Part 24

=Oceanography= (_ō´shan-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆_).--A description of the ocean.

=Oceanology= (_ō´shan-ŏl´ô-jy̆_).--That branch of science which relates to the ocean.

=Oreography= (_ō-rē-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆_).--The science of mountains; orography.

=Palæotherium= (_pā-lē-ō-thē´ri-um_).--A tapir-like mammal, having canine teeth, known only by fossil remains found in Tertiary rocks.

=Pampero= (_pȧm-pâ´rô_).--A violent wind from the west or southwest, which sweeps over the pampas of South America and the adjacent seas, often doing great damage.

=Parhelion= (_pär-hēl´yŭn_ or _hē´lĭ-ŏn_).--A mock sun appearing in the form of a bright light, sometimes near the sun, and tinged with colors like the rainbow, and sometimes opposite to the sun. The latter is usually called an _anthelion_. Often several mock suns appear at the same time.

=Petrology= (_pē-trŏl´ô-jy̆_).--The science which is concerned with the mineralogical and chemical composition of rocks, and with their classification; lithology.

=Physiography= (_fiz-e-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆_).--The science which treats of the earth’s exterior physical features, climate, life, etc., and of the physical movements or changes on the earth’s surface, as the currents of the atmosphere and ocean, the secular variations in heat, moisture, magnetism, etc.; physical geography.

=Plesiosaurus= (_plē-zi-ō-saw´rus_).--An oolithic reptile with crocodile-like head, known by fossil remains, chiefly vertebræ, found in lias and oolitic rocks, named from its fossil remains being found near those of the ichthyosaurus.

=Pneumatics= (_nû-măt´ĭks_).--That branch of science which treats of the mechanical properties of air and other elastic fluids, as of their weight, pressure, elasticity, etc.

=Pterodactyl= (_ter-ō-dak´tīl_).--Winged lizard: extinct reptile; fossil remains found in Kentish chalk.

=Pyroscope= (_pĭr´ô-skōp_).--An instrument for measuring the intensity of heat radiating from a fire, or the cooling influence of bodies. It is a differential thermometer, having one bulb coated with gold or silver leaf.

=Rainbow.=--A bow or arch exhibiting, in concentric bands, the several colors of the spectrum, and formed in the part of the hemisphere opposite to the sun by the refraction and reflection of the sun’s rays in drops of falling rain. Besides the ordinary bow, called also primary rainbow, which is formed by two refractions and one reflection, there is also another often seen exterior to it, called the secondary rainbow, concentric with the first, and separated from it by a small interval. It is formed by two refractions and two reflections, is much fainter than the primary bow, and has its colors arranged in the reverse order from those of the latter.

=Seismology= (_sīs-mŏl´ô-jy̆_).--The science of earthquakes.

=Seismometer= (_sīs-mŏm´e-tẽr_).--An instrument for measuring the direction, duration, and force of earthquakes and like concussions.

=Simoon= (_sĭ-mōōn´_).--A hot, dry, suffocating, dust-laden wind, that blows occasionally in Arabia, Syria, and the neighboring countries, generated by the extreme heat of the parched deserts or sandy plains.

=Sirocco= (_sĭ-rŏk´kô_).--An oppressive, relaxing wind from the Libyan deserts, chiefly experienced in Italy, Malta, and Sicily.

=Sivatherium= (_siv-a-thē´ri-um_).--A large four-horned antelope, known by fossil remains found in Pliocene rocks of Hindustan.

=Strophomena= (_strō-fŏm´ĕ-nä_).--A genus of shell-like animals similar to the nautilus, found in numerous fossil forms in Lower Silurian and the carboniferous strata.

=Tornado= (_tor-nā´dô_).--A violent whirling wind; specifically a tempest distinguished by a rapid whirling and slow progressive motion, usually accompanied with severe thunder, lightning, and torrents of rain, and commonly of short duration and small breadth; a small cyclone.

=Typhoon= (_tï-fōōn´_).--A violent whirlwind; specifically, a violent whirlwind occurring in the Chinese seas.

