grandson, Pulakeśin II (A.D. 608-642), became paramount in the Deccan, but the kingdom was overthrown by the Rāshṭrakūṭas in 753. In 973, however, a Chālukya prince, Tailapa, retrieved the fortunes of his family and founded the Western Chālukya kingdom with its capital at Kalyāṇi, and this lasted till 1190, after which the Chālukyas of the west, overthrown by the Hoysaḷas, became petty chiefs. Meanwhile, in the middle of the seventh century another dynasty, known as the Eastern Chālukyas, had been established by Vishṇuvardhana, brother of the great Pulakeśin II, in Kaliṅga with its capital at Veṅgī, which lasted till the eleventh century, when it was overthrown by the Choḷas.

The earliest coin assignable to a Chālukya prince is a base silver piece of Vishṇuvardhana (615-633), with a lion device and the king’s title in Telugu, _Vishamasiddhi_, “Successful in scaling the inaccessible places,” on the obverse, and a trident flanked by two lamps on the reverse. Certain pagodas, fanams and copper coins, perhaps of an earlier date, from the appearance on them of the boar, the cognizance of the Chālukyas, have been conjectured to belong to that dynasty. To the Eastern Chālukya princes, Śaktivarman (1000-1012) and Rājarāja (1012-1062), belong large flat gold pieces, also depicting the boar symbol, but with blank reverses (Pl. VII, 4).

The curious cup-shaped “padma-ṭaṅkas” (lotus ṭaṅkas) were possibly first struck by the Kadambas (Pl. VII, 2), inhabiting Mysore and Kanara. Similar coins, but with a lion or a temple in place of the lotus and legends in old Kanarese, were struck by the Western Chālukya kings, Jayasiṁha, Jagadekamalla and Trailokyamalla, of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. In 1913, 16,586 of these cup-shaped coins were unearthed at Kodur in the Nellore district, and this find shows that the type was subsequently adopted by the Telugu-Choḷa chiefs of the Nellore district in the thirteenth century.

The Hoysaḷa chiefs, who rose to paramount power under Ballāḷa II on the ruins of the Western Chālukya kingdom, had for their cognizance a maned lion. Some heavy gold coins with old Kanarese legends, which bear that emblem, have, therefore, with probability been assigned to them. On one of these appears the interesting inscription, _Śrī Taḷakāḍa gonda_, “He who took the glorious Taḷkāḍ,” the capital of the old Koṅgu-Chera kingdom.

There are numerous South Indian coins belonging to the twelfth century which afford no certain clue to their strikers. Among these the following have been tentatively assigned to petty dynasties who succeeded to the territories of the Chālukyas: to the Kākatīya or Gaṇapati dynasty of Waraṅgal (1110-1323), pagodas, fanams and copper coins with a couchant bull on the obverse and incomplete Nāgarī legends on the reverse; to Someśvara, one of the Kalachuri chiefs of Kalyāṇa (1162-1175), pagodas and fanams with the king’s titles in old Kanarese on the reverse, and on the obverse a figure advancing to the right; to the Yādavas of Devagiri (1187-1311), a pagoda and a silver coin, bearing a kneeling figure of Garuḍa on the obverse.

There remain to be noticed the coins of three dynasties. The original home of the Gajapatis, “Elephant-Lords,” was Koṅgudesa—Western Mysore with the modern districts of Coimbatore and Salem. About the ninth century these Chera kings fled before the invading Choḷas to Orissa, and there were coined the famous “Elephant pagodas” (Pl. VII, 5) and fanams, which Harsha-deva of Kashmīr (A.D. 1089) copied. The scroll device on the reverse also appears on some of the anonymous boar pagodas attributed to the Chālukyas. To Anantavarman Choḍagaṅga, a member of that branch of the Gaṅga dynasty of Mysore who settled in Kaliṅga (Orissa), and ruled there from the sixth to the eleventh century, are assigned fanams with a recumbent bull, conch and crescent on the obverse, and Telugu regnal dates on the reverse. The gold coins of two of the later Kādamba chiefs of Goa, Vishṇu Chittadeva (circ. 1147) and Jayakeśin III (circ. 1187), are also known; these bear the special Kādamba symbol, the lion passant on the obverse, and a Nāgarī legend on the reverse. One interesting inscription of the latter runs as follows: “The brave Jayakeśideva, the destroyer of the Mālavas who obtained boons from the holy Saptakoṭīsa (_i.e._ Śiva).”

II. THE COINAGE OF TAMIL STATES

The Tamil states of the far south first became wealthy owing to their foreign sea-borne trade. Tradition has defined with some exactness the territories held by the three principal races in ancient times; the Pāṇḍyas inhabited the modern Madura and Tinnevelly districts, the Choḷas the Coromandel Coast (Choḷamandalam), and the Chera or Keraḷa country comprised the district of Malabar together with the states of Cochin and Travancore. Although their frontiers varied considerably at different periods, this distribution is sufficiently accurate for a study of their coin types.