Part 1

Transcriber’s Notes:

Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ in the original text. Equal signs “=” before AND after a word or phrase indicate =bold= in the original text. Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. Deprecated spellings have been preserved. Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.

THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES

_Joint_ { The Right Reverend V. S. AZARIAH, Bishop of Dornakal. _Editors_ { J. N. FARQUHAR, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.).

_Already published._ The Heart of Buddhism. K. J. SAUNDERS, M.A. Asoka. J. M. MACPHAIL, M.A., M.D. Indian Painting. PRINCIPAL PERCY BROWN, Calcutta. Kanarese Literature, 2nd ed. E. P. RICE, B.A. The Sāṁkhya System. A. BERRIEDALE KEITH, D.C.L., D.Litt. Psalms of Marāṭhā Saints. NICOL MACNICOL, M.A., D.Litt. A History of Hindī Literature. F. E. KEAY, M.A., D.Litt. The Karma-Mīmāṁsā. A. BERRIEDALE KEITH, D.C.L., D.Litt. Hymns of the Tamil Śaivite Saints. F. KINGSBURY, B.A., and G. E. PHILLIPS, M.A. Rabindranath Tagore. E. J. THOMPSON, B.A., M.C. Hymns from the Rigveda. A. A. MACDONELL, M.A., Ph.D., Hon. LL.D. Gotama Buddha. K. J. SAUNDERS, M.A.

_Subjects proposed and volumes under preparation._

SANSKRIT AND PALI LITERATURE. Anthology of Mahāyāna Literature. Selections from the Upanishads. Scenes from the Rāmāyaṇa. Selections from the Mahābhārata.

THE PHILOSOPHIES. An Introduction to Hindu Philosophy. J. N. FARQUHAR and PRINCIPAL JOHN MCKENZIE, Bombay. The Philosophy of the Upanishads. Śaṅkara’s Vedānta. A. K. SHARMA, M.A., Patiāla. Rāmānuja’s Vedānta. The Buddhist System.

FINE ART AND MUSIC. Indian Architecture. R. L. EWING, B.A., Madras. Indian Sculpture. The Minor Arts. PRINCIPAL PERCY BROWN, Calcutta. Burmese Art and Artistic Crafts. PRINCIPAL MORRIS, Insein, Burma.

BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT INDIANS. Rāmānuja. Akbar. F. V. SLACK, M.A., Calcutta. Tulsī Dās.

VERNACULAR LITERATURE.

The Kurral. H. A. POPLEY, B.A., Madras, and K. T. PAUL, B.A., Calcutta. Hymns of the Āḷvārs. J. S. M. HOOPER, M.A., Nagari. Tulsī Dās’s Rāmāyaṇa in Miniature. G. J. DANN, M.A., (Oxon.), Patna. Hymns of Bengali Singers. E. J. THOMPSON, B.A., M.C., Bankura. Kanarese Hymns. MISS BUTLER, B.A., Bangalore.

HISTORIES OF VERNACULAR LITERATURE. Bengali. C. S. PATERSON, M.A., Calcutta. Gujarātī. Marāthī. NICOL MACNICOL, M.A., D.Litt., Poona. Tamil. Telugu. P. CHENCHIAH, M.A., Madras, and RAJA BHUJANGA RAO, Ellore. Malayālam. T. K. JOSEPH, B.A., L.T., Trivandrum. Urdū. B. GHOSHAL, M.A., Bhopal. Burmese. PROF. TUNG PE, Rangoon. Sinhalese.

NOTABLE INDIAN PEOPLES. The Rājpūts. The Syrian Christians. K. C. MAMMEN MAPILLAI, Alleppey. The Sikhs.

VARIOUS. Modern Folk Tales. W. NORMAN BROWN, M.A., Ph.D., Philadelphia. Indian Village Government. Poems by Indian Women. MRS. N. MACNICOL. Classical Sanskrit Literature. Indian Temple Legends. K. T. PAUL, B.A., Calcutta. Indian Astronomy and Chronology. DEWAN BAHADUR L. D. SWAMIKANNU PILLAI, Madras. The Languages of India. PROF. R. L. TURNER, London.