=Wind.=--Air naturally in motion with any degree of velocity; a current of air.

=Zosterites= (_zos-ter-ī´tez_).--Sear-wracks: marine plants, resembling sea-weeds, with small naked flowers, found at the bottom of the sea.

BOOK OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM

REALMS OF LIFE UPON THE EARTH

CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM:

(1) CEREALS, GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS

(2) KITCHEN VEGETABLES

(3) THE FRUIT TREES

(4) FRUIT-BEARING SHRUBS AND PLANTS

(5) FLOWERS AND OTHER ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

(6) WILD FLOWERS AND FLOWERLESS PLANTS

(7) TREES OF THE FOREST

(8) FIBER AND COMMERCIAL PLANTS

(9) POISONOUS PLANTS

(10) SOME WONDERS OF PLANT LIFE

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN BOTANY, ILLUSTRATED

WORLD MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT LIFE

THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM

RELATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE

Life in the world is represented by the _Vegetable_ and _Animal_ kingdoms. Plants and animals, unlike minerals, grow from germs, and develop into individuals with definite forms and organs. After a limited existence they die, their species being perpetuated by seed or offspring. The _functions_ of plants and animals in nature are, however, entirely unlike. Plants are rooted in the soil; animals are free to move over the land, through the water or air. The plant, moreover, transforms the lifeless, inorganic elements (earth and air) into organic matter and thus prepares food for the animal. In its quiet, steady growth it gathers a store of force which the animal uses up in action. Thus the distribution of vegetation regulates that of animal life. Besides, vegetation clothes the surface of the land with that rich mantle of verdure and flowers which is its greatest ornament.

All living things are termed _organisms_, and the science which takes account of them with special regard to their common characteristics is termed _Biology_, or Life-lore. The classification and life-history of plants are the objects of that part of biology known as _Botany_. That part similarly occupied with the study of animals is known as _Zoology_.

Throughout the entire realm of nature, in the _animal_ world as well as in the _vegetable_, the development of life increases in energy, and in the variety and perfection of the types, with the increasing intensity of light and heat, from the poles to the equator.

TROPICAL LIFE

Within the tropics, under the stimulating rays of a vertical Sun, grow the most dense and varied forests, the most expanded foliage, and the largest and the most brilliant flowers. Here, also, are found the most delicious fruits, the most powerful aromatics, the greatest variety of plants capable of affording sustenance to man, and the largest number of those which contribute to the luxuries of civilized life.

In the tropical regions, also, are found the greatest variety of land animals; with the highest types, the greatest stature, the most intense activity, and the keenest intelligence exhibited in the brute creation.

WHERE THE MOST POWERFUL ANIMALS ARE FOUND

This zone is the home of the gigantic elephant and giraffe; of the lion and the tiger, the most powerful of all the beasts of prey; and of the gorilla, chimpanzee, and ourang-outang, of all animals most resembling men.

Here, also, are the ostrich, the largest and most powerful of birds; the condor, surpassing in size all other birds of flight; and the humming-birds of South America, the smallest of the feathered tribes, unsurpassed in brilliancy of coloring, rapidity of motion, and grace of form.

In the same zone are those enormous reptiles, the crocodile and the boa-constrictor, with the hooded snakes and other serpents of most deadly venom; and insects of all sizes in indescribable profusion.

LIFE IN THE TEMPERATE ZONES

In the Warm-Temperate Zone, though the Sun never reaches the zenith, yet during the long summer his rays are almost vertical; while the winter is so mild that snow and ice are of rare occurrence.

Here the vegetable world is less prodigal in species, and less luxuriant in growth, than in the tropical regions; still, verdure is continuous throughout the year, and fruits and flowers succeed each other almost without interruption.

The animal world shows a similar, though less marked, decrease in the exuberance of life. The higher orders are less numerous, the individuals less gigantic and powerful; yet the antelopes, among the most graceful of animals, and the camel, one of the most useful, especially characterize this zone.

