Part 11

Here it will be convenient to deal with a coinage, which, though partially of Mug̱ẖal lineage in other respects, stands by itself. The reign of Tīpū Sult̤ān of Mysore, though lasting only sixteen years (1782-99), was productive of one of the most remarkable individual coinages in the history of India, comparable in many ways to that of Muḥammad bin Tug̱ẖlaq. His father, Ḥaidar ’Alī, as we have already seen (Chap. VI), struck pagodas and fanams. Tīpū continued to strike both these, retaining the initial “hē” of Ḥaidar’s name, but adding a mint name on the obverse or reverse (Pl. VI, 10). In addition, he coined muhars and half muhars, in silver the double and full rupee, with its half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth and thirty-second parts, and in copper pieces of 40, 20,[70] 10, 5 and 2½ cash. The 40-cash piece weighed 340 grains. To each of these coins, following perhaps the example of Jahāngīr, he gave a special name. The pagoda, equal to the quarter of a muhar, he called, for instance, _Fārūqī_; the double rupee, _Ḥaidarī_; the rupee, _Aḥmadī_; the 20-cash piece, _Zohra_; and so on. The Persian inscriptions on gold and silver are religious in character, that on the rupee runs as follows: obverse, _The religion of Aḥmad_ (_i.e._ _Islām) is illumined in the world by the victory of Ḥaidar, struck at Nagar, the cyclic year Dalv, the Hijrī year 1200_; reverse, _He is the Sultan, the unique, the just; the third of Bahārī, the year Dalv, the regnal year 4_. For his copper coins Tīpū adopted the elephant device of the Wodeyar kings of Mysore (1578-1733), and the animal appears in various attitudes on the obverse, sometimes to right, sometimes to left, with trunk raised, and with trunk lowered. On the 40-cash pieces he carries a flag. The reverse gives the mint and, later in the reign, the distinctive name of the coin also (Pl. XII, 5).

[70] The 20-cash piece had been struck by Ḥaidar ’Alī in the last two years of his reign, A.H. 1195-96. Cf. J. R. Henderson, _The Coins of Ḥaidar ’Alī and Tīpū Sultān_, Madras, 1921, p. 5.

At least thirteen mints were working under Tīpū, the most important being Pattan (Seringapatam), Nagar (Bednūr), and Bangalūr; for some mints merely honorific titles appear, thus _Naz̤arbār_, “scattering favour,” for Mysore.

The most remarkable and perplexing of Tīpū’s innovations was his method of dating the coins. For this purpose he used the Jovian cycle of sixty years, according to the Telugū reckoning, inventing special names for each of the sixteen years of his reign, in accordance with their correspondence with that cycle, and composing the names at different periods from the letters supplied by the two systems of numeration known as _abjad_ and _abtas̤_. For the first four years of his reign, when he employed the _abjad_ system, he also dated his coins in the Hijrī era; in the fifth year he invented a new era, the Maulūdī, reckoned from the date of Muḥammad’s birth in A.D. 571; dates in this era appear written from right to left. The execution of most of Tīpū’s coins is exceptionally good.

Kṛishṇa Rāja Udayar (1799-1868), the restored Rāja of Mysore, for a time continued the elephant copper pieces of Tīpū, but later changed the device for a lion. Kanarese inscriptions (Fig. 6) were, however, at once substituted for Persian.

We must now turn to Hindustān proper. Both Nādir Shāh, in 1739, and Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī (1748-67) and his successors struck rupees and muhars to the Mug̱ẖal standard for the districts they temporarily occupied. Nādir’s issues are Persian in fabric, but the Durrānī coins, struck at Shāhjahānābād (Pl. XII, 2), Farruḵẖ̱ābād, Lāhor, Multān, Kābul, and several other mints, are largely Mug̱ẖal in style. On the whole, the issues of these princes, especially those of Qandahār and Peshāwar and the rare pieces of the pretenders, Sulaimān and Humāyūn, reach a much higher artistic level than the contemporary Mug̱ẖal coins.