EDITORIAL PREFACE

“Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honourable, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report; if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things.”

No section of the population of India can afford to neglect her ancient heritage. In her literature, philosophy, art, and regulated life there is much that is worthless, much also that is distinctly unhealthy; yet the treasures of knowledge, wisdom, and beauty which they contain are too precious to be lost. Every citizen of India needs to use them, if he is to be a cultured modern Indian. This is as true of the Christian, the Muslim, the Zoroastrian as of the Hindu. But, while the heritage of India has been largely explored by scholars, and the results of their toil are laid out for us in their books, they cannot be said to be really available for the ordinary man. The volumes are in most cases expensive, and are often technical and difficult. Hence this series of cheap books has been planned by a group of Christian men, in order that every educated Indian, whether rich or poor, may be able to find his way into the treasures of India’s past. Many Europeans, both in India and elsewhere, will doubtless be glad to use the series.

The utmost care is being taken by the General Editors in selecting writers, and in passing manuscripts for the press. To every book two tests are rigidly applied: everything must be scholarly, and everything must be sympathetic. The purpose is to bring the best out of the ancient treasuries, so that it may be known, enjoyed, and used.

THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES

THE COINS OF INDIA

BY C. J. BROWN, M.A.

READER IN ENGLISH LITERATURE, LUCKNOW UNIVERSITY; MEMBER OF THE NUMISMATIC SOCIETY OF INDIA.

With Twelve Plates

“Time, which antiquates antiquities, and hath an art to make dust of all things, hath yet spared these minor monuments.” —SIR THOMAS BROWNE, _Hydriotaphia_.

ASSOCIATION PRESS (Y.M.C.A.) 5, RUSSELL STREET, CALCUTTA

LONDON: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE, BOMBAY, CALCUTTA AND MADRAS

1922

_The Right of Translation is Reserved._

CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE INTRODUCTION 7 ABBREVIATIONS 11 I. THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIA 13 II. COINS OF THE INDO-GREEKS, THE ŚAKAS AND PAHLAVAS 22 III. COINS OF THE KUSHĀṆA KINGS 33 IV. THE COINAGE OF THE GUPTAS 40 V. THE MEDIÆVAL COINAGES OF NORTHERN AND CENTRAL INDIA TILL THE MUHAMMADAN CONQUEST 50 VI. THE COINAGE OF SOUTHERN INDIA 56 VII. THE MUHAMMADAN DYNASTIES OF DEHLĪ 67 VIII. THE COINAGES OF THE MUHAMMADAN STATES 78 IX. COINS OF THE SŪRIS AND THE MUGHALS 89 X. CONTEMPORARIES AND SUCCESSORS OF THE MUGHALS 100 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 110 PRINCIPAL COLLECTIONS OF INDIAN COINS 112 INDEX 113

LIST OF PLATES

PLATE NEAR PAGE I. EARLIEST COINS OF INDIA 20 II. COINAGE OF THE INDO-GREEKS, ETC. 21 III. COINAGE OF THE INDO-SCYTHIANS, ETC. 30 IV. KUSHĀṆA COINS 31 V. COINAGE OF THE GUPTAS 38 VI. MEDIÆVAL COINAGE OF NORTHERN INDIA 39 VII. SOUTH INDIAN COINS 48 VIII. COINS OF THE SULTANS OF DEHLĪ 49 IX. COINS OF MUHAMMADAN STATES 54 X. SŪRI AND MUGHAL COINS 55 XI. MUGHAL COINS 64 XII. COINS OF POST MUGHAL DYNASTIES, ETC. 65