HOW THE LIFE OF THE TEMPERATE ZONE DIFFERS FROM THAT OF WARMER ZONES

In the Temperate Zone, farther from the tropics, and receiving the Sun’s rays with greater obliquity, all the forms of vegetable growth are more modest than in the preceding. The forests are less dense and varied, the foliage is less luxuriant, and flowers of brilliant hues are confined to shrubs and herbaceous plants.

Though useful plants are numerous, yet scarce a species is of value in its spontaneous growth; and, above all, the long dormant season, when the trees and shrubs are bare and apparently lifeless, stamps the vegetation of this zone with an aspect of inferiority.

The animal world still shows a large number of noble species; yet there are some orders which, like the plants, are dormant during the winter; while many of the birds migrate to warmer climes. Associated with deciduous forests, boundless fertile prairies, and arid steppes--are the bear, the wolf, the lynx, the bison, and many species of elk and deer.

ORIGINAL HOME OF OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Here is the home of the horse, the ass, and many varieties of oxen, sheep, and goats,--those animals which, domesticated by man, have accompanied him to all climes, adapting themselves to all circumstances. The American turkey, the European pheasant, and the Asiatic parents of many of our domestic fowls, also belong to the temperate zone; together with a multitude of song birds, whose sober plumage, contrasting so gloomily with the brilliant colors of their neighbors of the tropics, is compensated by the sweetness of their notes. Here, also, is the home of the honey-bee, and of the silk-worm, almost the only insects directly useful to man.

LIFE IN THE COLD ZONES

In these regions, where the sun is always low, and in winter is above the horizon but a small part of the time, all nature becomes increasingly monotonous. The conifers, with their stiff forms and sombre hues, impart a dreary aspect even to the summer landscape; and, during the long winter, all life seems suspended.

The animal world, however, is more rich and varied than the vegetable.

Here we meet the great moose and the brown bear, the beaver and other rodents, in large numbers; the sable, the mink, the ermine, and a host of other animals whose fine, soft furs form one of the main resources of this inhospitable clime.

In the Arctic Zone--where the forests give place to dwarf trees, stunted or creeping shrubs, mosses, and lichens--the reindeer, the musk-ox, and the white bear are the only representatives of the larger land animals, though the smaller furry tribes are still numerous.

The sea, however, more genial in its temperature than the land, swarms with living creatures of innumerable species, among which are the largest representatives of the animal kingdom. The whale, the walrus, and the seal, inhabit the Arctic seas; with every grade of marine life, down to the animalculæ, which are so numerous as to give their color to great areas of sea-water; and water-fowl, without number, and of many varieties, enlivens the icy shores.

CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

The great divisions of the science of plant life, or botany, are: Structural Botany which treats of the gross anatomy of plants; Plant Histology, of their minute anatomy; Plant Morphology, of the forms of plants and their organs; Plant Physiology, of the functions of these organs; Systematic Botany, of the relationship and classification of plants; Geographical Botany, of the distribution of plants over the surface of the globe; Paleobotany, of the vegetable life of past ages and the successive appearance in the world of the great classes of plants, as traced in their fossil remains; and Economic Botany, which deals with the products of plants and their uses.

It is in the last division of the subject that our greatest practical interest lies, and, consequently, it is best to reverse the general order of treatment pursued by many botanists. Foremost in importance are those plants grown for food, which form the great products of _agriculture_, _gardening_ and _horticulture_. Scarcely less important are those which yield fibers used for industrial purposes, such as cotton, flax, jute and hemp; nor must we forget those producing vegetable oils, rubber, and the large number of drugs so valuable to the science of medicine in the alleviation of suffering.

(=See page 176 for scientific classification of the Vegetable or Plant Kingdom.=)

_I. CEREALS, GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS_

Among all the plants in the world, the first place must be given to the food-producing cereals upon which our very existence depends. The most important among these are undoubtedly wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice, Indian corn or maize, millets, sorghum and others less widely used. More than one-half the whole population of the world subsists to a great extent on rice, and the vital importance of wheat needs no demonstration. For our present purposes the use of the word “cereal” is extended to include buckwheat and other starch-yielding plants, but these are not true cereals.