One of the most important results of Aḥmad Shāh’s repeated invasions of the Panjāb was the formation of the Sikh League, known as the Ḵẖ̱ālsā. After the seventh invasion, in 1764, the League assumed the right of coinage; and from that date till 1777, with a gap of two years, 1766-67, for Aḥmad Shāh’s last invasion, “Gobindshāhī” rupees were struck at Lāhor, so-called from the name of the Gūrū Gobind being included in the Persian couplet, which formed the inscription. Amritsar, _Ambratsar_ on the coins, became a mint in 1777. Its earliest rupees, known as “Nānakshāhī,” bore a different couplet (Pl. XII, 10). A few coins were also struck at Anandgarh. All Sikh coins are dated in the Samvat era.[71] The coins of Rañjīt Siṅgh (1799-1839) are of two distinct kinds, those with Persian (often very faulty) and those with Gurmukhī[72] inscriptions. Rupees of the Persian couplet type appear regularly from the mints of Lāhor and Amritsar throughout his reign, from Multān after 1818, from Kashmīr after 1819; and a few rupees are known from Peshāwar, Jhaṅg and Pind Dādan Khān. The king’s name was never inscribed on the coinage; but the characteristic Sikh “leaf” mark makes its appearance upon his earliest rupee, dated S. 1857 (= A.D. 1800). During the Samvat years 1861-63, first a peacock’s tail and then a thumb-mirror appears on the Amritsar rupees; these are said to bear reference to Rañjīt’s favourite dancing girl, Mora. A curious rupee of Lāhor of S. 1885 displays the figures of Gūrū Nānak and his Muhammadan follower, Mardānā. Rañjīt Siṅgh also coined muhars similar in style to the rupees.

[71] The Samvat, which corresponds with the Vikrama era, begins in 58 B.C.

[72] Gurmukhī is a Panjāb provincial form of the Nāgarī script (cf. Fig. 10).

About the year S. 1885, apparently, the Gurmukhī coins were introduced. A few gold and silver coins are known, but most are copper, some weighing as much as 600 grains. The inscriptions are generally religious in character; the commonest is _Akāl Sahāī, Gūrū Nānakjī_, “O, Eternal one help us! Guru Nānakjī!”[73] The reverse gives the date and mint, generally Ambratsar. The script is usually very crude, and the “leaf” mark is almost invariably present. Some coins, like those of Kashmīr, have bilingual legends in Persian and Gurmukhī. Rupees of the Persian couplet type continued to be struck after Rañjīt’s death, in S. 1896, till S. 1905 (= A.D. 1848). The chiefs of the Sikh states, Patiāla, Jhind, Nābha and Kaital, and the Dogra Rājas of Kashmīr, after A.D. 1846, also coined rupees of this type. On some of these last was inscribed, on account of its supposed talismanic power, the Christian monogram I.H.S.

[73] The two parts of this legend are quite separate in sense.

In conclusion, we must consider the coins of the Nawāb-wazīrs and kings of Oudh or Awadh. The existence of this province as a separate principality began in 1720, when the wazīr, Sa’ādat Ḵẖ̱ān, was created Ṣūbahdār. From 1754 to 1775 the Mug̱ẖal mint of Muḥammadābād-Banāras was under the control of the third Nawāb-wazīr Shujā’u-d-daula. From 1784 till 1818 succeeding nawābs continued to mint in Lakhnau (Lucknow) the famous “Machhlīdār” rupees, so called from the fish (Fig. 9, 5), the royal badge of Awadh, appearing on the reverse. All of these bear the regnal date 26, and continue the mint name Banāras. Other mints worked by the nawābs from time to time were Barelī, after 1784, Ilahābād, 1776-1780, and Āṣafnagar.

In 1818 Lord Hastings persuaded G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar to assume the title of king, and from that time the regal series of coins begins. The royal arms of Awadh, in various forms, appear on the obverse of gold, silver and copper of G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn and his four successors, until the forced abdication of the last king, Wājid ’Alī Shāh, in 1856. On the reverse, the inscription, following the Mug̱ẖal example, takes the form of a couplet; and silver and gold are struck to the Mug̱ẖal standard (Pl. XII, 3). Fractional pieces of the rupee and muhar were struck in all reigns. Though better executed and finer in metal than those of most other successors of the Mug̱ẖals, these coins display a certain monotony, all denominations in the three metals following the prescribed pattern for the reign. Certain modifications in the inscription, however, take place from time to time. The coins of Wājid ’Alī Shāh’s seventh and eighth years, of which five denominations in each metal are known, are probably the finest of the series.

