The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers

Part 64

Chapter 643,084 wordsPublic domain

=World About A. D. 1800.=--In Europe France holds about the same position till near the close of the century, when the Revolution breaks out, and the republic makes large accessions of territory in the Austrian Netherlands, Savoy, Piedmont, and the islands of the Mediterranean. Through the very enormity of the excesses of the revolutionary period, the form of government soon gave way to a new constitution, known as the Directory, under which Napoleon Bonaparte came to the front as the central figure in the affairs of Europe. During these last years of the century the French Republic was engaged in constant wars with the various coalitions formed against it by the other powers. In the year 1799 the Directory came to an end, and the supreme control was vested in the hands of Napoleon, who was made First Consul.

Great Britain is engaged in foreign wars, and has lost a large part of her American colonies, which win their independence in 1783. The British dominion in India is greatly extended during this period. The scattered settlements of British merchants and of the East India Company, now became firmly established by the military achievements of Clive. The French and native troops were overthrown, and one after another the provinces of India were brought under English control. Spain rises very considerably in importance. The United Provinces become in the last years of the seventeenth century a dependency of France. The Turkish dominion, though with occasional successes, is on the decline. Prussia becomes an important European state under Frederick the Great. Austria is engaged in frequent wars, with somewhat diminishing power. The German Empire, though still in existence, is more a dignity than a power, its functions being wielded chiefly by the great kingdoms of Austria and Prussia. Russia, under Peter the Great, rises to a front rank among the states of Europe and makes large gains of territory.

In the latter part of the seventeenth century Poland disappears from the map of Europe, the territory being divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria; and in 1795 Poland, as a kingdom, ceased to exist.

In America, the United States of America come into being as an independent nation in 1783.

France, at the beginning of the nineteenth century under Napoleon I., was the chief power in Europe. The battle of Waterloo finally overthrew the empire of Napoleon, and brought to an end the succession of wars which had lasted with little interruption for twenty-three years. By the terms of peace agreed upon by the Allies, the conquests of France were given up, and the boundaries of the European states re-established.

From the starting-point of this re-arrangement of the map of Europe we may now follow rapidly the subsequent changes of territory in each of the leading states of Europe which have given them the limits they occupy at the present day.

England rises to the front rank of European states, by her part in the Napoleonic wars. In the nineteenth century she made some small acquisitions of territory in Europe, and greatly extended her colonial empire.

The marked feature of the political movements in Europe in the last quarter of the nineteenth century was the tendency to consolidate the petty and weak states, into which a great part of the Continent had been broken up, into strong central governments. This tendency is shown specially in the confederation of the smaller German states under the leadership of Prussia, and the formation of the present German Empire which has become the first military power in Europe. The old German Empire came to an end in 1806. In Italy the same tendency has shown itself in the establishment of the new kingdom of Italy, with Rome for its capital.

Austria was entirely separated from Germany, and united into one state with Hungary. Russia has become one of the greatest European powers. Denmark lost considerable territory, taken from her by Prussia. The new kingdom of Belgium has been formed. Spain loses Mexico and the republics of Central America. Greece secured its independence, and became a kingdom. The power of Turkey is still declining.

In America, the United States were greatly increased by the addition of new States and Territories. The attempt at secession of the southern States in 1861 proved abortive; and the restored Union, freed from the disturbing element of slavery, advanced in wealth, power, and the arts of peace, at a rate of progress never equalled in past history.

Mexico, which had belonged to Spain, revolted and became an independent republic.

In Asia, Japan renounced its former isolation, opened her ports to foreign trade, and changes of almost startling rapidity were adopted in the country. The whole political constitution of the empire was remodeled; and Japan took rank with the great powers of the world.

The continent of South America was apportioned among the various present-day countries; Africa has been colonized and divided among the European powers; and the commonwealths of Canada, Australia and New Zealand have taken a foremost place among the colonies of Great Britain.

=World About A. D. 1915.=--In the realm of geographical discovery the supreme events were the attainment of the North Pole by Admiral Peary, and that of the South Pole by Captain Roald Amundsen.

The geographical changes resulting from the great European War are noted in connection with the nations and colonies directly affected.

THE WORLD’S GREATEST EXPLORERS

=Explanation of Abbreviations.=--Arab., _Arabian_; Brit., _British_; Carthag., _Carthaginian_; Dan., _Danish_; Dut., _Dutch_; Egypt., _Egyptian_; Eng., _English_; Fr., _French_; Gen., _Genoese_; Ger., _German_; Ital., _Italian_; Norw., _Norwegian_; Port., _Portuguese_; Rus., _Russian_; Scot., _Scotch_; Span., _Spanish_: Swed., _Swedish_; U. S., _United States_; Ven., _Venetian_.

B.C.1400-1250.--Egyptians make invasions of Habesh, Arabia, Phœnicia, Syria.