HOW OUR CEREALS WERE DEVELOPED

The cereals are members of a great family of the grasses which have been cultivated by man from time immemorial. Originally, no doubt, they were wild plants which attracted attention owing to the comparatively large quantities of foodstuffs they yielded, the ease with which they could be collected, and their edible qualities. Now, in the majority of cases, the original wild forms are no longer known, and as is common with plants cultivated in many lands and during long periods, innumerable species and varieties have been evolved as the result of selection by man of the forms which appeared desirable for one or other of their qualities.

HOW THE WORD “CEREAL” ORIGINATED

Their very name--cereals or cerealia--indicates the great value attached to them in early historic times. These are so named after the goddess Ceres, as the Romans called her--Demeter of the Greeks--the patroness of agriculture and all the fruits of the earth.

WHERE THE CEREALS GROW

In the temperate regions of the world wheat is the principal cereal grown, and there are many different varieties suited to varying conditions. As we go farther north, barley, oats and rye increase in importance, and although they are grown for special purposes along with wheat, it is important to note that they will thrive in countries and under conditions not suited to wheat. Starting again from the temperate zones and traveling north or south, as the case may be, we enter the warmer countries where wheat cultivation is often associated with that of rice, corn, sorghum, etc. In the tropics, however, wheat will not thrive at low elevations, but rice, corn, sorghum and various millets form the great cereal crops, their relative importance varying in different countries.

The grasses proper grow upon our meadows, pastures, fields and in the woods and are only used as food for cattle.

HOW THE BOTANIST DESCRIBES CEREALS AND GRASSES

The roots of most kinds of grasses are persistent; the stems are hollow and knotty, and the leaves consist of sheaths and discs. Their flowers are arranged either in spikes or panicles, and are essentially the same in form as those of the herbs. In the interior there is an ovary, from which project two pistils with feathery styles. Close to the ovary are three stamens, with very long filaments and large anthers. These internal organs are generally surrounded by two tender bracts called the _paleæ_, and two harder outer bracts forming the _glumes_. In the grasses also self-fertilization does not take place, the wind here taking the place of the insects. Consequently the anthers are suspended from long filaments, and contain a quantity of pollen. As the grasses do not need to attract insects, their flowers are small with little color, and have no scent; nor do they secrete honey. The fruit is enclosed in a husk.

=Alfalfa= (_Medicago sativa_) is a cultivated hay and pasture plant, yielding per annum, without reseeding, three to six or more cuttings of hay, averaging a ton each and often much more, for an indefinite period. It is the richest forage plant known, and while old in history is comparatively new to the agriculture of North America.

Alfalfa thrives on all soils except those too wet or having too much acidity. The former calls for drainage and the latter demands lime. Besides its abundance of rich forage, the leaves of which approximate the value of wheat bran in animal rations, it is highly prized as a soil improver, as it restores and enriches the land in which it grows, and improves extraordinarily the physical character of the soil. Its roots reaching to great depths, make it drought-resistant; they also gather much nitrogen from the air, and it yields assuredly whether the season be wet or dry. It has been demonstrated the greatest fertilizing and soil renovating plant known to agriculture.

For hay it is cut whenever the first blossoms appear or when sprouts for a new growth from the root crowns are discovered, which in some regions is every month in the year. It is relished by all live stock, and is particularly valuable in dairy husbandry, affording at lowest cost important ingredients of the well balanced feeding ration. As pasturage it is excellent for hogs and horses, but ruminants, such as cattle and sheep are not safely grazed upon it, owing to its liability to cause bloat, which if not promptly treated may bring speedy death.

Alfalfa requires a carefully prepared seedbed, with a thoroughly fine, smooth surface, as the seeds are small. From fifteen to twenty pounds of seed per acre are generally sown, although often much more, or less, either with drills or broadcast, preferably in early fall and without a nurse crop. Where the winters are long or severe from two to ten tons of hay per acre in a season, and from two to seven bushels of seed.