Two large silver medals are associated with the Awadh dynasty, the first commemorating Shujā’u-d-daula’s victory over the Rohillas at Mirān Katra, in 1774, the second struck by G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar, in honour of his coronation on 1st Muḥarram A.H. 1235. On the obverse of the latter is an ornate and very realistic portrait of the king, and on the reverse the arms of Awadh. Certain “Machhlīdār” rupees and muhars, bearing the date A.H. 1229, on which the mint name _Ṣūbah Awadh_ occurs, are believed to have been minted by the Lucknow mutineers. It is not unfitting that this short history of Indian coins should close with a description of the money of the Awadh kings; for this latest scion of the great Mug̱ẖal currency not only received its sanction from an English Governor-General, but manifested, in the adoption of armorial bearings of a Western type for its obverse, the beginning of that European influence, which, later on in the nineteenth century, was to revolutionise the coin types of the few Indian states, Ḥaidarābād, Travancore, Gwāliār, Alwar, Baroda, etc., which retained the right of minting after the introduction of the British Imperial currency.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL

J. PRINSEP: _Essays in Indian Antiquities_, Ed. E. THOMAS, London, 1858; E. J. RAPSON: _Indian Coins_ (_Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde_), Strassburg, 1897; C. J. RODGERS: _Coin Collecting in Northern India_, Allahabad, 1894; V. A. SMITH: _Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum_, Calcutta, Vol. I, Oxford, 1906 (for Chaps. I-VI and X); E. THOMAS: “Ancient Indian Weights” (= _International Numismata Orientalia_, I, Part i), 1865.

SPECIAL

CHAP. I.—A. CUNNINGHAM: Coins of Ancient India, 1891; E. J. RAPSON: _Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, the Western Kṣatrapas, etc., in the British Museum_, London, 1908; W. THEOBALD: “Notes on Some of the Symbols found on the Punch-marked Coins of Hindustan,” _J.A.S.B._, 1890, p. 181; E. H. WALSH: “An Examination of a Find of Punch-marked Coins in Patna City,” _Journal of the Bihār and Orissa Research Society_, 1919, p. 16, p. 463.

CHAPS. II-III.—A. CUNNINGHAM: “Coins of Alexander’s Successors in the East,” 1873 (= _Num. Chron._, 1868-1873); id.: “Coins of the Indo-Scythians,” 1892 (= _Num. Chron._, 1888-1892); P. GARDNER: _Catalogue of Indian Coins in the British Museum: Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria and India_, London, 1886; E. J. RAPSON: _Cambridge History of India_, Vol. I, Chaps. XXII, XXIII; R. B. WHITEHEAD: _Catalogue of Coins in the Panjāb Museum, Lahore_, Vol. I, Oxford, 1914.

CHAP. IV.—J. ALLAN: _Catalogue of the Coins of the Gupta Dynasties in the British Museum_, London, 1914.

CHAP. V.—R. BURN: “Some Coins of the Maukharīs and of the Thanesar Line,” _J.R.A.S._, 1906, p. 843; A. CUNNINGHAM: “Coins of the Later Indo-Scythians,” 1894 (= _Num. Chron._, 1893-1894); id.: “Coins of Mediæval India,” 1894; C. J. RODGERS: “Coins of the Mahārājahs of Kashmir,” _J.A.S.B._, 1897, p. 277; id.: “Coins of the Mahārājahs of Kāngra,” _J.A.S.B._, 1880, p. 10.

CHAP. VI.—G. BIDIE: “The Pagoda or Varāha Coins of Southern India,” _J.A.S.B._, 1883, p. 33; W. ELLIOT: “Coins of Southern India,” 1886 (= _International Numismata Orientalia_ III, Part 2); E. HULTZCH: “The Coins of the Kings of Vijayanagar,” _I.A._, 1891, p. 301; id.: “South Indian Copper Coins,” _I.A._, 1892, p. 321; id.: “Miscellaneous South Indian Coins,” _I.A._, 1896, p. 317; R. P. JACKSON: “The Dominions, Emblems and Coins of the South Indian Dynasties,” 1913 (= _British Numismatic Journal_, 1913); E. LOVENTHAL: _The Coins of Tinnevelly_, Madras, 1888; T. W. RHYS-DAVIDS: “Ancient Coins and Measures of Ceylon,” 1877 (= _International Numismatia Orientalia_, I, Part 6); R. H. C. TUFNELL: _Hints to Coin Collectors in Southern India_, Madras, 1889.