B.C.1350(?).--Greeks undertake Argonautic expedition to Colchis.

B.C.1000.--Phœnicians voyage to Ophir, Gades, Britain.

B.C.750.--Greeks extend colonies in the Mediterranean and Pontus Euxinus.

B.C.700.--Samians discover Spain (Tartessus) for the Greeks.

B.C.600.--Phœnicians circumnavigate Africa by order of Necho.

B.C.--Himilco (Carthag.) visits Atlantic coast of Europe, Sargasso Sea. Said to have visited Britain.

B.C.500.--Anaximander (of Miletus) makes the first maps.

B.C.500.--Hecatæus (of Miletus) writes the first geography.

B.C.470.--Hanno (Carthag.) coasts west Africa as far as Cape Palmas.

B.C.330.--Pytheas of Massilia sails to Thule, North Sea, Scandinavia.

B.C.330.--Nearchus (Macedon.) sails from the Indus to Red Sea.

B.C.329-325.--Alexander the Great makes expedition to Iran, Turan and India.

B.C.290.--Egyptians navigate the east coast of Africa.

B.C.218.--Hannibal crosses the Alps.

B.C.120 (_about_).--Eudoxus of Cyzicus attempts circumnavigation of Africa.

B.C.61-58.--Romans, under Julius Cæsar in Gaul, Germany, and Britain.

B.C.30 (since).--Romans extend their geographical knowledge and commerce as far as central Asia.

B.C.20--Strabo (Greek) describes Roman Empire and first mentions Thule and Ireland.

B.C.15.--Tiberius discovers the Lake of Constance; Drusus, the Brenner Pass.

A.D.84.--Roman general, Agricola, circumnavigates Britain.

150.--Claudius Ptolemy (Egypt.) constructs his geography and atlas.

518-21.--Hoei-sing (Chinese) visits Pamirs and Punjab.

671-95.--I-tsing (Chinese) visits Java, Sumatra and India.

861.--Norsemen discover the Faroe Islands. North Cape of Europe rounded.

865.--Naddod (Norse) discovers Iceland. Visited by Irish monks about 795.

876.--Gunnbjörn (Norse) reaches Greenland coast. Rediscovered by Erik the Red (983).

985.--Erik the Red (Norse) colonizes Greenland.

1000(?).--Lief Erikson (son of Erik the Red) discovers Newfoundland (Helluland), Nova Scotia (Markland), and coast of New England (Vinland)[?].

1154.--Edrisi (Sicily), geographer to King of Sicily, produces his geography.

1200 (_about_)--Arabian trading merchants discover Siberia.

1253.--Ruysbroek reaches Karakorum, the ancient seat of the Mongol Empire.

1271-95.--Marco Polo (Venet.) travels in central Asia, China, India, Persia.

1290.--Genoese reach the Canaries, Azores, etc.

1325-52.--Ibn Batuta (Arab.) travels through the whole Mohammedan world, northern Africa, eastern Africa, southern Russia, Arabia, India and China.

1327.--Sir John Mandeville (Eng.) travels in India.

1415-60.--Prince Henry (Port.) gives an impetus to Portuguese voyages of discovery.

1419-20.--J. Gonzales and Martin Vaz (Port.) discover Porto Santo and Madeira.

1442.--Nuno Tristao (Port.) reaches Cape Verde, etc.

1460(?).--Cintra and Costa (Port.) sail to coast of Guinea.

1474.--Toscanelli (Ital.) sends Columbus his map showing the western route to Cathay (China).

1485.--Diego Cam (Port.) reaches the mouth of the Congo river.

1487.--Bartholomew Diaz (Port.) rounds Cape of Good Hope.

1492-98.--Columbus (Gen.) discovers America, West Indies, Trinidad, Cuba, etc.

1497-98.--John Cabot (Anglo-Ven.) sails along eastern coast of America from Labrador as far as Florida.

1498.--Vasco da Gama (Port.) finds route to India by Cape of Good Hope.

1499.--Amerigo Vespucci (Ital.) discovers Venezuela, and that America was not “part of Asia.”

1499.--Pinzon (Span.) discovers mouth of Amazon river and Cape St. Roque.

1500.--G. Cortereal (Port.) reaches entrance of Hudson Strait, called by him Strait of Anian.

1500.--Alvarez Cabral (Port.) coasts Brazil (named by him Ilha da Vera Cruz, being southern part of Bahia State).

1502.--Columbus (Gen.) reaches central America on his fourth voyage.

1512.--Ponce de Leon (Span.) reaches Florida.

1513.--Portuguese reach the Moluccas.

1513.--Balboa (Span.) crosses Isthmus of Panama and discovers Pacific Ocean.

1516.--Solis (Span.) reaches La Plata.

1517.--Sebastian Cabot (Eng.) discovers Hudson Strait.