_The Key to each Plate will be found on the page facing it._

INTRODUCTION

This little book has been written as an introduction to the study of the subject with which it deals, and is intended primarily for Indian readers. At the same time the writer trusts it may be of some service to students and collectors, in India and elsewhere, as giving a general conspectus of all the more important series of Indian coins. Two objects have been kept prominently in view: (1) to describe the evolution of the coinage itself, (2) to show its importance as a source of history, or as a commentary upon economic, social and political movements. In attempting this, certain limits have naturally imposed themselves. Coins purely foreign in fabric, as those of the Græco-Bactrian kings, of the Portuguese, and of the various European trading companies, even when struck and current in India, have been rigidly excluded: this exclusion does not, however, extend to money issued by resident foreigners with the permission and in the style of Indian rulers. For a cognate reason the year 1857 has been fixed as the downward limit in this survey. Again, for the sake of simplicity, technical topics, such as weight-standards and metallurgy, have only been touched upon where discussion appeared unavoidable.

The chief desire of the writer has been to arouse in Indians an interest in their country’s coinage, in the study of which so many fields of research lie as yet almost untouched. Although India has no coins to show comparable to the supreme artistic conceptions of the Sicilian Greeks, the study of her coinage, in addition to its exceptional importance as a source of history, is attended by peculiar advantages, not the least of which is the fact that materials for study lie, as it were, almost at one’s door. In nearly every Indian bazar, even the smallest, in the shops of the _Sarrafs_ or money-changers, gold, silver and copper coins are to be had, sometimes in plenty, and can be bought cheaply, often at little more than the metal value. There is even the chance of obtaining for a few coppers, and—a far more important consideration—saving from the melting pot, a coin which may add a new fact, or a name, or a date to history.

A detailed description will be found opposite each of the plates, giving transliterations and translations of the coin legends; and these, with the list of selected authorities at the end of the book, should provide the key to a fuller knowledge of the subject. To almost all the works mentioned in the latter the writer is indebted, although it has been impossible to acknowledge all obligations in detail. Mention must also be made of Dr. George Macdonald’s fascinating little study, _The Evolution of Coinage_ (The Cambridge Manuals of Science and Literature), as well as of the late Dr. Vincent Smith’s _Oxford History of India_, which has in general been accepted as the authority for the historical facts and dates, somewhat plentifully incorporated throughout the book.

In conclusion, I am under special obligation to Mr. John Allan, of the Department of Coins and Medals, British Museum, for continual assistance, for kindly reading through my manuscript and offering numerous useful suggestions, and particularly for his help in getting casts prepared for the plates, all of which have been taken from coins in the British Museum; to Mr. H. Nelson Wright, I.C.S., who also kindly read through the manuscript, gave me invaluable assistance in the transliteration of the coin legends, and freely placed at my disposal his exact and extensive knowledge of the Muhammadan coins of India. To Mr. J. H. Waller, Secretary of the Association Press, I am also considerably indebted for the infinite trouble he has taken in supervising the preparation of the blocks for both figures and plates which illustrate this little volume.

C. J. BROWN. _Ranikhet, May, 1921._

NOTE.—_The Cambridge History of India_, Volume I, Ancient India, appeared while this book was in the press. Fortunately, it has been possible to incorporate the conclusions arrived at in that work, which have been accepted for the period which it covers. The view of the Indo-Greek and later coinages taken by Professor Rapson in Chapters XXII and XXIII has also been generally accepted as a working hypothesis.

ABBREVIATIONS

Anno Domini A.D. Copper Æ. Hijrī Year A.H. Silver AR. Gold AV. Billon Bil. _British Museum Catalogue_ _B.M.C._ Grains Grs. _Indian Antiquary_ _I.A._ _Indian Museum Catalogue_ _I.M.C._ _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ _J.A.S.B._ _Journal of Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_ _J.B.B.R.A.S._ _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_ _J.R.A.S._ _Numismatic Chronicle_ _Num. Chron._ _Numismatic Supplement to the J.A.S.B._ _Num. Supp._ Obverse Obv. _Catalogue of Coins in the Panjāb Museum, Lahore_ _P.M.C._ Regnal Year R. Reverse Rev. Samvat Year S. Weight Wt.