CHAP. VII.—S. LANE POOLE: _Catalogue of Coins in the British Museum, Sultans of Dehli_, London, 1884; E. THOMAS: _Chronicles of the Pathan Kings of Dehli_, London, 1871; C. J. RODGERS: “Coins Supplementary to Thomas, Chronicles of the Pathan Kings,” Nos. I-VI., _J.A.S.B._, 1880-1896; H. N. WRIGHT: _Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta_, Vol. II, Oxford, 1907; id.: “Addenda to the Series of Coins of the Pathān Sultāns of Dehlī,” _J.R.A.S._, p. 481, p. 769.

CHAP. VIII.—S. LANE POOLE: _Catalogue of Coins of the Muhammadan States of India in the British Museum_, London, 1885; H. N. WRIGHT: _Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta_, Vol. II, Oxford, 1907. =Bengal.=—E. THOMAS: “The Initial Coinage of Bengal,” _J.A.S.B._, 1867, p. 1, 1873, p. 343; A. F. R. HOERNLE: “A New Find of Muhammadan Coins of Bengal” (2 papers), _J.A.S.B._, 1881, p. 53, 1883, p. 211. =Kashmir.=—C. J. RODGERS: “The Square Coins of the Muhammadan Kings of Kashmir,” _J.A.S.B._, 1885, p. 92. =Bahmanīs.=—O. CODRINGTON: “Coins of the Bahmanī Dynasty,” _Num. Chron._, 1898, p. 259; J. GIBBS: “Gold and Silver Coins of the Bahmanī Dynasty,” _Num. Chron._, 1881. =Gujarat.=—G. P. TAYLOR: “Coins of the Gujarāt Saltanat,” _J.B.B.R.A.S._, 1904, p. 278. =Malwa.=—L. WHITE KING: “History and Coinage of Mālwā,” _Num. Chron._, 1903, p. 356, 1904, p. 62. =Ma’bar.=—E. HULTZCH: “Coinage of the Sultans of Madura,” _J.R.A.S._, 1909, p. 667.

CHAP. IX.—C. J. BROWN: _Catalogue of the Mug̱ẖal Coins in the Provincial Museum, Lucknow_, 2 Vols., Oxford, 1920; S. LANE POOLE: _Catalogue of the Coins of the Moghul Emperors in the British Museum_, London, 1892; R. B. WHITEHEAD: _Catalogue of the Coins of the Mug̱ẖal Emperors in the Panjāb Museum, Lahore_, Oxford, 1914; id.: “The Mint Towns of the Mug̱ẖal Emperors of India,” _J.A.S.B._, 1912, p. 425; H. N. WRIGHT: _Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta_, Vol. III, Oxford, 1908. [Also a large number of articles scattered through the _J.R.A.S._, _I.A._, _J.A.S.B._, especially the Numismatic Supplements to the last, starting from 1904.]