1519-21.--Cortez (Span.).--conquers Mexico.

1519-21.--Magellan (Span.) first to circumnavigate the globe. Passes through the Strait of Magellan, crosses the Pacific, and discovers the Philippines.

1534.--Pizarro (Span.) completes the conquest of Peru.

1535.--Diego d’Almagro (Span.) conquers Chili.

1535-42.--Jacques Cartier (Fr.) finds Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ascends river to Hochelaga (Montreal).

1539.--Francesco de Ulloa (Span.) explores Gulf of California.

1540 (about).--French continent of Australia seen by French sailors.

1541.--Pizarro and Orellana (Span.) discover Amazon river.

1542.--Antonio de Mota first reaches Japan.

1542.--Ruy Lopez de Villalobos (Span.) discovers Pelew Islands, and takes possession of Philippine Islands for Spain.

1542.--Pinto (Port.)--visits Japan,

1553.--Sir H. Willoughby (Eng.) reaches Nova Zembla.

1576.--Frobisher (Eng.) coasts Labrador and Baffin Land.

1577-80.--Sir F. Drake (Eng.) made second circumnavigation of the globe, and first saw Cape Horn. Explored western coast of North America nearly as far as Vancouver Archipelago.

1587.--J. Davis (Eng.) finds Davis Strait.

1596.--Barentz and Heemskerk (Dut.) discover Spitzbergen, Bear Islands, etc.

1598.--Mendaña (Span.) discovers Marquesas Islands.

1606.--Quiros (Span.) reaches Tahiti (Sagittaria), and other South Sea Islands.

1606.--Torres (Span.) discovers Torres Strait. Dutch reach Australia.

1608.--Champlain (Fr.) discovers Lake Ontario.

1610.--H. Hudson (Eng.) reaches Hudson Bay and makes discoveries in North America.

1614-17.--Spillbergen (Dut.) circumnavigated the globe.

1616.--W. Baffin (Eng.) enters Baffin Bay.

1616.--La Maire and Schouten (Dut.) round Cape Horn.

1616.--Dirk Hartog (Dut.) sails up west coast of Australia.

1618.--G. Thompson (Eng.) sails up Gambia.

1642.--Abel Tasman (Dut.) discovers Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania) and New Zealand.

1643.--Vries (Dut.) explores eastern coast of Japan, Saghalien, and Kurile Island.

1645.--Deshnev (Cossack) rounds east cape of Asia from the Kolyma to the Anadyr.

1660.--French discover the lake region of the St. Lawrence.

1673.--Marquette and Joliet (Fr.) explore the Mississippi from the north.

1725-43.--Russians explore the coasts of Siberia.

1728 and 1741.--Bering (Dan.) and Tishirikov (Rus.) explore Bering Strait and the northwestern coast of America.

1768-79.--Capt. Cook (Eng.) voyages round the world. Surveys the Society Islands, Sandwich Islands, eastern coast of Australia, Cook Strait in New Zealand, Antarctic Ocean, northwestern coast of America, etc.

1770.--James Bruce (Scot.) discovers sources of the Blue Nile.

1770.--Liakhov (Rus.) discovers New Siberian Islands.

1785-88.--La Perouse (Fr.) explores north of Japan, Saghalien, etc.

1789.--A. Mackenzie (Scot.) explore the Mackenzie river.

1792.--Vancouver (Eng.) visits Vancouver Island, discovered by Perez, 1774. Exploration of the northwestern coast of America.

1795-1806.--Mungo Park (Scot.) journeys to and explores the Niger districts.

1799-1804.--Alex, von Humboldt (Ger.) makes explorations in South America and writes “Cosmos.”

1801-1804.--Flinders (Eng.) explores southern coasts of Australia.

1803-6.--Krusenstern (Rus.) surveys in Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsk, Saghalien, etc.

1804-6.--Lewis and Clark make extensive explorations in northwestern United States from the Mississippi to the Columbia river.

1805-9.--Salt (Eng.) makes visit to Abyssinia.

1807-8.--Klaproth (Ger.) makes exploration of the Caucasus.

1819.--Long (U.S.) makes exploration of Rocky Mountains.

1819.--Wm. Smith (Eng.) explores South Orkney Islands and South Shetlands. Visited by Weddell in 1822.

1823.--Wrangel (Rus.) discovers Wrangel Land.

1823.--Denham and Clapperton (Eng.) discover Lake Chad.

1825-26.--A. G. Laing (Scot.) reached Timbuktu from Tripoli, Africa.

1827-8.--René Caillie (Fr.) made journey from Kakandy to Timbuktu and Morocco, Africa.

1830-32.--Biscoe (Eng.) discovers Enderby Land and Graham Land.

1831.--Sir J. C. Ross (Eng.) finds magnetic North Pole.

1832.--Laird and Oldfield (Scot.) explore the Niger and Benué rivers.