I

THE EARLIEST COINAGE OF INDIA

Among primitive peoples trade was carried on by barter, that is, exchange in kind. Gradually, with the spread of civilising influences the inconvenience of promiscuous exchange made itself felt, and certain media were agreed upon and accepted by the community at large. Wealth in those early times being computed in cattle, it was only natural that the ox or cow should be employed for this purpose. In Europe, then, and also in India, the cow stood as the higher unit of barter. At the lower end of the scale, for smaller purchases, stood another unit which took various forms among different peoples—shells, beads, knives, and where those metals had been discovered, bars of copper or iron. In India the cowrie-shell, brought from the Maldive Islands, was so employed, and is still to be seen in many bazars in the shops of the smaller money-changers. The discovery of the precious metals carried the evolution of coinage a stage further: for the barter unit was substituted its value in metal, usually gold. The Greek _stater_ and the Persian _daric_ certainly, and possibly the Indian _Suvarṇa_, so frequently mentioned by Sanskrit authors, was the value of a full-grown cow in gold, calculated by weight. However this may be, in ancient India gold dust, washed out of the Indus and other rivers, served the purposes of the higher currency, and from 518 B.C. to about 350 B.C., when an Indian province or satrapy was included in the Achæmenid Empire of Persia, 360 talents in gold dust was, Herodotus tells us,[1] paid annually as tribute from the province into the treasury of the Great King.

[1] Herod III, 94. Quoted in Cunningham, _Coins of Ancient India_, p. 12.

Silver from natural sources was at that time less plentiful in India, but was attracted thither in large quantities in exchange for gold, which was cheaper there than elsewhere in the ancient world. The transition from metal weighed out to the required amount to pieces of metal of recognized weight and fineness regularized by the stamp of authority is not difficult of explanation. The great convenience of the latter would recommend them at once to the merchant, and to the ruler as the receiver of tribute and taxes. Both in Asia and Europe this transition can be illustrated from extant specimens; but, whereas in Europe and Western Asia, from the inscriptions which appeared early on the coins themselves and from outside evidence, we know the origin of the earliest coins and the names of the cities or districts which issued them, the origin of India’s earliest coinage, like so much of her early history, is still shrouded in mystery.