CHAP. X.—J. ALLAN: “The Coinage of Assam,” _Num. Chron._, 1909, p. 300; C. J. BROWN: “The Coins of the Kings of Awadh,” _Num. Supp._, XVIII, _J.A.S.B._, 1912; M. LONGWORTH DAMES: “Coins of the Durrānīs,” _Num. Chron._, Vol. VIII, 3rd series, p. 325; C. J. RODGERS: “On the Coins of the Sikhs,” _J.A.S.B._, 1881, p. 71. =East India Company.=—E. THURSTON: “History of the East India Company Coinage,” _J.A.S.B._, 1893, p. 52; id.: _History of the Coinage of the Territories of the E.I.C. in the Indian Peninsula and Catalogue of the Coins in the Madras Museum_, Madras, 1890. =Marathas.=—A. MASTER: “The Post-Mug̱ẖal Coins of Aḥmadābād”, _Num. Supp._, XXII, _J.A.S.B._, 1914; M. G. RANADE: “Currencies and Mints Under Mahratta Rule”, _J.B.B.R.A.S._, 1902, p. 191; G. P. TAYLOR: “On the Baroda Coins of the Last Six Gaikwars,” _Num. Supp._, XVIII, _J.A.S.B._, 1912. =Rajputana.=—A. F. R. HOERNLE: “Notes on Coins of Native States”, _J.A.S.B._, 1897, p. 261; W. W. WEBB: _The Currencies of the Hindu States of Rajputana_, London, 1893. =Tipu Sultan.=—R. P. JACKSON: “Coin Collecting in Mysore,” _British Numismatic Journal_, 1909; G. P. TAYLOR: “The Coins of Tīpū Sult̤ān”, (_Occasional Memoirs of the Numismatic Society of India_), 1914.

CHAP. VII-X.—W. H. VALENTINE: _The Copper Coins of India_, I, II, London, 1914.

PRINCIPAL COLLECTIONS OF INDIAN COINS

=India.=—Indian Museum, Calcutta (all classes); Dehlī Museum of Archæology (Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals); Panjāb Museum, Lahore (Indo-Greeks, Śakas, Pahlavas, Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals, Sikhs); Provincial Museum, Lucknow (Ancient Indian, Guptas, Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals, Awadh); Government Central Museum, Madras (South Indian, Ceylon, Mysore, East India Company, Mug̱ẖals, Sultans of Dehlī, Indo-Portuguese); Prince of Wales’ Museum, Bombay (Gujarāt, Mug̱ẖals, Marāṭhas); Provincial Museum, Shillong (Sultans of Bengal, Assam, Koch, Jaintia); Central Museum, Nagpur (Sultans of Dehlī, Mug̱ẖals, Marāṭhas, Bahmanīs); Dacca Museum (Sultans of Bengal); Patna Museum (Punch-marked series, Mug̱ẖals, Sultans of Dehlī, Bengal Sultans); Peshawar Museum (Indo-Greeks, Śakas, Pahlavas, Mug̱ẖals, Durrānīs), Macmahon Museum, Quetta (Durrānīs, Mug̱ẖals, Bārakzāīs).

=London.=—British Museum (all classes).

=Continent.=—Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin.

=America.=—American Numismatic Society’s Collection, New York.

INDEX

Abdagases, 29 ’Abdullah, (1) of Cairo, 76; (2) of Gulkanda, 84 Abū-l-faẓl, 91, 92 Abū-l-Ḥasan of Gulkanda, 84 ’Ādil Shāhī kings, 84 _’Adl_, 72 _’Adlī_, 73 Agathokleia, 27 Agathokles, 20, 24, 26 Āgra (Akbarābād), 89, 93ff Ahichhatra, 20 Aḥmadābād, 87, 88, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98 Aḥmadnagar, 84, 87, 88 Aḥmad Shāh I, (1) Bahmanī, 83; (2) of Gujarāt, 87, 88 Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī, 106 Ahom language, 101 Ahoms, 100, 101 Aḥsanābād (Kulbarga), 83 Ajmer, 53, 96, 98 Akbar, 81, 86, 89ff, 100, 102 Akbar II, 98 Akbarnagar, 95, 98 ’Ālamgīr II, 65 ’Ālam Shāh of Dehlī, 76 ’Alāu-d-dīn Aḥmad II (Bahmanī), 83, 84 ’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥasan Bahmanī, 83 ’Alāu-d-dīn Ḥusain Shāh of Bengal, 79, 80 ’Alāu-d-dīn Mas’ūd, 70, 71 ’Alāu-d-dīn Muḥammad, 62, 70, 72, 83 ’Alāu-d-dīn Sikandar Shāh of Ma’bar, 82 Alexander, 23 ’Alī II of Bījāpūr, 84 ’Alī Rāja, 66 Altamsh, 70 Amīr Barīd of Bīdar, 84 Amṛitapāla of Budāyūn, 53 Amritsar, 107 Anandgarh, 107 Anantavarman Choḍaganga, 60 Andhras, 21, 58, 62 Aṅśuvarman, 38 Antialkidas, 24, 27 Antimachos, 24 Apollodotos, 24, 26, 27, 29, 31 Apollophanes, 27 Arabic, 69, 70, 72, 80, 82 Arachosia, 24 Arcot (Arkāt), 58, 103 Ardokhsho, 36, 41 Ariāna, 24 Arsakes, 23 Āṣafnagar, 108 Asalla-deva of Narwar, 54 Asīrgarh, 95 Aśoka, 17, 19 Asparvarma, 24, 29 Assam, 80, 100, 101 Aśvamedha, 41, 42, 44 Athro, 36 Augustus, 17, 34, 58n Aurangābād, 99 Aurangzeb, 92ff _Aureus_, 34, 58n Awadh (Oudh), 108, 109 Ayodhyā, 19, 20, 43 Azes I, 24, 28, 29; II, 29 Azilises, 28 ’Az̤īmu-sh-shān, 97