=Blue-Grass= (_Poa pratensis_), frequently designated Kentucky Blue Grass, is a perennial, and the most highly prized pasture grass, but is not a profitable hay plant. Its growth has a wider range than timothy. It is sown in autumn or spring, the former being preferable, as it can endure cold better than heat, and thrives rather best when partially shaded. One approved way is to sow the seed on snow, where the ground is free from weeds. It is broadcasted at the rate of about one bushel of seed in the chaff to the acre. Blue-grass is an extremely aggressive and persistent plant voluntarily spreading among and displacing others where it has not been sown. Its taking possession of and thriving on land that has not been cultivated is not uncommon. The seed weighs fourteen pounds to the bushel.

ENGLISH BLUE-GRASS or Meadow Fescue (_Fescuta elatior_) is a valuable and hardy grass either for mowing or pasture. It thrives on soils not too dry, and being long lived, is especially valuable for permanent pastures. It is sown either in the spring or fall, by drilling or broadcasting from one to three pecks per acre if for seed, and three pecks to an acre if for pasture. It is harvested and handled much the same as wheat. Kansas produces nearly seventy-five per cent of the seed raised in America and ninety per cent of the total for the United States is exported, Germany being the largest taker. This grass is very nutritious and grazing animals are fond of it. A bushel of seed weighs twenty-two pounds, and the yield of seed per acre is from five to fifteen bushels.

=Brome-grass= (_Bromus inermis_) is a vigorous, hardy perennial pasture and hay plant, with strong, creeping rootstocks, and is valuable for dry regions. It is not adapted to a rotation, as its sod becomes too matted and tough for comfortable cultivation. Owing to this tendency, after three or four years of hay cropping its better use is for pasture. It yields luxuriantly, is rich in flesh-forming elements, and much relished by farm animals. It is sown broadcast, in spring or fall, eighteen to twenty pounds of seed to the acre. The seed is chaffy and weighs but fourteen pounds per bushel.

=Barley= is grown chiefly in the states of Minnesota, California, Wisconsin, North and South Dakota, in the order named, these states raising seventy-five per cent of the output grown in the United States. It is used as food for live stock, and as an article of commerce is in demand principally for the making of malt in brewing beer, but in California and other western states, where Indian corn does not flourish, barley is used as a substitute grain for horses and mules. About two bushels to the acre are sown in the spring, with a drill or a broadcast seeder. It is admirably adapted as a nurse crop, as it stands up well and does not shade the ground so much as many other plants.

Barley for malting should be cut before fully ripe and put in well-capped shocks to cure; the price paid is largely governed by the color acquired in curing, which should be bright. A bushel weighs forty-eight pounds, and the yield is from twenty-five to forty bushels per acre.

=Buckwheat= (_Fagopyrum esculentum_) is a grain of minor importance, its flour being used as human food, mostly in the form of griddle cakes. The plant is esteemed for plowing under in summer, to supply humus, and its blossoms for the honey bee. Most of it is grown in New York and Pennsylvania, and it does well in soils too poor for most other crops. It is sensitive to frost, and used as a sort of catch crop, sown generally about the beginning of July, broadcast. Forty bushels, weighing forty-eight pounds per bushel, is a maximum yield.

=Clover= (_Trifolium pratense_). In the states east of the Missouri river _red clover_ is highly esteemed. It has much the same qualities as alfalfa, except it is a biennial, enduring but two years without re-seeding and at best gives two cuttings of hay per year, aggregating two to three tons. It is from the second cutting that seed is usually saved. Four quarts of seed is a common quantity to sow per acre. Red clover makes excellent hay, except for horses. Its seed, like that of alfalfa, weighs sixty pounds per bushel, and its yield is from one to five bushels per acre.

WHITE CLOVER (_Trifolium repens_) is a very useful pasture and honey plant, but is not used for hay. It spreads rapidly, and is widely used for sowing with other pasture grasses.

ALSIKE CLOVER (_Trifolium hybridum_) is largely sown on lands not well adapted to red clover, where land is either too wet or too dry for the latter, and it does not require so sweet a soil.