This much can be said, that in its earliest stages the coinage of India developed much on the same lines as it did on the shores of the Aegean. Certain small ingots of silver, whose only mark is three circular dots, represent probably the earliest form: next in order are some heavy bent bars of silver with devices stamped out with a punch on one side.[2] These two classes of coins are computed to have been in circulation as coins at least as early as 600 B.C., but they have not been found in any quantity. The time as well as the territory in which they circulated was probably therefore restricted. On the other hand, from almost every ancient site in India, from the Sundarbans in Bengal to Kābul, and as far south as Coimbatore, have been recovered thousands of what are known to numismatists as “Punch-marked coins” and to Sanskrit authors as _Purāṇas_ (“ancient”) or _Dharaṇas_. These are rectangular (Pl. I, 2) and circular (Pl. I, 1) flat pieces of thin silver (much alloyed), or more rarely copper, cut from a hammered sheet of metal and clipped to the proper weight. One side (the obverse) is occupied by a large number of symbols impressed on the metal by means of separate punches. In the oldest coins the other, the reverse side, is left blank, but on the majority there appears usually one, sometimes two or three, minute punch marks; a few coins have both obverse and reverse covered with devices. These devices appear in wonderful variety—more than three hundred have been enumerated; they comprise human figures, arms, trees, birds, animals, symbols of Buddhist worship, solar and planetary signs. Much further detailed study of these coins will be needed before anything can be definitely stated about the circumstances under which they were minted. It seems probable that in India, as in Lydia, coins were first actually struck by goldsmiths or silversmiths, or perhaps by communal gilds (_seṇi_). Coins with devices on one side only are certainly the oldest type, as the rectangular shape, being the natural shape of the coin when cut from the metal sheet, may be assumed to be older than the circular; on the other hand, both shapes, and also coins with devices on one as well as on both sides, are found in circulation apparently at the same time. It has also been recently shown[3] that groups of three, four, and sometimes five, devices on the obverse are constant to large numbers of coins circulating within the same district. It may perhaps therefore be conjectured that the “punch-marked” piece was a natural development of the paper _hundī_, or note of hand; that the coins had originally been struck by private merchants and gilds and had subsequently passed under royal control; that they at first bore the seal of the merchant or gild, or combination of gilds, along with the seals of other gilds or communities who accepted them;[4] and that, when they passed under regal control, the royal seal and seals of officials were first added to, and afterwards substituted for, the private or communal marks. Be that as it may, we see here in the very earliest coinage the commencement of that fascination which the square coin seems to have exercised upon Indian moneyers of all periods; for it continually reappears, in the coins of the Muhammadan kingdoms of Mālwā and Kashmīr for example, in some beautiful gold and silver issues of the Mughals, Akbar and Jahāngīr, and even in the nineteenth century in copper pieces struck by the Bahāwalpūr State in the Panjāb. Most writers agree, as indeed their shape, form, and weight suggest, that the “punch-marked” coins are indigenous in origin, and owe nothing to any foreign influence. In what part of India they originated we do not know: present evidence and the little knowledge we possess of the state of India in those times indicate some territory in the north. As to the period during which they were in active circulation we are not left so completely at the mercy of conjecture. Finds and excavations tell us something: contemporary writers, Indian and foreign, drop us hints. Sir John Marshall records, during the recent excavations round Taxila, the find of 160 “punch-marked” coins of debased silver, with a coin in fine condition of Diodotos of Bactria (circ. 245 B.C.).[5] Then there is the interesting statement of the usually trustworthy Latin writer, Quintus Curtius, that Omphis (Āmbhi) presented “Signati argenti LXXX talenta”—“80 talents of stamped silver”—to Alexander at Taxila. These and similar pieces of evidence show us that “punch-marked” coins were well established in Northern India during the fourth and third centuries B.C., when the great Maurya Empire was at the height of its power. The large quantities continually being unearthed suggest a long period of circulation, so that in their earliest forms “punch-marked” coins may go back to the sixth century, and may have remained current in some districts of the north as late as the second century B.C. At some period, perhaps during the campaigns of the great Chandragupta and the settlement of the Empire under his grandson Aśoka, these coins became the established currency of the whole Indian peninsula, and in the southern districts, at least, they must have remained in circulation for three, perhaps four, centuries longer than in the north, for in Coimbatore district “punch-marked” coins have been found along with a _denarius_ of the Roman Emperor Augustus; and some of the earliest individualistic coinages of the south, which apparently emerge at a much later period, the so-called “padma-ṭaṅkas,” for instance, seem to be the immediate successors of these “punch-marked” coins.

[2] Cf. _I.M.C._, p. 136, Nos. 1, 2, 3 (ingots), Nos. 4, 5, 6 (bars).

[3] By Dr. Spooner, Dr. Bhandarkar, and E. H. Walsh. Cf. _Journal of the Bihār and Orissa Research Society_, 1919, pp. 16-72, 463-94.

[4] Even in Mughal times bankers were in the habit of placing their mark on the rim or even on the face of coins which passed through their hands.

[5] _Guide to Taxila_, p. 117.

Now the distinction between north and south which has just been drawn in tracing the history of this primitive coinage is very important; for this same distinction enables us to divide the remaining ancient and mediæval Indian coins down to the fourteenth century into two classes, northern and southern. The reason for this is that Northern India, during that period, was subjected to a series of foreign invasions; the indigenous coinages of the north were therefore continually being modified by foreign influences, which, with a few exceptions to be noted, left the coinages of the south untouched, to develop by slow stages on strictly Indian lines. The coins of the south will be described in a separate chapter.