Bābur, 77 Bacchanalian Muhars, 96 Bactria, 23ff Bādāmī, 59 Bag̱ẖdād, khalifs of, 70, 79 Bahādur Shāh, (1) of Gujarāt, 86, 87, 88; (2) Mug̱ẖal, 98 Bahāwalpūr, 16, 37 Bahmanī dynasty, 83ff, 87 _Bahlolī_, 77 Bahlol Lodī, 76, 77, 85 Bairāt, 93 Baḵẖ̱tiyār, Ḵẖ̱iljī, 78 Bālāpūr, 65 Ballāḷa II, 60 Banāras (Benares), 103n, 108 Bangalūr, 105 Bārbak Shāh, 85 Barelī, 99, 104, 108 Baroda, 104, 109 Barter, 13 Bāz Bahādur, 86 Bedār Baḵẖ̱t, 97 Bednūr, 65 Bengal, 48, 52, 78ff, 92, 100, 103 Bengālī script, 101 Berār, 83 Bhatgāon, 102 Bhoja-deva of Kanauj, 52 Bhonsla rājas, 104 Bihār, 49, 85, 90, 92 Bījāpūr, 84 Bīkāner, 104 Billon, 21n, 55, 68, 71 Bombay, 103 Brahmī, 19n British Museum, 82n, 85, 95 Buddha, 36, 38, 39 Budhagupta, 47 Bull and Horseman type, 50, 53, 72 Bundelkhand, 53 Burhānābād, 84 Burma, 100 Buxar, battle of, 103

Cash, 105 Cast coins, 18 Central Asia, 55, 67 Ceylon, 61f Chāhada-deva of Narwar, 71 Chak dynasty, 81 _Chakram_, 57 Chālukyas, 57n, 59ff Chandel dynasty, 53 Chandragiri, 63, 64 Chandragupta, I, 41; II, 43f, 51; III, 45; Maurya, 17, 45n Chashṭana, 31 Chera (Keraḷa), 58, 60, 61, 63, 65 Chitaldrūg, 65 Choḷas, 58ff Cochin, 61, 66 Coimbatore, 15, 60 Cowrie, 13 Cufic Script, 69

Ḍahāla, 52 _Dām_, 90, 93 _Damrā_, 93 _Damrī_, 93 _Daric_, 13 Dāru-l-islām, 73, 74 Daulat ḵẖ̱ān Lodī, 77 Dāwar Baḵẖ̱sh, 97 Deccan, 58, 73, 83, 98 Dehlī, 53, 69ff, 78, 79, 82, 83, 85, 86, 89, 93, 97, 98, 99, 102 _Dehlīwāla_, 71 Demetrios, 23, 28 _Denarius_, 17, 34 Deogīr (Daulatābād), 72, 73, 74, 75, 84 Devarāya, 64 Dhār, 74 Diddā, 54 Dilāwar Ḵẖ̱ān G̱ẖ̱orī, 86 _Dīnār_, 73 _Dināra_, 35, 45 Diodotos of Bactria, 16, 23 _Dirham Shar’ī_, 93 Divine Era, 98 Dogra rājas of Kashmīr, 108 _Dramma_, 52 Drangiāna, 24