1835.--Sir F. Schomburgk (Ger.) makes explorations in Guiana, South America.

1837.--Wood (Eng.) discovers sources of the Oxus.

1840.--Trümmer discovers remains of ancient Nineveh.

1841.--Sir James C. Ross (Eng.) discovers Victoria Land, with volcanoes Erebus and Terror.

1841-73.--D. Livingstone (Scot.) spends thirty years’ travel in central South Africa.

1845.--Sir John Franklin (Eng.) sails on his last voyage never to return.

1848.--Rebmann and Krapf (Ger.) discover Mt. Kilima-njaro. Sighted Mt. Kenia.

1849-55.--Richardson and Barth (Eng.-Ger.) explore western Sudan and Sahara.

1850.--Sir R. M’Clure (Irish) discovers Northwest Passage.

1852-4, 1861.--Sir C. R. Markham (Eng.) makes explorations in Peru.

1856-59.--Du Chaillu (Fr.) explores basin of Ogowé river, west Africa.

1858.--Sir R. Burton (Scot.) discovers Lake Tanganyika.

1858.--Speke and Grant (Brit.) discover Victoria Nyanza.

1860.--Sir S. Baker (Eng.) explores Upper Nile. Discovers Albert Nyanza, 1864.

1867-72.--Richthofen (Ger.) makes extensive explorations in China.

1869.--G. Nachtigal (Ger.) makes explorations in Lake Chad region and central Sudan, Africa.

1870-1886.--Prejevalsky (Rus.) journeys in Mongolia, Tibet, etc.

1872.--Payer and Weyprecht (Austrian) explore Franz Josef Land.

1872-76.--“Challenger” Expedition (Brit.) explores the depths of the oceans.

1874-75.--Lieut. Cameron (Eng.) crosses equatorial Africa.

1876-90.--H. M. Stanley (Eng.) explores Congo Basin; Mt. Ruwenzori; Forests on the Aruwimi, etc. Africa.

1878-79.--Nordenskjold (Swed.) finds northeast passage.

1878-89.--Thomson (Scot.) journeys through Masai Land, British South Africa, Sokoto, Morocco, etc.

1878-85.--Major Serpa Pinto (Port.) twice crosses Africa.

1878-92.--Emin Pasha (Ger.) travels and surveys in Equatorial Africa.

1879.--Moustier and Zweifel (Swiss) find sources of the Niger.

1881-85.--Greely (U. S.) discovers Grinnell Land and northwestern coast of Greenland.

1885.--Wiesmann (Ger.) journeys across Africa from west coast, Congo Basin.

1886.--Peary (U. S.) explores North Greenland.

1887.--Capt. Younghusband (Eng.) travels from Pekin to Kashmir.

1893-96.--Nansen (Norw.) reached his “Farthest North” in lat. 86° 13′ 6′′ N.

1897.--Jackson (Scot.) makes surveys and explorations in Franz Josef Land.

1893-97.--Sven Hedin (Swed.) makes explorations in north central Asia.

1895-96.--Pr. Henri d’Orléans travels in Tonkin and China.

1897.--Andrée (Swed.) attempts to cross over the North Pole in a balloon, with fatal results.

1898-99.--De Gerlache (Belgian) attempts to reach the South Pole with the “Belgica,” first ship to winter within Antarctic circle.

1899.--Major Gibbons makes explorations in Congo and Zambezi headwaters.

1900.--Borchgrevink (Brit. Ex.) reached lat. 78° 50′ S. via Victoria Land.

1900.--Duke of Abruzzi (Ital.) reached lat. 86° 33′ N. via Franz Josef Land.

1900-02.--Sven Hedin (Swed.) made important journey in central Asia.

1908.--F. A. Cook (U. S.) claims to have reached the North Pole, April 21.

1909.--R. E. Peary (U. S.) reached the North Pole, April 6.

1911.--Roald Amundsen (Norw.) reached the South Pole, December 14.

1912.--Capt. Scott (Eng.) reached the South Pole, but perished before returning.

COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF NATIONS

Showing their Origin, Chief Events, Changes or Extinction, from the Earliest Period to the Present

I. [1]FROM EARLIEST HISTORIC RECORDS TO THE TIME OF ABRAHAM, X-2250 B. C.

[1] All dates down to the First Olympiad, 776 B. C., are almost wholly conjectural. Dates here given, however, are from the latest and best authorities.

The earliest history of mankind, so far as we now know, begins with the peoples known as Semites. Northern Arabia is generally accepted as their primitive home. Issuing thence, they conquered or settled Babylonia and Egypt, and through amalgamations with the native races (of which we know very little), became the earliest historic Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians. Historians sometimes assume that the native races were Mongolians, traces of which still persist in China, Thibet, Finland, The Caucasus, and perhaps, among the American Indians.