East India Company, 65, 103 Eraṇ, 20 Eukratides, 23, 24, 30 Euthydemos, 23, 24 Faḵẖ̱ru-d-dīn Mubārak, 79 _Fanam_, 57, 104, 105 Farruḵẖ̱ābād, 104, 106 Farruḵẖ̱siyar, 92, 93, 99, 103 Fatḥābād, 80 Fatḥ ḵẖ̱ān, 76 Fatḥpūr, 94, 96 Fīrozābād, 80 Fīroz Shāh, (1) of Dehlī, 69, 75ff; (2) Bahmanī, 83 Forced Currency, 74

Gadhiya Paisa, 52 Gaikwār, 104 Gajapati dynasty, 56, 60 Gaṇapati-deva, 54 Gaṇapati dynasty, 60 Gandhāra, 19, 24, 38, 53 Ganesh, 64; Hindu rāja, 79 Gāṅgeya-deva, 52 Garuḍa, 42, 47, 48, 60 Gauḍa, 48 Ghaṭotkaca, 41 G̱ẖ̱āzīu-d-dīn Ḥaidar, 108 G̱ẖ̱iyās̤ Shāh of Mālwā, 86, 87 G̱ẖ̱iyās̤u-d-dīn, (1) Bahādur of Bengal, 79; (2) Balban, 70, 72; (3) Tug̱ẖlaq, 69, 71 Gigantic coins, 91, 92 Gilds, 15, 16, 19 Gīrvāṇ Yuddha Vikrama, 102 Goa, 61 Gondopharnes, 24, 29, 32 Gorakhpūr, 85 Gotamīputra, Śrī Yajña, 31 Gujarāt, 52, 86ff Gulkanda, 84 Gunāṅka, 38 Gupta dynasty, 31, 37, 40ff Gurmukhī, 107n, 108 Gūtī, 65 Gwāliār, 104, 109

Habshī dynasty, 79 Ḥaidarābād, 65, 109 Ḥaidar ’Alī, 65, 70, 105n Hanumān, 53, 64 Harihara I, 64 Harsha-deva of Kashmīr, 55, 56, 60 Harshavardhana, 48, 49 Ḥasan Shāh of Kashmīr, 82 Heliokles, 24, 30 Helios, 36 Herakles, 26, 28, 36 Hermaios, 24, 27, 34 Hijrī era, 67, 98, 106 Hippostratos, 24, 29 Honorific titles, 99 Hoshang Shāh, 86 Hoysaḷas, 60 Humāyūn, (1) Mug̱ẖal, 81, 86, 89, 90; (2) Durrānī, 106 _Hūn_, 57 _Hundī_, 15, 55 Huns, 22, 31, 44, 48ff, 55 Ḥusainābād, 80 Ḥusain Shāh of Jaunpūr, 85 Huvishka, 33, 36, 38 Hyrcordes, 30

Ibrāhīm Lodī, 69, 77 Ibrāhīm Shāh, (1) of Jaunpūr, 85; (2) of Kashmīr, 81 Ibrāhīm Sūrī, 91 Ikkeri, 65 Ilahābād (Allahabad), 95, 98, 108 Ilāhī coins, 94, 97 Ilyās Shāh, 79 Indo-Greeks, 22ff Indor, 104 Iśānavarman, 49 Islām Shāh Sūrī, 81, 90 Itāwah, 98

Jagadekamalla, 59 Jagajjaya Malla, 102 Jahāndār, 93 Jahāngīr, 91ff, 101, 102, 105 Jahāngīrnagar, 97, 98 Jaintia, rājas of, 101 Jaipūr, 104 _Jaitil_, 74 Jalālu-d-dīn, (1) Aḥsan Shāh of Ma’bar, 82; (2) Ḵẖ̱iljī, 70; (3) Mang-barnī of Ḵẖ̱wārizm, 72; (4) Muḥammad of Bengal, 79, 80, 85 Jaśwant Rāo Holkār, 104 Jaunpūr, 77, 85, 89 Jayakeśin III, 61 Jayasiṁha, 59 Jayavarma of Mahoba, 53 Jhaṅg, 107 Jhind, 108 Jishṇugupta, 38 Jīvadāman, 31 Jodhpūr, 104 Jovian Cycle, 101, 106 Jūnagaḍh, 88, 97